BY
ROGER KNOWLES

THE COST OF DELAY AND DISRUPTION
ADDITIONAL COSTS RESULTING FROM DELAY
Financial Losses
Delays to construction projects will invariably involve the contractor in financial losses unless these losses can be recovered from the employer. Whether they can be recovered will depend upon what events gave rise to the delay and whether under the terms of the contract the employer has taken the financial risk of them occurring. In addition the contract may set out a procedure to be followed by the contractor relating to claiming payment of the money involved. If the contractor ignores the procedure the entitlement to payment may be adversely affected.
Events Giving Rise to Losses
In most standard forms of contract losses or costs resulting from delays to the progress or completion of the works if caused by the employer his Architect, Engineer or persons for whom he responsible will be recoverable by the contractor. Standard forms of contract deal with this matter in different ways. The JCT 98 and 05 contracts for example provide an all embracing entitlement which covers costs resulting from impediments, prevention or default by the Employer, Architect, Quantity Surveyor or any of the Employer’s Persons. By way of contrast the ICE 6 th
and 7 th
Editions includes for the recovery by the contractor of costs resulting from delays caused by the Employer and Engineer in several different clauses throughout the contract. For example if the contractor incurs extra costs as a result of the Employer providing possession of the site late then clause 42 provides for the recover of these costs.
Where the Engineer provides late information required by the contractor and as a result the contractor incurs additional cost clause 6 allows the contractor to be reimbursed those extra costs. The NEC has a different approach to the matter. All delays and cost matters which under the terms of the contract are at the risk of the employer are catered for in one clause and styled compensation events.
Variations/Change Orders
It is important from the employer’s point of view for the conditions of contract to include a clause which permits the work described in the contract to be altered. In the absence of a clause of this nature the employer would be unable to amend the design during the construction of the works. This could prove difficult if variations to the design became necessary due to changes in technology or legislation. Without a variations clause the contractor could refuse to undertake them even if such a change were essential. Alternatively the contractor could carry out the work on the basis that it constituted a separate contract. All standard forms of contract therefore have a variations clause. It is vital that the contract provides a definition of variation to ensure that it is clear as to the extent to which the work may be altered. The JCT 98

and 05 contracts have a wide ranging variations clause which allows the Architect to alter or modify not only the design of the works but also the hours of work and the order in which the work is to be carried out. The ICE Design and Construct Form deals with alterations to the Employer’s Requirement but there must be consultation with the contractor’s representative before the amendments can be ordered.
Variations if issued at a late stage or involve significant extra work will inevitably result in delay and additional cost being incurred. Standard forms of contract deal with this problem in different ways. JCT 98 and 05 expressly provide for the contractor to be reimbursed if a variation affects the progress of the works and as a result the contractor incurs loss or expense. The I Chem. E Lump Sum and the NEC contracts contain a procedure whereby the contractor is required to submit a quotation in respect of each variation which will no doubt include delay costs.
Ground Conditions
Many contracts particularly where a substantial amount of work occurs below ground will specifically deal with the risk of encountering difficult ground conditions. If the contract is silent on the matter the contractor, who is in most cases contractually obliged to undertake and complete the works, will bear the risk of any delay and extra cost resulting from encountering bad ground conditions. The ICE 6 th
and 7 th
Editions include the notorious clause 12 under which the contractor is entitled to recover any additional cost which results from bad ground conditions. It is not an open ended entitlement however as it only applies if the conditions encountered could not reasonably have been foreseen by an experienced contractor. The NEC contract is similar but from a contractor’s point of view more onerous. This contract allows the contractor to claim more time and money only if at the date the contract came into existence an experienced contractor would have considered that the ground conditions ultimately encountered only had a small chance of occurring.
Financial Reimbursement
Having established that the events which have lead to the delay represent an employer’s risk and that as a result the contractor has suffered delay and incurred additional cost, the question to be answered is the amount of money which under the terms of the contract will become due to the contractor. Nothing is straight forward as the standard forms of contract deal with the problem in different ways. Under ideal circumstances the contract would provide a definition, free from ambiguity, as to the contractor’s entitlement. The ICE 7 th
Edition is helpful in this respect in that the contractor’s entitlement is specifically referred to as additional cost which is defined as: expenditure whether on or off the site including overhead, finance and other charges (including loss of interest) properly locatable thereto but does not include any allowance for profit
The JCT 98 and05 contracts are less helpful as they merely refer to direct loss and/or expense without providing a definition as to its meaning. One has to turn to an established text book such as Keating on Building Contracts to provide assistance.
Briefly it states that direct loss and or expense means loss or expense which arises naturally and in the ordinary course of things. This type of definition is vague and leaves the gate open to many and varied disputes when it comes down to real live

