Registration form
Chlorination 101 CEU Training Course $100.00
48 HOUR RUSH ORDER PROCESSING FEE ADDITIONAL $50.00
Start and Finish Dates: ___________________________ You will have 90 days from this date in
order to complete this course
List number of hours worked on assignment must match State Requirement. ________
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DISCLAIMER NOTICE
I understand that it is my responsibility to ensure that this CEU course is either approved or
accepted in my State for CEU credit. I understand State laws and rules change on a frequent
basis and I believe this course is currently accepted in my State for CEU or contact hour credit, if
it is not, I will not hold Technical Learning College responsible. I fully understand that this type of
study program deals with dangerous, changing conditions and various laws and that I will not
hold Technical Learning College, Technical Learning Consultants, Inc. (TLC) liable in any fashion
for any errors, omissions, advice, suggestions or neglect contained in this CEU education
training course or for any violation or injury, death, neglect, damage or loss of your license or
certification caused in any fashion by this CEU education training or course material suggestion
or error or my lack of submitting paperwork. It is my responsibility to call or contact TLC if I need
help or assistance and double-check to ensure my registration page and assignment has been
received and graded. It is my responsibility to ensure all information is correct and to abide with
all rules and regulations.
State Approval Listing Link, check to see if your State accepts or has pre-approved
this course. Not all States are listed. Not all courses are listed. If the course is not
accepted for CEU credit, we will give you the course free if you ask your State to accept
it for credit.
Professional Engineers; Most states will accept our courses for credit but we do not
officially list the States or Agencies. Please check your State for approval.
State Approval Listing URL…
http://www.tlch2o.com/PDF/CEU%20State%20Approvals.pdf
You can obtain a printed version of the course from TLC for an additional $69.95 plus
shipping charges.
AFFIDAVIT OF EXAM COMPLETION
I affirm that I personally completed the entire text of the course. I also affirm that I
completed the exam without assistance from any outside source. I understand that it is
my responsibility to file or maintain my certificate of completion as required by the state
or by the designation organization.
Grading Information
In order to maintain the integrity of our courses we do not distribute test scores,
percentages or questions missed. Our exams are based upon pass/fail criteria with the
benchmark for successful completion set at 70%. Once you pass the exam, your record
will reflect a successful completion and a certificate will be issued to you.
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Chlorination 101 CEU Course Answer Key
Name ___________________________
Telephone # ________________
Did you check with your State agency to ensure this course is accepted for credit?
Method of Course acceptance confirmation. Please fill this section
Website __ Telephone Call___ Email____ Spoke to_________________________
Did you receive the approval number if Applicable? ________________
What is the approval number if Applicable? ____________________
Please circle, underline, bold or X only one correct answer
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Please e-mail or fax this survey along with your final exam
CHLORINATION 101 CEU TRAINING COURSE
CUSTOMER SERVICE RESPONSE CARD
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Chlorination 101 CEU Course Assignment
The Chlorination 101 CEU Assignment is available in Word on the Internet for your Convenience,
please visit www.ABCTLC.com and download the assignment and e mail it back to TLC.
You will have 90 days from the start of this course to complete in order to receive your Professional
Development Hours (PDHs) or Continuing Education Unit (CEU). A score of 70 % is necessary to pass
this course. If you should need any assistance, please email all concerns and the completed manual to
info@tlch2o.com.
I would prefer that you utilize the enclosed answer sheet in the front, but if you are unable to do
so, type out your own answer key. Please include your name and address on your manual and
make copy for yourself.
Multiple Choice, please select only one answer per question.
questions.
There are no intentional trick
Understanding Waterborne Viruses
1. ________________may be present in fecal-contaminated waters.
A. Total Coliform (TC)
D. Cryptosporidium
B. Indicator organisms
E. Giardia
C. Cholera, polio, typhoid, hepatitis
F. None of the Above
2. Treatment processes and watershed management strategies designed on the basis of bacteriological
criteria do not necessarily protect against ______________because viruses are generally more persistent
in the environment and are not removed as completely by treatment.
