Socialization
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Socialization is a term used by sociologists, social psychologists, anthropologists, politicians
and educationalists to refer to the process of inheriting norms, customs and ideologies. It may
provide the individual with the skills and habits necessary for participating within their own
society; a society itself is formed through a plurality of shared norms, customs, values,
traditions, social roles, symbols and languages. Socialization is thus ‘the means by which
social and cultural continuity are attained’.[1]
Socialization, however, is not a normative term: it describes a process which may or may not
affect the reflexive agent, and which may or may not lead to desirable, or 'moral', outcomes.
Individual views on certain issues, such as race or economics, may be socialized (and to that
extent normalized) within a society. Many socio-political theories postulate that socialization
provides only a partial explanation for human beliefs and behaviours; that agents are not
'blank slates' predetermined by their environment.[2] Scientific research provides strong
evidence that people are shaped by both social influences and their hard-wired biological
makeup.[3][4][5][6][7] Genetic studies have shown that a person's environment interacts with
their genotype to influence behavioural outcomes,[8] whilst the linguistic theory of generative
grammar demonstrates how something such as the capacity for learning changes throughout
one's lifetime. (See also: Nature vs. Nurture; Structure vs. Agency)
Socialization is the primary means by which human infants begin to acquire the skills
necessary to perform as a functioning member of their society, and is the most influential
learning processes one can experience[citation needed]. Although cultural variability is manifest in
the actions, customs, and behaviors of whole social groups (societies), the most fundamental
expression of culture is found at the individual level. This can expression can only occur after
an individual has been socialized by its parents, family, extended family and extended social
networks. This reflexive process of both learning and teaching is the how cultural and social
characteristics attain continuity.
To "socialise" may also mean simply to associate or mingle with people socially. In
American English, "socialized" has mistakenly come to refer, usually in a pejorative sense, to
the ownership structure of socialism or to the expansion of the welfare state.[9] Traditionally,
socialists and Marxists both used the term "socialization of industry" to refer to the
reorganization of institutions so that the workers are all owners (cooperatives) and to refer to
the implementation of workplace democracy.[10]
Theories
Clausen claims that theories of socialization are to be found in Plato, Montaigne and
Rousseau and he identifies a dictionary entry from 1828 that defines 'socialize' as 'to render
social, to make fit for living in society' (1968: 20-1). However it was the response to a
translation of a paper by Georg Simmel that the concept was incorporated into various
branches of psychology and anthropology (1968: 31-52).
In the middle of the 20th century, socialization was a key idea in the dominant American
functionalist tradition of sociology. Talcott Parsons (Parsons and Bales 1956) and a group of
colleagues in the US developed a comprehensive theory of society that responded to the
emergence of modernity in which the concept of socialization was a central component. One
of their interests was to try to understand the relationship between the individual and society
– a distinctive theme in US sociology since the end of the nineteenth century. Ely Chinoy, in
a 1960s standard textbook on sociology, says that socialization serves two major functions:
On the one hand, it prepares the individual for the roles he is to play, providing him with the
necessary repertoire of habits, beliefs, and values, the appropriate patterns of emotional
response and the modes of perception, the requisite skills and knowledge. On the other hand,
by communicating the contents of culture from one generation to the other, it provides for its
persistence and continuity.
—Chinoy, 1961: 75
For many reasons – not least its excessive approval of modern American life as the model
social system and its inability to see how gender, race and class divisions discriminated
against individuals – Parsonian functionalism faded in popularity in the 1970s.
… it is no longer enough to focus on the malleability and passivity of the individual in the
face of all powerful social influences. Without some idea about the individual’s own activity
in shaping his social experience our perspective of socialization becomes distorted.