situations. The NEC contract approaches the problem in a different manner. Where delay and additional cost is or is likely to occur as a result of a compensation event such as a delay caused by the employer, the Project Manager may require the contractor to submit a quotation. This will include actual defined cost of the work already done, together with a forecast of the defined cost of work yet to be done plus a fee which includes profit. The definition of cost is provided in a detailed Schedule of
Cost Components included in the contract.
EVALUATING DISRUPTION
Problem Areas
One of the most difficult items to evaluate with any accuracy is disruption. The problem is usually caused by a lack of accurate records.
With the spotlight on linking cause and effect claims for disruption will come under greater scrutiny. It is unlikely that contractors and subcontractors will succeed where their claims for disruption are bases simply upon the global overspend on labour for the whole of the contract working period. More detail will have to be given which isolates the cause of the disruption and evaluates the effect.
The courts have given some assistance in the manner in which disruption should be evaluated.
Measured Mile
The most appropriate manner to establish disruption is to apply a technique known as
“The Measured Mile.” This system provides for the comparison of productivity achieved on an unimpacted part of the contract with that achieved on the impacted part. This method eliminates any argument concerning underestimating and inefficient working. An example of the Measured Mile method can be seen by reference to the decision in the case of Whittall Builders Company Ltd v Chester-Le-Street District
Council (1985) Difficulties were experienced by the employer in giving possession of dwellings on a rehabilitation scheme. The court found that during the period when these problems occurred the contractor was grossly hindered in the progress of the work and as a result ordinary planning was rendered impossible. However a stage was reached in November 1974 when dwellings were handed over in an orderly fashion and no further disruption took place. The court had to decide upon the appropriate method of evaluating disruption. Mr Recorder Percival QC in his judgement has this to say:
“Several different approaches were presented and argued. Most of them are highly complicated but there was one simple one – that was to compare the value to the contractor of the work done per man in the period up to November 1974 with that from November 1974 to the completion of the contract. The figures for this comparison, agreed by the experts for both sides were £108 per man week while the breaches continued £161 per man week after they ceased.”
Recorder Percival used this comparison in deciding that the disruption had the effect of increasing the labour costs in the areas where disruption occurred by one third. He then applied the one third value to all the labour cost expended during the period of