A. F-specific coliphages
D. Viruses
B. Indicators of fecal contamination
E. Viral infection
C. Enteric viruses
F. None of the Above
3. The current method for culturing ____________ under the ICR (U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, 1996c) is recognized as being difficult to implement; therefore, the ICR does not preclude the
use of additional methods for research purposes. In addition, cell-culture methods are not available or
suitable for all viruses of public health concern.
A. Protozoan pathogens
D. Viruses
B. Indicators of fecal contamination
E. Microorganisms
C. Enteric viruses
F. None of the Above
4. One method, reverse-transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), a gene-probe method that
amplifies and recognizes the nucleic acids of____________, has been adequately validated by the
USEPA (G. Shay Fout, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, written commun., 1997) and is becoming
widely used for environmental monitoring of enteric viruses. The RTPCR method, however, does not
determine the infectivity of the virus, and it is technically demanding, time consuming, and costly for
routine use.
A. Enteric viruses
D. Indicators of viral contamination
B. F-specific coliphages
E. Coliphages are bacteriophages
C. Target viruses
F. None of the Above
5. Because monitoring of enteric viruses is recognized as being difficult and time consuming, some
researchers advocate the use of coliphage as___________________.
A. F-specific coliphages
D. Viruses
B. Indicators of fecal contamination
E. Indicator viruses for fecal contamination
C. Enteric viruses
F. None of the Above
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6. ________________ attach only to the F-pilus of coliforms that carry the F+ plasmid; F-pili are made
only by bacteria grown at higher temperatures.
A. Enteric viruses
D. Indicators of viral contamination
B. F-specific coliphages
E. Coliphages are bacteriophages
C. Viruses
F. None of the Above
Sampling Procedures
Streamwater Sample Collection
7. When designing a sampling plan, consider that the spatial and temporal distribution of microorganisms
in surface water can be as variable as the distribution of ___________because microorganisms are
commonly associated with solid particles.
A. Suspended sediment
D. Viruses
B. Indicators of fecal contamination
E. Microorganisms
C. Enteric viruses
F. None of the Above
8. The standard samplers used in by the majority of samplers can be used to collect streamwater
samples for bacterial and viral indicators, __________providing that the equipment coming in contact with
the water is properly cleaned and sterilized.
A. Cryptosporidium, and Giardia
D. Cryptosporidium
B. Indicator organisms
E. Giardia
C. Cholera, polio, typhoid, hepatitis
F. None of the Above
Cryptosporidium and Giardia Analysis
9. For Cryptosporidium and Giardia analysis by Method 1623 (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
1999c), collect 10 L of streamwater for each protozoan pathogen using standard sampling techniques
described in Myers and Sylvester (1997). Special sterilization procedures are needed for equipment used
in the collection of samples for ________________. Autoclaving is not effective in neutralizing the
epitopes on the surfaces of the oocysts and cysts that will react with the antibodies used for detection.
A. Total Coliform (TC)
D. Cryptosporidium
B. Indicator organisms
E. Cryptosporidium and Giardia
C. Cholera, polio, typhoid, hepatitis
F. None of the Above
10. Wash and scrub the equipment with soap and warm tap water to remove larger particulates and rinse
with deionized water. Submerge the equipment in a vessel containing 12 percent hypochlorite solution for
30 minutes. Wash the equipment free of residual sodium hypochlorite solution with three rinses of filtersterilized water; do not de-chlorinate the equipment using ____________. This procedure is best done in
the office with dedicated sampling equipment for each site; however, it may be done in the field as long
as the hypochlorite solution is stored and disposed of properly.
A. Dibromochloromethane
D. Sodium hypochlorite solution
B. Bromoform
E. Sodium thiosulfate
C. Cl2 and HOCl
F. None of the Above
Ground-Water Sample Collection
Collecting
11. Ground-water samples by use of __________ requires knowledge of the type of well, its use, its
construction, and its condition.
A. Sterile techniques
D. Water-level measurements
B. Once purging criteria
E. Taste Test
C. Collecting the sample
F. None of the Above
12. Swab the electronic tape used for water-level measurements with______________________.
A. Isopropyl or ethyl alcohol
D. Water-level measurements
B. Once purging criteria
E. Taste Test
C. Collecting the sample
F. None of the Above
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13. Because we are interested in the microbial population in the ground water and not in the distribution
system, it is best to sample directly from the wellhead using a pump with_________, if possible.