—Graham White (1977: 5), reacting to the functionalist notion of socialization English
sociologist
During the last quarter of the twentieth century the concept of ‘socialization’ has been much
less central to debates in sociology that have shifted their focus from identifying the functions
of institutions and systems to describing the cultural changes of postmodernity. But the idea
of socialization has lived on, particularly in debates about the family and education. The
institutions of the family or the school are often blamed for their failure to socialize
individuals who go on to transgress social norms. On the other hand, it is through a critique
of functionalist ideas about socialization that there has been an increasing acceptance of a
variety of family forms, of gender roles and an increasing tolerance of variations in the ways
people express their Social norms reveal the values behind socialization.
Sociologists, such as Durkheim, have noted the relationship between norms, values and roles
during socialization.
Types
Primary socialization
Primary socialization occurs when a child learns the attitudes, values, and actions
appropriate to individuals as members of a particular culture. For example if a child
saw his/her mother expressing a discriminatory opinion about a minority group, then
that child may think this behavior is acceptable and could continue to have this
opinion about minority groups.
Secondary socialization
Secondary socialization refers to the process of learning what is appropriate behavior
as a member of a smaller group within the larger society. It is usually associated with
teenagers and adults, and involves smaller changes than those occurring in primary
socialization. eg. entering a new profession, relocating to a new environment or
society.
Developmental socialization
Developmental socialization is the process of learning behavior in a social institution
or developing your social skills.
Anticipatory socialization
Anticipatory socialization refers to the processes of socialization in which a person
"rehearses" for future positions, occupations, and social relationships.
Resocialization
Resocialization refers to the process of discarding former behavior patterns and
accepting new ones as part of a transition in one's life. This occurs throughout the
human life cycle (Schaefer & Lamm, 1992: 113). Resocialization can be an intense
experience, with the individual experiencing a sharp break with their past, and
needing to learn and be exposed to radically different norms and values. An example
might be the experience of a young man or woman leaving home to join the military,
or a religious convert internalizing the beliefs and rituals of a new faith. An extreme
example would be the process by which a transsexual learns to function socially in a
dramatically altered gender role.
Organizational socialization
Organizational socialization is the process whereby an employee learning the
knowledge and skills necessary to assume his or her organizational role.[11] As
newcomers become socialized, they learn about the organization and its history,
values, jargon, culture, and procedures. They also learn about their work group, the
specific people they work with on a daily basis, their own role in the organization, the
skills needed to do their job, and both formal procedures and informal norms.
Socialization functions as a control system in that newcomers learn to internalize and
obey organizational values and practices.
Agents/units of Socialization
Main article: Institutions
In the social sciences, institutions are the structures and mechanisms of social order and
cooperation governing the behavior of a set of individuals within a given human collectivity.
Institutions are identified with a social purpose and permanence, transcending individual
human lives and intentions, and with the making and enforcing of rules governing
cooperative human behavior.[12] Types of institution include:
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The Family
Religion
Education
Economic systems
Legal systems
Penal systems
Psychiatric hospitals and Asylums
Mass media and News media
Organizations (See also: interest groups; political parties; Internet groups and Virtual
communities)
Also (in an extended context):
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Art and Culture
Language
Media and socialization
Theorists like Parsons and textbook writers like Ely Chinoy (1960) and Harry M. Johnson
(1961) recognized that socialization didn’t stop when childhood ends. They realized that
socialization continued in adulthood, but they treated it as a form of specialized education.
Johnson (1961), for example, wrote about the importance of inculcating members of the US
Coastguard with a set of values to do with responding to commands and acting in unison
without question.
Later scholars accused these theorists of socialization of not recognizing the importance of
the mass media which, by the middle of the twentieth century were becoming more
significant as a social force. There was concern about the link between television and the
education and socialization of children – it continues today – but when it came to adults, the
mass media were regarded merely as sources of information and entertainment rather than
moulders of personality. According to these
Some sociologists and theorists of culture have recognized the power of mass communication
as a socialization device. Dennis McQuail recognizes the argument:
… the media can teach norms and values by way of symbolic reward and punishment for
different kinds of behaviour as represented in the media. An alternative view is that it is a
learning process whereby we all learn how to behave in certain situations and the
expectations which go with a given role or status in society. Thus the media are continually
offering pictures of life and models of behaviour in advance of actual experience.
