Important Definitions
for
Human Growth and Development
Mahmudul Hasan
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Population Science and HRD
Rajshahi University
Growth:
By growth is meant the increase in size of the various parts and organs of the body. It is the
objective manifestation of hypertrophy and hyperplasia of the organism’s constituent tissues and is
determined by postnatal body size. The increase is limited by pre-established constitutional
hereditary factors and influenced by exogenous factors (race, climate, diet, environment, etc.).
Development:
Development is that quality peculiar to living matter that carries it through the process of
progressive evolution to a state of perfect function. It is as a consequence of cellular
differentiation that character and specificity is given to its functioning. Development is evaluated
by the perfecting of functional capacity and is always gradual, progressive and diversified in form
according to the different period’s childhood.
Human growth --- The process of growing up, including development of the human body as it gets older and
the
psychosocial
development
of
a
person
as
he
or
she
matures.
Human development is the process of growing to maturity. In biological terms, this entails growth from a
one-celled
zygote
to
an
adult
human
being.
Erikson's stages of psychosocial development as articulated by Erik Erikson explain eight stages through
which a healthily developing human should pass from infancy to late adulthood. In each stage the person
confronts, and hopefully masters, new challenges. Each stage builds on the successful completion of earlier
stages. The challenges of stages not successfully completed may be expected to reappear as problems in the
future.
Source(s):
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_growt…
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychosocia…
Anthropology
(Social Science / Anthropology & Ethnology) the study of humans, their origins, physical
characteristics, institutions, religious beliefs, social relationships, etc.
The scientific study of humans, especially of their origin, their behavior, and their physical, social,
and cultural development.
Physical Anthropology
The branch of anthropology that deals with human evolutionary biology, physical variation, and
classification. Also called somatology.
(Somatology: The term “somatology” comes from Greek roots meaning “body” and “study,” so
somatology is the study of the body. This term is used in a number of different ways to describe a
variety of activities related to studying the body. In one sense, somatology is the study of the body
in the sense of anatomy and physiology, to learn about how the parts of the body work together. In
this sense, somatology can also refer more generally to the properties associated with living
organisms other than humans. The study of anatomy and physiology is important for medical
practice).
(Social Science / Anthropology & Ethnology) the branch of anthropology dealing with the genetic
aspect of human development and its physical variations.
The branch of anthropology that studies, describes, and interprets the evolutionary changes in
man’s bodily structure and the classification of modern races.
Cultural Anthropology
The scientific study of the development of human cultures based on ethnologic, ethnographic,
linguistic, social, and psychological data and methods of analysis.
The scientific study of the origin, the behavior, and the physical, social, and cultural development
of humans.
Ethnology
.
1. The science that analyzes and compares human cultures, as in social structure, language,
religion, and technology; cultural anthropology.
2. The branch of anthropology that deals with the origin, distribution, and characteristics of human
racial groups.
(Social Science / Anthropology & Ethnology) the branch of anthropology that deals with races and
peoples, their relations to one another, their origins, and their distinctive characteristics.
Social Anthropology
n. Chiefly British
Cultural anthropology.
(Social Science / Anthropology & Ethnology) the branch of anthropology that deals with cultural
and social phenomena such as kinship systems or beliefs, esp of nonliterate peoples.
The branch of anthropology that studies human societies, emphasizing interpersonal and
intergroup relations.
Distinction between Ethnicity and Race
Ethnicity
Genealogy:
Race
Ethnicity is defined in terms of shared Racial categories presume a shared
genealogy, whether actual or
genealogy, although this often is not the
presumed. Typically, if people believe case. Most races actually share multiple
Significance:
Definition:
Nationalism:
Legal System:
Conflicts:
Distinguishing
Factors:
Ethnicity
Race
they descend from a particular group,
and they want to be associated with
that group, then they are in fact
members of that group.
Ethnicity connotes shared cultural
traits and a shared group history.