A. Sterile techniques
D. Water-level measurements
B. Once purging criteria
E. Sterile tubing
C. Tap before collecting the sample
F. None of the Above
Disinfection of Water and Wastewater
14. The disinfection of potable water and wastewater provides a degree of protection from contact with
pathogenic organisms including those causing ___________ and a number of other bacterial, viral and
parasitic diseases.
A. Total Coliform (TC)
D. Cryptosporidium
B. Indicator organisms
E. Giardia
C. Cholera, polio, typhoid, hepatitis
F. None of the Above
15. Disinfection is a process where a significant percentage of pathogenic organisms are killed or
controlled. As an individual pathogenic organism can be difficult to detect in a large volume of water or
wastewater, disinfection efficacy is most often measured using "indicator organisms" that coexist in high
quantities where _________________are present.
A. Total Coliform (TC)
D. Cryptosporidium
B. Indicator organisms
E. Giardia
C. Pathogens
F. None of the Above
16. The most common indicator organism for wastewater evaluation is fecal coliform but there has been
discussion regarding the use of Escherichia coli (E. coli) or_____________.
A. Cryptosporidium parvum and Giardia lamblia
D. Total Coliform
B. Many disease-causing microorganisms
E. Chlorine disinfectants
C. Nitrogenous compounds
F. None of the Above
17. As domestic wastewater contains approximately 1,000 times more ______________than typical
surface water, understanding wastewater disinfection will make it easier to understand water disinfection.
A. Indicator organisms
D. Viruses
B. Indicators of fecal contamination
E. Microorganisms
C. Enteric viruses
F. None of the Above
18. _______________ is primarily a respiratory irritant and concentrations in air above one ppm can
usually be detected by most persons.
A. Chlorine
D. Chlorine gas
B. Sodium hypochlorite
E. Hypochlorous acid (HOCl), and hydrochloric acid (HCl)
C. Bromoform
F. None of the Above
19. Chlorine causes varying degrees of irritation of the skin, mucus membranes, and the respiratory
system, depending on the concentration and the duration of exposure. Severe exposure can cause death,
but the severe irritating effect makes it unlikely that anyone would remain in the
__________________unless trapped or unconscious.
A. Chlorine
D. Chlorine gas
B. Sodium hypochlorite
E. Hypochlorous acid (HOCl), and hydrochloric acid (HCl)
C. Chlorine-containing atmosphere
F. None of the Above
20. ____________may cause skin and eye burns upon contact with these tissues.
A. Chlorine
D. Chlorine gas
B. Sodium hypochlorite
E. Hypochlorous acid (HOCl), and hydrochloric acid (HCl)
C. Liquid chlorine
F. None of the Above
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Chlorination Introduction
21. Microorganisms can be found in raw water from rivers, lakes and groundwater. While not all
microorganisms are harmful to human health, there are some that may cause diseases in humans. These
are called________________.
A. Epidemics
D. Pathogens
B. Waterborne disease
E. Microscopic agents of many diseases
C. Microorganisms
F. None of the Above
22. Pathogens present in water can be transmitted through a drinking water distribution system, causing
_______________in those who consume it.
A. Total Coliform (TC)
D. Cryptosporidium
B. Indicator organisms
E. Waterborne disease
C. Cholera, polio, typhoid, hepatitis
F. None of the Above
23. Water chlorination is the process of adding the ___________to water as a method of water
purification to make it fit for human consumption as drinking water.
A. Halogen
D. Chlorine
B. Element chlorine
E. Hypochlorous acid
C. Chlorine as a disinfectant
F. None of the Above
24. Water that has been treated with chlorine is effective in preventing the spread of _________.
A. Epidemics
D. Oxidation of organic molecules
B. Waterborne disease
E. Microscopic agents of many diseases
C. Microorganisms
F. None of the Above
25. The microscopic agents of many diseases such as ____________killed countless people annually
before disinfection methods were employed routinely.
A. Epidemics
D. Oxidation of organic molecules
B. Waterborne disease
E. Cholera, typhoid fever, and dysentery
C. Microorganisms
F. None of the Above
26. _________ is obtained from salt (NaCl). It is a gas at atmospheric pressures but liquefies under
pressure. The liquefied gas is transported and used as such.