disruption to arrive at a total loss on labour. He considered this to be the most realistic and accurate approach which he could have taken to arrive at a figure.
The Society of Construction Law Approach
The Society of Construction Law has produced a Delay and Disruption Protocol dated
2002 in which they express a view concerning the Measure Mile approach to the evaluation of disruption. The Protocol explains the situation as follows:
The starting point for any disruption analysis is to understand what work was carried out when it was carried out and what resources were used. For this reason record keeping is just as important for disruption analysis as it is for delay analysis.
The most appropriate way to establish disruption is to apply a technique known as the Measure Mile. This compares the productivity achieved on an un-impacted part of the contract with that achieved on the impacted part. Such a comparison factors out issues concerning unrealistic programmes and inefficient working. The comparison can be made on the man hours expended or the units of work performed. However care must be exercised to compare like with like. For example it would not be correct to compare work carried out in the learning curve part of an operation with work executed after that period.
More Measured Mile
In the case of John Doyle Construction Ltd v Laing Management (Scotland) Ltd
(2004) the court was asked to express a view as to whether a measured mile approach in principle is acceptable. Laing Management was the contractor in connection with a new corporate headquarters for Scottish Widows in Edinburgh. A number of works packages were contracted out to John Doyle and disputes arose as to the entitlement under the package contract to Doyle’s financial entitlement. A part of the claim related to disruption and the evaluation was produced by comparing labour productivity actually achieved on site when work was largely free from disruption with labour productivity achieved when work was disrupted. It was decided that this method of evaluating a claim was not a total cost claim and therefore in principle was acceptable
Total Cost Claims
Contractors with little in the way of records where they have incurred losses on labour as result of action or inaction by the employer his Architect or Engineer often approach the production of a claim by comparing the actual cost expended on labour with the sum included in the tender. This method is likely to be unsuccessful as there may be any number of reasons why the labour costs were greater than the allowances in the tender. There may for example be errors in the tender, loss due to the risk undertaken by the contractor for which no proper allowance was made in the tender, inefficient working and correcting defective work. A more realistic approach although not guaranteed to be anything other than broad brush is to take as a starting point the total labour cost for the project. Deductions are then made for tender errors, unpriced risk, inefficiency and defect rectification. The labour element of any variations and changes and additional cost claims would also have to be taken into account. This

would leave a sum, once the tender allowance had been deducted, which at least theoretically represented the cost of disruption. This type of claim has been successfully pursued in the USA but there seems very little enthusiasm shown for it among employers and their consultants in the UK. In the earlier mentioned case of
John Doyle Construction Ltd v Laing the court was asked to review a total cost claim.
It had been argued that if a total cost claim is pleaded and it can be shown that some element of the cost has resulted from fault on the part of the contractor the claim in its entirety will fail. There was sympathy express by the court as to this view but it was felt that the whole matter should be treated with common sense. The decision of the court was that if a total cost claim is to succeed the contractor must eliminate from the claim all costs that are not the responsibility of the employer. He considered that total cost claims are a risky business but nonetheless allowed proceedings to continue.
Calculation by Assessment
It may not be possible due to the nature of the disrupting matters and the complexity of the project to employ the measured mile approach to evaluation. Therefore it may be appropriate to attempt to isolate the additional hours of labour and plant which results from the events giving rise to disruption. A schedule of matters which have caused disruption should be prepared which sets out each disrupting event indicating the additional labour and plant hours expended. Schedule JRK/DS/1 which is annexed to this module can be used for the purpose.
Difficulties may be encountered in isolating the additional hours of labour and plant which result from each and every disrupting matter. The courts however have provided assistance in dealing with this problem. In the case of Chaplin v Hicks
(1911) it was held:
Where it is clear that there has been actual loss resulting from the breach of contract which it is difficult to estimate in money, it is for the jury to do their best to estimate, it is not necessary that there should be an absolute measure of damages in each case.
The Canadian case of Wood v The Grand Valley Railway Co (1913) involved a dispute where accurate ascertainment of damages was proving difficult and it was held:
It is clearly impossible under the facts of that case to estimate with any thing approaching to mathematical accuracy the damages sustained by the plaintiffs but it seems to me to be clearly laid down there by the learned judges that such an impossibility cannot relieve the wrongdoer of the necessity of paying damages for his breach of contract and that on the other hand the tribunal to estimate them whether jury or judge must under such circumstances do the best it can and its conclusion will not be set aside even if the amount of the verdict is a matter of guesswork.
Another Canadian case Penvidic Contracting Co Ltd v International Nickel Co of
Canada Ltd (1975) also provides some guidance on the manner in which disruption should be evaluated where anything like an accurate evaluation is impossible. The