Some ethnic groups also share
linguistic or religious traits, while
others share a common group history
but not a common language or
religion.
geneologies with significant cross-over.
An ethnic group or ethnicity is a
population of human beings whose
members identify with each other, on
the basis of a real or a presumed
common genealogy or ancestry.
Race presumes shared biological or
genetic traits, whether actual or
asserted. Scientific measures of race are
exceedingly problematic to verify. Most
racial categories are defined by
governments -- not by scientists.
The term race refers to the concept of
dividing people into populations or
groups on the basis of various sets of
physical characteristics. However, it is
usually governments that decide on the
racial categories in a given country.
In 19th century, there was
development of the political ideology In 19th century, the concept of
of ethnic nationalism -- creating
nationalism was often used to justify the
nations based on a presumed shared domination of one race over another
ethnic origins (e.g. Germany, Italy,
within a specific nation.
Sweden...)
In last decades of the 20th century in
the U.S. and in most nations, the legal In last decades of the 20th century, the
system as well as the official ideology legal system as well as the official
prohibited ethnic-based
ideology emphasized racial equality
discrimination
Often brutal conflicts between ethnic
Racial prejudice remains a continuing
groups have existed throughout
problem throughout the world.
history and across the world. But most
However, there are fewer race-based
ethnic groups in fact get along
conflicts in the 21st century than in the
peacefully within one another in most
past.
nations most of the time.
Races are assumed to be distinguished
Ethnic groups distinguish themselves by skin color, facial type, etc. However,
differently from one time period to
the scientific basis of racial distinctions
another. They typically seek to define is very weak. Most scientific studies
themselves but also are defined by the show many changes in racial identity
stereotypes of dominant groups.
over time, and cross-over traits among
races.
Morphology
 The branch of biology that deals with the form and structure of organisms without consideration of
function.
 The form and structure of an organism or one of its parts: the morphology of a cell; the morphology of
vertebrates.
In biology, the study of the size, shape, and structure of organisms in relation to some principle or
generalization. Whereas anatomy describes the structure of organisms, morphology explains the shapes and
arrangement of parts of organisms in terms of such general principles as evolutionary relations, function, and
development.
1. The study of form. However, the term is now used as a synonym for the form itself as in the morphology
of the landscape or of the city.
2. In geolinguistics, the phonological shapes of words that adapt to special grammatical functions. Some
words, for example, inflect to make a past tense, as in ‘walk’, ‘walked’; others are the basis from which
additional words may be derived as in ‘hard’, ‘hardness’.
Morphology
The size, shape, and structure of an organism or one of its parts. Biologists usually describe the morphology
of an organism separately from its physiology. In traditional systems of taxonomy, classifications were based
on the morphological characteristics of organisms. However, a method of classification based purely on
morphology runs the risk of grouping together organisms that are actually relatively unrelated but have
evolved similar features. In more modern systems of taxonomy, the genetic similarity of organisms, studied
through the methods of molecular biology, is considered in addition to morphology when establishing taxa.
Morphometry
Measurement of the form of organisms or of their parts.
The measurement of the structures and parts of organisms.
Biometry
1. (Life Sciences & Allied Applications / Biology) the analysis of biological data using mathematical and
statistical methods
2. (Life Sciences & Allied Applications / Biology) the statistical calculation of the probable duration of
human life
Biometrics, biometry
1. the calculation of the probable extent of human lifespans.
2. the application to biology of mathematical and statistical theory and methods.
Biometry - a branch of biology that studies biological phenomena and observations by means of statistical analysis
biometrics, biostatistics
statistics - a branch of applied mathematics concerned with the collection and interpretation of quantitative data and
the use of probability theory to estimate population parameters
bioscience, life science - any of the branches of natural science dealing with the structure and behavior of living
organisms
Introduction to linear Growth Definition:
Definition:
Linear growth refers that it grows by same amount in each time step. For example we might have
something that is five inches long on Sunday morning and nine inches long on Monday morning and then
twelve inches long on Tuesday morning and so on. So it is growing by 4 inches a day. For example, by using
this linear growth definition we can describes the annual growth of the organization.