—McQuail 2005: 494)
Gender socialization and gender roles
Henslin (1999:76) contends that "an important part of socialization is the learning of
culturally defined gender roles." Gender socialization refers to the learning of behavior and
attitudes considered appropriate for a given sex. Boys learn to be boys and girls learn to be
girls. This "learning" happens by way of many different agents of socialization. The family is
certainly important in reinforcing gender roles, but so are one’s friends, school, work and the
mass media. Gender roles are reinforced through "countless subtle and not so subtle ways"
(1999:76). && carl lenior
Resocialization
Main article: resocialization
Racial Socialization
Racial socialization has been defined as "the developmental processes by which children
acquire the behaviors, perceptions, values, and attitudes of an ethnic group, and come to see
themselves and others as members of the group".[13] The existing literature conceptualizes
racial socialization as having multiple dimensions. Researchers have identified five
dimensions that commonly appear in the racial socialization literature: cultural socialization,
preparation for bias, promotion of mistrust, egalitarianism, and other.[14] Cultural
socialization refers to parenting practices that teach African American children about their
racial history or heritage and is also referred to as pride development. Preparation for bias
refers to parenting practices focused on preparing African American children to be aware of,
and cope with, discrimination. Promotion of mistrust refers to the parenting practices of
socializing children to be wary of people from other races. Egalitarianism refers to socializing
children with the belief that all people are equal and should be treated with a common
humanity.[15]
References
1. ^ Clausen, John A. (ed.) (1968) Socialization and Society, Boston: Little Brown and
Company. p5
2. ^ Pinker, Steven. The Blank Slate. New York: Penguin. 2002.
3. ^ Dusheck, Jennie, The Interpretation of Genes. Natural History, October 2002.
4. ^ Carlson, N. R. et al.. (2005) Psychology: the science of behaviour (3rd Canadian ed)
Pearson Ed. ISBN 0-205-45769-X
5. ^ Ridley, M. (2003) Nature Via Nurture: Genes, Experience, and What Makes us Human.
Harper Collins. ISBN 0-00-200663-4
6. ^ Carlson, N. R. et al.. (2005) Psychology: the science of behaviour (3rd Canadian ed)
Pearson Ed. ISBN 0-205-45769-X
7. ^ Westen, D. (2002) Psychology: Brain, Behavior & Culture. Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-47138754-1
8. ^ Kendler KS and Baker JH (2007). "Genetic influences on measures of the environment: a
systematic review". Psychological Medicine 37 (5): 615–626.
doi:10.1017/S0033291706009524. PMID 17176502.
9. ^ Rushefsky, Mark E.; Patel, Kant (2006). Health Care Politics And Policy in America.
Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 47. ISBN 0-7656-1478-2. "....socialized medicine, a
pejorative term used to help polarize debate"
10. ^ http://marxists.org/glossary/terms/s/o.htm#socialisation
11. ^ Alvenfors, Adam (2010) Introduction - Integration? On the introduction programs’
importance for the integration of new employees
http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:his:diva-4281
12. ^ http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/social-institutions/ Stanford Encyclopaedia: Social
Institutions
13. ^ Rotherman, M., & Phinney, J. (1987). Introduction: Definitions and perspectives in the
study of children's ethnic socialization. In J. Phinney & M. Rotherman (Eds.), Children's
ethnic socialization: Pluralism and development (pp. 10-28). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage
Publications.
14. ^ Hughes, D., Rodriguez, J., Smith, E., Johnson, D., Stevenson, H. & Spicer, P. (2006).
Parents' ethnic-racial socialization practices: A review of research and directions for future
study. Developmental Psychology, 42, 5, 747-770.
15. ^ Hughes, D., Rodriguez, J., Smith, E., Johnson, D., Stevenson, H. & Spicer, P. (2006).
Parents' ethnic-racial socialization practices: A review of research and directions for future
study. Developmental Psychology, 42, 5, 747-770.