A. Halogen
D. Chlorine
B. Water chlorination
E. Hypochlorous acid
C. Chlorine as a disinfectant
F. None of the Above
27. As a strong oxidizing agent, chlorine kills via the______________.
A. Halogen
D. Oxidation of organic molecules
B. Water chlorination
E. Hypochlorous acid
C. Chlorine as a disinfectant
F. None of the Above
28. Chlorine and its _______________are neutrally charged and therefore easily penetrate the
negatively charged surface of pathogens. It is able to disintegrate the lipids that compose the cell wall and
react with intracellular enzymes and proteins, making them nonfunctional. Microorganisms then either die
or are no longer able to multiply.
A. Halogen
D. Hydrolysis product hypochlorous acid
B. Water chlorination
E. Hypochlorous acid
C. Chlorine as a disinfectant
F. None of the Above
29. In the past 30 years, the _______________ has been highly effective in protecting public health and
has also evolved to respond to new and emerging threats to safe drinking water.
A. Clean Water Act
CWA
D. Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)
B. Drinking water standards
E. EPA
C. Primary Drinking Water Standard
F. None of the Above
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30. Disinfection of drinking water is one of the major public health advances in the 20th century. One
hundred years ago, _______________were common through American cities; disinfection was a major
factor in reducing these epidemics.
A. Epidemics
D. Oxidation of organic molecules
B. Waterborne disease
E. Typhoid and cholera epidemics
C. Microorganisms
F. None of the Above
31. However, the disinfectants themselves can react with naturally-occurring materials in the water to
form unintended byproducts which may pose health risks. In addition, in the past ten years, we have
learned that there are specific microbial pathogens, such as ____________, which can cause illness and
is resistant to traditional disinfection practices.
A. Cryptosporidium
D. Emerging threats to safe drinking water
B. Sodium hypochlorite
E. Hypochlorous acid (HOCl), and hydrochloric acid (HCl)
C. Bromoform
F. None of the Above
Chlorination Principles
32. When dissolved in water, chlorine converts to an equilibrium mixture of chlorine, _________.
A. Cryptosporidium
D. Emerging threats to safe drinking water
B. Sodium hypochlorite
E. Hypochlorous acid (HOCl), and hydrochloric acid (HCl)
C. Bromoform
F. None of the Above
33. In acidic solution, the major species are Cl2 and HOCl while in alkaline solution effectively only ClO - is
present. Very small concentrations of _____________are also found. We will cover this subject in greater
detail.
A. Dibromochloromethane
D. An antioxidant formulation of Vitamin C
B. Bromoform
E. ClO2-, ClO3-, ClO4C. Cl2 and HOCl
F. None of the Above
Shock Chlorination
34. ______________is a process used in many swimming pools, water wells, springs, and other water
sources to reduce the bacterial and algal residue in the water.
A. Cryptosporidium
D. Shock chlorination
B. Sodium hypochlorite
E. Hypochlorous acid (HOCl), and hydrochloric acid (HCl)
C. Bromoform
F. None of the Above
35. Shock chlorination is performed by mixing a large amount of sodium hypochlorite, which can be in
the form of a powder or a liquid such as_____________, into the water. Water that is being shock
chlorinated should not be swum in or drunk until the sodium hypochlorite count in the water goes down to
three ppm or less.
A. Cryptosporidium
D. Chlorine bleach
B. Sodium hypochlorite
E. Hypochlorous acid (HOCl), and hydrochloric acid (HCl)
C. Bromoform
F. None of the Above
Drawbacks to Water Chlorination
36. Disinfection by chlorination can be problematic, in some circumstances. ________ can react with
naturally occurring organic compounds found in the water supply to produce compounds known as
disinfection byproducts (DBPs).
A. Halogen
D. Chlorine
B. Water chlorination
E. Hypochlorous acid
C. Chlorine as a disinfectant
F. None of the Above
37. The most common DBPs are trihalomethanes (THMs) and__________________.
A. Haloacetic acids (HAAs)
D. Chlorine
B. Water chlorination
E. Hypochlorous acid
C. Chlorine as a disinfectant
F. None of the Above
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38. Due to the________________, drinking water regulations across the developed world require regular
monitoring of the concentration of these compounds in the distribution systems of municipal water
systems.