Let us see about linear growth definition.
Functions of Linear Growth Definition:
Functions of Linear Growth:
By using the notion of vector-valued functions linking linear growth formula, an action of
homogenous linear systems of difference and differential equations with stable coefficients is obtainable.
This proceed allows the source of the universal solution for a system of differential equations as the
permanent analogue of the 'obvious' solution of the discrete case.
Analytic geometry function
Vector spaces function
Some growth is not -linear. If we have a checker board and put one penny on the first square, a stack
of two pennies on the second square, a stack of 4 pennies on the third square, a stack of eight pennies on the
fourth square, that is you double the number of pennies in the stack at each step, then the growth is not
linear.
Linear Growth Definition:
By the definition, the table A that the one percentage interest rate for linear growth has only been
applied to the original starting sum of 100 for each year of growth. This is simple interest. Ongoing the
example started in Table a, it will take 100 years for starting figure of 100 to double to 200 at a one
percentage growth rate. Increase the starting from 1000; it will still take 100 years for the starting figure to
double at this rate.
Put simply, compound interest refers that the interest rate applies to the starting sum but also to the
previously accumulated interest, for each successive period in which it is applied. From the above we can
clearly study about linear growth definition.
The auxogram: a new parallel graph of growth
The Auxogram presents graphically in a new way known data on parameters of human somatic growth. The
system of coordinates is replaced by a parallel, quasilogarithmic arrangement of age, head circumference,
length/height, weight and stage of adolescence that gives mean values and normal variations and allows
ready comparison of any one parameter with any other. A further advantage of the Auxogram is that it
contains
all
the
data
for
each
sex
on
a
single
page.
Human Somatic Cell Contains
The human somatic cell is a eukaryotic cell that has its DNA confined in a definite nucleus and cell
organelles enclosed with specific membranes. Human somatic cell is differs in chromosome number from
germ cell. Human somatic cell undergo mitotic division for their multiplication.
Occurrence
Cell
membrane
Structure
Function
Outer boundary Made up of phospholipid bilayer with It gives protection the cell
covering
the integral proteins embedded in it and and allows only specific
cytoplasm and pheripheral proteins present on te extra solutes to enter the cell. It
other organelles cytoplasmic surface of cell membrane. The helps in cell to cell
of the cell
proteins forms the transport channels and recognition and adhesion.
some form the receptor on the cell surface
for recognition of many molecules. It is
selectively semi-permeable membrane that
allows specific molecules to enter into the
cell. The phospholipid molecules are
amphiphatic in nature. It also has a
glycoproteins and glycolipids present.
in It is sausage shaped molecules with a These are present in large
Mitochondria Numerous
cytoplasm upto double membrane. The inner membrane is number in metabolically
1000 per cell
highly folded into structures called cristae. active cells. The help in
These have electron carriers that hep in ATP cellular respiration thus
production. The cytoplasm of mitochondria generating energy in the
is called as matrix.
form of ATP.
Nucleus
Usually
at This is the largest organelle surrounded by a Contains
DNA
that
centre, one per nuclear envelope. This envelope consists of replicates
before
cell
cell
a double membrane separated by a space division. Instructs cell
called perinuclear space. The nuclear division process. All the
membrane has nuclear pores in it for many genetic information is
macromolecules to pass through it. It stored here. Genes present
contains chromatin that is made up of DNA in the DNA makes proteins
which contains all the genetic information that control all the activities
of the cell.
of the cell.