dispute arose out of a construction agreement to lay ballast and track for a railroad.
The owner was in breach in several respects of its obligation to facilitate the work.
The contractor who had agreed to do the work for an ascertained sum per ton of ballast claimed by way of damages the difference between that sum and a larger sum that he would have demanded had he foreseen the adverse conditions caused by the owner’s breach of contract. There was evidence that the larger sum would have been a reasonable estimate. At the hearing damages were awarded on the basis claimed but on appeal to the Court of Appeal this portion of the award was disallowed. On further appeal the Supreme Court of Canada held, restoring the trail judgement, that where proof of the actual additional costs caused by the breach of contract was difficult to properly calculate it was proper to award damages on the estimated basis used at the trial. It was considered that the difficulties of accurate assessment cannot relieve the wrongdoer of the duty of paying damages for breach of contract.
It can readily be seen from these cases that even though accurate records are not available if the claim relates to what would amount to a breach of contract by the other party them in many instances evaluation of the claimants entitlement may be the subject of assessment. It is unlikely however that the amount awarded will be any thing like as high as would be the case if accurate records had been kept.
Notices and Procedures
Standard forms of construction contract have not been drafted to make life easy for contractors. Clauses under which the contractor is entitled to recover additional cost as a result of delay and disruption inevitably require the contractor to produce information in support of the entitlement. JCT 98 and 05 require the contractor to submit a notice as soon as it becomes apparent that the progress of the works which caused the loss has occurred. Further supporting information will have to be provided to support the claim, if requested by the Architect or Quantity Surveyor. The ICE 6 th and 7 th Editions are more onerous in that a notice must be sent within 28 days of the event giving rise to the claim. There is a sensible requirement that the contractor must maintain contemporary records which are necessary to support the claim. Before any payment becomes due the contractor must send a first interim claim providing full and detailed particulars of the amount claimed and the grounds on which the claim has been made.
Contractors who fail to comply with these provisions may find that it has dire financial consequences. The NEC 3 rd
Edition makes it clear that if the contractor fails to notify the Project Manager of an event which he considers is a compensation event within 8 weeks of becoming aware of it then he is not entitled to a change in the Price.
Whist JCT 98 and 05 are not so draconian in their wording; the courts in decisions such as London Borough of Merton v Stanley Hugh Leach (1985) have made it plain that a failure by the contractor to serve the appropriate notice will result in a loss of financial rights. By contrast the ICE 6 th and 7 th Editions are quite mild. A failure on the part of the contractor to comply with the requirement of the contract will only result in loss of financial rights if as a result of the contractor’s non-compliance the
Engineer has been prevented from or substantially prejudiced by the failure to investigate the claim.
Delay and disruption which results in the contractor incurring additional cost are common place. The standard forms are designed to ensure that the contractor provides notification early to enable the matter to be properly dealt with by the Architect or

Engineer whilst the matter is still fresh in the mind and records can be maintained.
The drafters of the forms and courts seem to take the view, not unreasonably, that if the contractor is to claim more money he must comply with the requirements of the contract or risk losing his rights. Many contractors unfortunately learn this lesson when it is too late.

TEST QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
TEST QUESTIONS
Question 1
Give two examples of the type of events which under many of the standard forms of construction contract give rise to an entitlement for the contractor to claim the recovery losses which result from delays?
Question 2
How does the NEC contract differ from most other standard forms of construction contract in the manner in which it deals with claims for additional time and cost?
Question 3
How do the standard forms of contract in general use deal with the allocation of risk relating to bad ground conditions?
Question 4
What is the measured mile method of evaluating disruption and give an example?
Question 5
What is a total cost claim and does it contain any flaws?
Question 6
What is evaluation of disruption by assessment and when can it be used?
Question 7
Is there legal support for the argument that in the absence of a proper written notice the contractor will lose entitlements to additional cost which results from delays which under the terms of the contract are at the risk of the employer?