A. Halogen
D. Chlorine
B. Water chlorination
E. Potential carcinogenicity of these compounds
C. Chlorine as a disinfectant
F. None of the Above
39. Chlorination of swimming pools can have adverse effects on the skin and hair of swimmers due to
chlorine's oxidizing properties; various remedies have been developed, most recently_________.
A. Dibromochloromethane
D. An antioxidant formulation of Vitamin C
B. Bromoform
E. A major public health concern
C. Cl2 and HOCl
F. None of the Above
Chlorine Gas (Some questions may appear to repeat, this is for QA/QC purposes)
40. Chlorine gas is likely the most widely used oxidizing microbiocide. It has traditionally been the biocide
of choice in many cooling water treatment systems. It is a strong oxidizer that is relatively easy to feed
and is quite inexpensive. Upon introduction into the water stream, chlorine hydrolyzes into
_____________.
A. Chlorine
D. Chlorine gas
B. Sodium hypochlorite
E. Hypochlorous acid (HOCl), and hydrochloric acid (HCl)
C. Bromoform
F. None of the Above
41. This hydrolization provides the active toxicant, _________, which is pH-dependent. In alkaline
cooling systems, it readily dissociates to form the hypochlorite ion (OCl-).
A. HCl
D. pH of 7.0 than at pH 8.5
B. HOCl
E. the hypochlorite ion (OCl-)
C. High chlorine concentrations
F. None of the Above
42. This dissociation phenomenon is important to remember when working with systems that will operate
at a higher pH. In alkaline conditions, _____________becomes the predominant species and lacks the
biocidal efficacy of the non-dissociated form.
A. Chlorine
D. Chlorine gas
B. Sodium hypochlorite
E. Hypochlorous acid (HOCl), and hydrochloric acid (HCl)
C. OClF. None of the Above
43. The amount of chlorine needed to react with these contamination species is referred to as
_____________and it must be satisfied before active HOCl is available to provide a free chlorine residual.
A. Chlorine demand
D. pH of 7.0 than at pH 8.5
B. HOCl
E. The hypochlorite ion (OCl-)
C. High chlorine concentrations
F. None of the Above
44. The combination of high chlorine demand in process-contaminated systems and the dissociation
process in alkaline systems creates the need for greater chlorine feed to obtain the same microbial
efficacy. This results in a higher concentration of ______________in the cooling system.
A. Chlorine
D. HCl
B. Sodium hypochlorite
E. Hypochlorous acid (HOCl), and hydrochloric acid (HCl)
C. Bromoform
F. None of the Above
45. Since ___________ removes alkalinity, pH depression and system corrosion could occur. In low pH
water the passive metal oxide layers protecting the metal may resolubulize, exposing the surface to
corrosion.
A. HCl
D. pH of 7.0 than at pH 8.5
B. HOCl
E. the hypochlorite ion (OCl-)
C. High chlorine concentrations
F. None of the Above
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46. At free mineral acidity (pH <4.3), many passivating inhibitors become ineffective, and corrosion will
proceed rapidly. Increased chloride may also have a negative impact on system corrosion.
_______________can damage or penetrate the passive oxide layer, leading to localized damage of the
metal surface.
A. Chlorine
D. Chlorine gas
B. Sodium hypochlorite
E. Hypochlorous acid (HOCl), and hydrochloric acid (HCl)
C. The chloride ion (Cl-)
F. None of the Above
47. High chlorine concentrations have also been shown to directly attack traditional organic-based
corrosion inhibitors. When these inhibitors are "deactivated," the metal surface would then be susceptible
to corrosion. Process Safety Management (PSM) guidelines dictated by the U.S. Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA), discharge problems related to ____________such as trihalomethane
(THM), dezincification of admiralty brass and delignification of cooling tower wood are other significant
concerns associated with the use of chlorine.
A. Chlorinated organic compounds
D. Sodium hypochlorite solution
B. Many disease-causing microorganisms
E. Chlorine disinfectants
C. Nitrogenous compounds
F. None of the Above
Pathophysiology
48. Chlorine is a greenish-yellow, noncombustible gas at room temperature and atmospheric pressure.
The intermediate ___________of chlorine accounts for its effect on the upper airway and the lower
respiratory tract.