Nucleolus
Inside nucleus
Nucleolus is composed of proteins and rRNA is transcribed and
nucleic acids
assembled
within
the
nucleus
Present in the The human somatic cell is diploid in nature. they function in the
Number of
It has 23 pairs of chromosomes or we can inheritance of charaters
chromosomes nucleus
46 chromosomes. Out of 23 pairs, one set of from parents to offsprings
chromosome has been inherited from father
and another set from mother. The
chromosomes are seen in a dividing cell.
when the cell is in resting stage the
chromosomes are in the form of thread like
structures
called
chromatin.
These
chromatin condense to form chromosomes
during mitosis.
Rough
endoplasmc
reticulum
Continuous
throughout
cytoplasm
Smooth
endoplasmic
reticulum
Usually
small It has a membrane that is continuous with Transport and folding of
patches
in the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope. proteins into their 3
cytoplasm
It has a smooth membrane. It is folded over dimensional structure.
itself forming many stacks called cisternae.
Ribosomes
Free
in Small dense organelles with a single Involved
cytoplasm
or membrane covering it. Made up of 65% synthesis
attached
to rRNA and 35% protein.
rough
endoplasmic
reticulum
Golgi
apparatus
Free
cytoplasm
in Tightly packed groups of flattened cavities Involved
in
the
or vesicles . vesicle fuse with forming face modification of proteins,
and leave from the maturing face. Also form carbohydrates and lipids.
cisternae.
Helps
mostly
in
glycosylation of proteins.
Lysosomes
Free
cytoplasm
in Single membrane structures
digestive enzymes present in it
Microtubules Network
cytoplasm
and
microfilaments
It has a membrane that is continuous with Transport and folding of
the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope. proteins into their 3
Ribosomes are attached to the outer surface dimensional structure.
of the ER. It is folded over itself forming
many stacks called cisternae.
in Made up of tubulin protein.
in
protein
containing The enzymes of lysosomes
destroy old or surplus
organelles, digest unwanted
materials in the cell
Supports the whole cell,
maintains
cell
shape,
organises
and
move
organelles, forms spindles
,etc
Somatic growth. Growth of the body, exclusive of gametes.
Sorting (of a sediment). The range of scatter of particle sizes about the median grain size of a sediment
Gametes are haploid cells; that is, they contain one complete set of chromosomes (the actual number varies
from species to species).
Auxology
Auxology, sometimes called Auxanology (from Greek αὔξω, auxō, or αὐξάνω, auxanō, "grow"; and -λογία,
-logia), is a meta-term covering the study of all aspects of human physical growth (though it is also a
fundamental of biology, generally speaking). Auxology is a highly multi-disciplinary science involving
health sciences / medicine (pediatrics, general practice, endocrinology, neuroendocrinology, physiology,
epidemiology), and to a lesser extent: nutrition, genetics, anthropology, anthropometry, ergonomics, history,
economic history, economics, socioeconomics, sociology, public health and psychology, among others.
Determinants of growth and height
Average (50th percentile) growth curves for male and female 0–18 years
The study of height is known as auxology. Growth has long been recognized as a measure of the health of
individuals, hence part of the reasoning for the use of growth charts. For individuals, as indicators of health
problems, growth trends are tracked for significant deviations and growth is also monitored for significant
deficiency from genetic expectations. Genetics is a major factor in determining the height of individuals,
though it is far less influential in regard to populations. Average height is increasingly used as a measure of
the health and wellness (standard of living and quality of life) of populations.[citation needed] Attributed as a
significant reason for the trend of increasing height in parts of Europe are the egalitarian populations where
proper medical care and adequate nutrition are relatively equally distributed. Changes in diet (nutrition) and
a general rise in quality of health care and standard of living are the cited factors in the Asian populations.
Average height in the United States has remained essentially stagnant since the 1950s even as the racial and
ethnic background of residents has shifted. Severe malnutrition is known to cause stunted growth in North
Korean, portions of African, certain historical European, and other populations.[citation needed]
Sir Francis Galton's (1889) data showing the relationship between offspring height (928 individuals) as a
function of mean parent height (205 sets of parents). The correlation was 0.57.