MODEL ANSWERS
Question 1
Examples of events which under many standard forms of construction contract give rise to additional costs which results from delays:
1.
Late issue of information by the Engineer or Architect to the contractor
2.
Late possession of the site by the Employer.
Question 2
Under most standard forms of construction contract provision is made for the granting of extension of time for completion of the works and the payment of additional cost which results from the delays in separate clauses in the contract.
The NEC contract deals with these matters in a different manner. Entitlements for extensions of time and payment of additional cost are included in a single clause.
They are all referred to as compensation events and in respect of all of the events to which the clause refers there is an entitlement to both an extension of time and the payment of additional costs.
Question 3
With regard to the risk of delays and additional cost which may result from the contractor encountering difficult ground conditions the ideal exists if the contract makes it clear who carries the risk. If the contract is silent but places an obligation upon the contractor to carry out and complete the works then all the risk for delays and additional cost which results from encountering bad ground conditions will lie with the contractor. Some contracts are prescriptive as to how the risk of bad ground is to be dealt with. There may be a sharing of risk as in the case of the ICE 6 th
and 7 th
Editions. Clause 12 in these conditions provides for the contractor to be granted more time and additional cost where ground conditions are encountered which could not reasonably have been foreseen by an experienced contractor.
Question 4
The measured mile is a method of evaluating disruption. It is a system whereby a comparison is made between productivity achieved on an unimpacted part of the contract with that achieved on an impacted part. In the case of Whittall Builders
Company Ltd v Chester Le Street District Council (1985) difficulties were encountered by the employer in granting possession of the site which resulted in the contractor’s work being disrupted. The evaluation of the disruption was calculated by comparing the output per man week achieved when work was disrupted with that achieved when there was no disruption which produced a net additional labour cost.
The court approved this method of calculation.

Question 5
The total cost claim is often used by contractors who have failed to retain good accurate site records. Losses incurred as a result of actions or inactions on the part of the Architect or Engineer are under this method calculated by comparing the actual cost expended upon labour with the sum included in the tender. This method is flawed as it ignores any additional costs which may have been incurred as a result of errors in the tender, loss due to the risks undertaken by the contractor for which no proper allowance has been made in the tender, inefficient working and correcting defects. A more realistic approach which is little more than broad brush is to take as a starting point the total cost of labour for the project. Deductions are then made for tender errors, unpriced risk items, inefficiency and defect rectification. The labour element of any variations to the works and additional cost claims would also have to be taken into account. This would leave a sum, once tender allowances had been deducted which at least theoretically represented the cost of disruption.
Question 6
It may not be possible to adopt the measured mile approach to the evaluation of disruption due to the nature of the work which contains little by way of repetition. It may however be appropriate to attempt to isolate the additional hours of labour and plant which results from the events giving rise to disruption. A schedule of events which have caused disruption should be prepared which sets out each disrupting event indicating the additional labour and plant hours expended. Difficulties may be encountered in isolating the additional hours expended which result from each and every event. It was held in the case of Chaplin v Hicks (1913) that in the case of a breach of contract action it may be appropriate to estimate the damages to be awarded. In Wood v The Grand Valley Railway Co (1913) it was held appropriate for the tribunal to do the best it can in assessing damages for breach of contract. Whilst both of these cases dealt with actions for breach of contract it is likely that the same approach would be expected of an arbitrator with regard to a claim for additional cost relating to a construction contract.
Question 7
Most construction contracts in which there is provision for the payment to the contractor of additional sums of money in the event of delays will usually require the contractor to submit a written notice to the Engineer or Architect. A question which is often asked is would the contractor lose financial entitlements in the event of a failure to serve the appropriate notice. Some of the contracts for example the NEC 3 rd
Edition makes it clear in the wording that if the contractor fails to serve on the Project
Manager a written notice within 8 weeks of becoming aware of an event he considers is a compensation event then he is not entitled to a change in the Price for the works.
The case of London Borough of Merton v Stanley Hugh Leach (1985) makes it clear that under a JCT contract that a failure on the part of the contractor to serve a proper notice relating to a claim for additional cost resulting from delay will result in a loss of rights to recover additional cost.