A. Generation of free oxygen radicals D. Water solubility
B. Chlorine gas
E. The odor threshold for chlorine
C. Hydrochloric acid
F. None of the Above
49. Exposure to ____________ may be prolonged because its moderate water solubility may not cause
upper airway symptoms for several minutes. In addition, the density of the gas is greater than that of air,
causing it to remain near ground level and increasing exposure time.
A. Hydrochloric acid
D. The chemical species produced
B. Chlorine gas
E. Plasma exudation
C. The gas
F. None of the Above
50. The odor threshold for chlorine is approximately 0.3-0.5 parts per million (ppm); however,
distinguishing toxic air levels from ___________may be difficult until irritative symptoms are present.
A. Generation of free oxygen radicals D. A greenish-yellow, noncombustible gas
B. Chlorine gas
E. Permissible air levels
C. Hydrochloric acid
F. None of the Above
Mechanism of Activity
51. The mechanisms of the above biological activity are poorly understood and the predominant
anatomic site of injury may vary, depending on the ____________produced.
A. Hydrochloric acid
D. Chemical species
B. Chlorine gas
E. Plasma exudation
C. Gas
F. None of the Above
52. Cellular injury is believed to result from the oxidation of functional groups in cell components, from
reactions with tissue water to form_______, and from the generation of free oxygen radicals.
A. Generation of free oxygen radicals D. A greenish-yellow, noncombustible gas
B. Chlorine gas
E. Hypochlorous and hydrochloric acid
C. Hydrochloric acid
F. None of the Above
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53. Although the idea that ________ causes direct tissue damage by generating free oxygen radicals
was once accepted, this idea is now controversial.
A. Hydrochloric acid
D. The chemical species produced
B. Chlorine
E. Plasma exudation
C. The gas
F. None of the Above
54. __________ comes out of the cylinder through a gas regulator. The cylinders are on a scale that
operators use to measure the amount used each day. The chains are used to prevent the tanks from
falling over.
A. Hydrochloric acid
D. The chemical species produced
B. Chlorine gas
E. Plasma exudation
C. The gas
F. None of the Above
55. ________________ is stored in vented rooms that have panic bar equipped doors. Operators have
the equipment necessary to reduce the impact of a gas leak, but rely on trained emergency response
teams to contain leaks.
A. Generation of free oxygen radicals D. A greenish-yellow, noncombustible gas
B. Chlorine gas
E. The odor
C. Hydrochloric acid
F. None of the Above
Solubility Effects
56. _____________acid is highly soluble in water. The predominant targets of the acid are the epithelia
of the ocular conjunctivae and upper respiratory mucus membranes.
A. Hydrochloric
D. Hypochlorous
B. Sulfuric
E. Nitric
C. Some
F. None of the Above
57. Hypochlorous acid is also highly water soluble with an injury pattern similar to_________.
A. Hydrochloric acid
D. Sodium hypochlorite solution
B. Many disease-causing microorganisms
E. Chlorine disinfectants
C. Nitrogenous compounds
F. None of the Above
58. __________may account for the toxicity of elemental chlorine and hydrochloric acid to the human
body.
A. HCl
D. pH of 7.0 than at pH 8.5
B. Hypochlorous acid
E. The hypochlorite ion (OCl-)
C. High chlorine concentrations
F. None of the Above
Early Response to Chlorine Gas
59. Chlorine gas, when mixed with ammonia, reacts to form___________. In the presence of water,
chloramines decompose to ammonia and hypochlorous acid or hydrochloric acid.
A. Generation of free oxygen radicals D. A greenish-yellow, noncombustible gas
B. Chlorine gas
E. Chloramine gas
C. Hydrochloric acid
F. None of the Above
60. The early response to ____________depends on the (1) concentration of chlorine gas, (2) duration
of exposure, (3) water content of the tissues exposed, and (4) individual susceptibility.