Height, like other phenotypic traits, is determined by a combination of genetics and environmental factors. A
child's height based on parental heights is subject to regression toward the mean, therefore extremely tall or
short parents will likely have correspondingly taller or shorter offspring, but their offspring will also likely
be closer to average height than the parents themselves. Genetic potential plus nutrition minus stressors is a
basic formula. Humans grow fastest (other than in the womb) as infants and toddlers, rapidly declining from
a maximum at birth to roughly age 2, tapering to a slowly declining rate, and then during the pubertal growth
spurt, a rapid rise to a second maxima (at around 11-12yrs for female, and 13-14yrs for male), followed by a
steady decline to zero. On average, female growth velocity trails off to zero at about 15 years, whereas the
male curve continues for approximately 3 more years, going to zero at about 18. These are also critical
periods where stressors such as malnutrition (or even severe child neglect) have the greatest effect.
Moreover, the health of a mother throughout her life, especially during her critical periods, and of course
during pregnancy, has a role. A healthier child and adult develops a body that is better able to provide
optimal prenatal conditions. The pregnant mother's health is important as gestation is itself a critical period
for an embryo/fetus, though some problems affecting height during this period are resolved by catch-up
growth assuming childhood conditions are good. Thus, there is an accumulative generation effect such that
nutrition and health over generations influences the height of descendants to varying degrees.
The age of the mother also has some influence on the her child's height. Studies in modern times have
observed a gradual increase in height with maternal age, though these early studies suggest that trend is due
to various socio-economic situations that select certain demographics as being more likely to have a first
birth early in the mother's life.[73][74][75] These same studies show that children born to a young mother are
more likely to have below average educational and behavioural development, again suggesting an ultimate
cause of resources and family status rather than a purely biological explanation.[74][75]
The precise relationship between genetics and environment is complex and uncertain. Human height is 60%–
80% heritable, according to several twin studies[76] and has been considered polygenic since the Mendelianbiometrician debate a hundred years ago.[77] The only gene so far attributed with normal height variation is
HMGA2. This is only one of many, as each copy of the allele concerned confers an additional 0.4 cm
(0.16 in) accounting for just 0.3% of population variance.[76]
The Nilotic peoples of Sudan such as the Shilluk and Dinka have been described as the tallest in the world.
Dinka Ruweng males investigated by Roberts in 1953–54 were on average 1.813 m tall, and Shilluk males
reached even 1.826 m.[78] The Nilotic people are characterized as having long legs, narrow bodies and short
trunks, an adaptation to hot weather.[79] However, male Dinka and Shilluk refugees measured in 1995 in
Southwestern Ethiopia were on average only 1.764 m and 1.726 m tall, respectively.[80] Males in the Dinaric
Alps have an average height of 1.85 m (6 ft 1 in).[17]
Process of growth
Main pathways in endocrine regulation of growth.
Growth in stature, determined by its various factors, results from the lengthening of bones via cellular
divisions chiefly regulated by somatotropin (human growth hormone (hGH)) secreted by the anterior
pituitary gland. Somatotropin also stimulates the release of another growth inducing hormone Insulin-like
growth factor 1 (IGF-1) mainly by the liver. Both hormones operate on most tissues of the body, have many
other functions, and continue to be secreted throughout life; with peak levels coinciding with peak growth
velocity, and gradually subsiding with age after adolescence. The bulk of secretion occurs in bursts
(especially for adolescents) with the largest during sleep.
The majority of linear growth occurs as growth of cartilage at the epiphysis (ends) of the long bones which
gradually ossify to form hard bone. The legs compose approximately half of adult human height, and leg
length is a somewhat sexually dimorphic trait. Some of this growth occurs after the growth spurt of the long
bones has ceased or slowed. The majority of growth during growth spurts is of the long bones. Additionally,
the variation in height between populations and across time is largely due to changes in leg length. The
remainder of height consists of the cranium. Height is sexually dimorphic and statistically it is more or less
normally distributed, but with heavy tails.
Height abnormalities
Most intra-population variance of height is genetic. Short stature and tall stature are usually not a health
concern. If the degree of deviation from normal is significant, hereditary short stature is known as familial
short stature and tall stature is known as familial tall stature. Confirmation that exceptional height is normal
for a respective person can be ascertained from comparing stature of family members and analyzing growth
trends for abrupt changes, among others. There are, however, various diseases and disorders that cause
growth abnormalities. Most notably, extreme height may be pathological, such as gigantism (very rare)
resulting from childhood hyperpituitarism, and dwarfism which has various causes. Rarely, no cause can be
found for extreme height; very short persons may be termed as having idiopathic short stature. The United
States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2003 approved hGH treatment for those 2.25 standard
deviations below the population mean (approximately the lowest 1.2% of the population). An even rarer
occurrence, or at least less used term and recognized "problem", is idiopathic tall stature.
If not enough growth hormone is produced and/or secreted by the pituitary gland, then a patient with growth
hormone deficiency can undergo treatment. This treatment involves the injection of pure growth hormone
into thick tissue to promote growth.
Role of an individual's height
Main article: Height and intelligence
Height and (physiological and psychological) health
Certain studies have shown that height is a factor in overall health while some suggest tallness is associated
with better cardio-vascular health and shortness with overall better-than-average health and longevity.[81]
Being excessively tall can cause various medical problems, including cardiovascular problems, because of
the increased load on the heart to supply the body with blood, and problems resulting from the increased time
it takes the brain to communicate with the extremities. For example, Robert Wadlow, the tallest man known
to verifiable history, developed trouble walking as his height increased throughout his life. In many of the
pictures of the later portion of his life, Wadlow can be seen gripping something for support. Late in his life,
he had to wear braces on his legs and to walk with a cane; and he died after developing an infection in his
legs because he was unable to feel the irritation and cutting caused by his leg braces. Excessive tallness and
excessive shortness each can cause social exclusion and discrimination for both men and women (heightism).
Sources are in disagreement about the overall relationship between height and longevity. John Kolmos, hight
historian, suggests that 1.88 metres (6 ft 2 in) is the ideal height for longevity.[82] On the other hand, Samaras
and Elrick, in the Western Journal of Medicine, demonstrate an inverse correlation between height and
longevity in several mammals including humans.[81]
Women whose height is under 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) may have a small pelvis, resulting in such complications
during childbirth as shoulder dystocia.[83]
A study done in Sweden has shown that there is a strong inverse correlation between height and suicide
among Swedish men.[84]
Height and occupational success
There is a large corpus of research in psychology, economics, and human biology that has assessed the
relationship between several seemingly innocuous physical features (e.g., body height) and occupational
success.[85] The correlation between height and success was discovered decades ago.[86][87] There are only a
few occupations that need taller people. They include most professional sports (see section "Sports"), fashion
modelling, etc. Apart from these notable exeptions where height might reflect differences in actual
performance, in most other occupational fields, body height would not seem to influence how well people
are able to perform. Nevertheless, a correlation has been found between body height and occupational
success in several studies across different occupations.[85][86][88][89] An example would be the acting
profession:[85] To become an actress, tallness is a definitive advantage (the average actress is taller than the
average woman[citation needed]).
A very impressive demonstration of the height-success association can be found in the realm of politics. In
the United States presidential elections, the taller candidate won 22 out of 25 times in the 20th century. [90]
Historically this assumption has not always reflected reality; for instance Ignatius Loyola, founder of the
Jesuits, was 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in). The height of Alexander the Great is estimated at between 5 ft 6 in (1.68 m)
and 5 ft 8 in (1.73 m). Several world leaders of the early twentieth century, Vladimir Lenin, Benito
Mussolini, and Joseph Stalin were of below-average height .