A. Chlorine exposure D. A greenish-yellow, noncombustible gas
B. Chlorine gas
E. The odor threshold for chlorine
C. Hydrochloric acid
F. None of the Above
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Immediate Effects
61. The immediate effects of ___________ toxicity include acute inflammation of the conjunctivae, nose,
pharynx, larynx, trachea, and bronchi.
A. Hydrochloric acid
D. The chemical species produced
B. Chlorine gas
E. Chlorine exposure
C. The gas
F. None of the Above
62. Irritation of the airway mucosa leads to local edema secondary to active arterial and capillary
hyperemia. ________________ results in filling the alveoli with edema fluid, resulting in pulmonary
congestion.
A. Hydrochloric acid
D. The chemical species produced
B. Chlorine gas
E. Plasma exudation
C. The gas
F. None of the Above
Pathological Findings
63. Chlorine is a highly reactive gas. It is a______________. Chlorine is produced in very large
amounts (23 billion pounds in 1992) by eighteen companies in the United States.
A. HCl
D. Chlorine gas fumes
B. HOCl
E. Naturally occurring element
C. High chlorine concentrations
F. None of the Above
64. US demand for chlorine is expected to increase slightly over the next several years and then decline.
The expected decline in US demand is due to environmental concerns for_________.
A. Chlorinated organic chemicals
D. Chlorine gas fumes
B. HOCl
E. The hypochlorite ion (OCl-)
C. High chlorine concentrations
F. None of the Above
65. The largest users of chlorine are companies that make ______________and other chlorinated
solvents, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) resins, chlorofluorocarbons, and propylene oxide. Paper companies
use chlorine to bleach paper.
A. HCl
D. Ethylene dichloride
B. HOCl
E. The hypochlorite ion (OCl-)
C. High chlorine concentrations
F. None of the Above
66. Water and wastewater treatment plants use _____________to reduce water levels of
microorganisms that can spread disease to humans.
A. HCl
D. Chlorine
B. HOCl
E. The hypochlorite ion (OCl-)
C. High chlorine concentrations
F. None of the Above
67. Exposure to chlorine can occur in the workplace or in the environment following releases to air,
water, or land. People who use laundry bleach and swimming pool chemicals containing ___________
are usually not exposed to chlorine itself.
A. HCl
D. Chlorine gas fumes
B. Chlorine products
E. The hypochlorite ion (OCl-)
C. High chlorine concentrations
F. None of the Above
68. Chlorine is generally found only in industrial settings. ___________ enters the body breathed in with
contaminated air or when consumed with contaminated food or water. It does not remain in the body due
to its reactivity.
A. HCl
D. Chlorine
B. HOCl
E. The hypochlorite ion (OCl-)
C. High chlorine concentrations
F. None of the Above
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Some questions appear to repeat for QA/QC purposes
69. Chlorine gas is greenish yellow in color and very toxic. It is heavier than air and will therefore sink to
the ground if released from its container. It is the toxic effect of ________ that makes it a good
disinfectant, but it is toxic to more than just waterborne pathogens; it is also toxic to humans. It is a
respiratory irritant and it can also irritate skin and mucus membranes.
A. HCl
D. Chlorine gas
B. HOCl
E. The hypochlorite ion (OCl-)
C. High chlorine concentrations
F. None of the Above
70. Exposure to high volumes of ___________ can cause serious health problems, including death.
A. HCl
D. Chlorine gas fumes
B. HOCl
E. The hypochlorite ion (OCl-)
C. High chlorine concentrations
F. None of the Above
71. However, it is important to realize that ____________, once entering the water, changes into
hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ions, and therefore its human toxic properties are not found in the
drinking water we consume.
A. HCl
D. Chlorine gas
B. HOCl
E. The hypochlorite ion (OCl-)
C. High chlorine concentrations
F. None of the Above
72. Chlorine gas is sold as a compressed liquid, which is amber in color. Chlorine, as a____________, is
heavier (more dense) than water. If the chlorine liquid is released from its container it will quickly return
back to its gas state.
A. HCl
D. Chlorine gas fumes
B. HOCl
E. The hypochlorite ion (OCl-)
C. Liquid
F. None of the Above
73. Chlorine gas is the least expensive form of chlorine to use. The typical amount of chlorine gas
required for water treatment is 1-16 mg/L of water. Different amounts of chlorine gas are used depending
on the _____________that needs to be treated. If the water quality is poor, a higher concentration of
chlorine gas will be required to disinfect the water if the contact time cannot be increased.
A. HCl
D. pH of 7.0 than at pH 8.5
B. Quality of water
E. the hypochlorite ion (OCl-)
C. High chlorine concentrations
F. None of the Above
Where Chlorine is Found and How it is Used
74. Chlorine is one of the most commonly manufactured chemicals in the United States. Its most
important use is as a bleach in the manufacture of paper and cloth, but it is also used to make pesticides
(insect killers), rubber, and_________________.
A. HCl
D. Solvents
B. HOCl
E. The hypochlorite ion (OCl-)
C. Chlorine liquid
F. None of the Above
75. Chlorine is used in drinking water and swimming pool water to kill harmful bacteria. It is also as used
as part of the sanitation process for________________.
A. HCl
D. Chlorine gas
B. HOCl
E. Industrial waste and sewage
C. Chlorine liquid
F. None of the Above
76. _______________can release chlorine gas if it is mixed with certain other cleaning agents.
A. HCl
D. Chlorine gas
B. HOCl
E. Household chlorine bleach
C. Chlorine liquid
F. None of the Above
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How People can be Exposed to Chlorine
77. People’s risk for exposure depends on how close they are to the place where the ___________was
released.
A. HCl
D. Chlorine
B. HOCl
E. The hypochlorite ion (OCl-)
C. Chlorine liquid
F. None of the Above
78. If ______________is released into the air, people may be exposed through skin contact or eye
contact. They also may be exposed by breathing air that contains chlorine.
A. Chlorine gas
D. Sodium hypochlorite solution
B. Many disease-causing microorganisms
E. Chlorine disinfectants
C. Nitrogenous compounds
F. None of the Above
79. If ____________ is released into water, people may be exposed by touching or drinking water that
contains chlorine.
A. HCl
D. Chlorine gas
B. HOCl
E. The hypochlorite ion (OCl-)
C. Chlorine liquid
F. None of the Above
80. If ___________ comes into contact with food, people may be exposed by eating the contaminated
food.
A. HCl
D. Chlorine gas
B. HOCl
E. The hypochlorite ion (OCl-)
C. Chlorine liquid
F. None of the Above
81. ______________ is heavier than air, so it would settle in low-lying areas.
A. HCl
D. Chlorine gas
B. HOCl
E. The hypochlorite ion (OCl-)
C. High chlorine concentrations
F. None of the Above
How Chlorine Works
82. The extent of poisoning caused by ___________depends on the amount of chlorine a person is
exposed to, how the person was exposed, and the length of time of the exposure.
A. HCl
D. Chlorine
B. HOCl
E. The hypochlorite ion (OCl-)
C. Chlorine liquid
F. None of the Above
83. When _____________comes into contact with moist tissues such as the eyes, throat, and lungs, an
acid is produced that can damage these tissues.
A. HCl
D. Chlorine
B. HOCl
E. Chlorine gas
C. Chlorine liquid
F. None of the Above
What the Long-Term Health Effects are
84. Long-term complications may occur after breathing in high concentrations of chlorine. Complications
are more likely to be seen in people who develop severe health problems such as fluid in the lungs
(pulmonary edema) following________________.
A. Exposure to chlorine
D. And get medical care as quickly as possible
B. Odor thresholds
E. Moisture, steam, and water
C. The initial exposure
F. None of the Above
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How People can Protect Themselves, and What they Should do if they are Exposed to
Chlorine
85. Leave the area where the chlorine was released and get to fresh air. Quickly moving to an area
where fresh air is available is highly effective in__________________.
A. Reducing exposure to chlorine
D. Get medical care as quickly as possible
B. Odor thresholds
E. Moisture, steam, and water
C. A corrosive material
F. None of the Above
86. If the _____________was outdoors, move away from the area where the chlorine was released. Go
to the highest ground possible, because chlorine is heavier than air and will sink to low-lying areas. If the
chlorine release was indoors, get out of the building.
A. Hydrogen sulfide
D. A characteristic pungent odor
B. Oxomonosilane
E. Chlorine release
C. Chlorine in solution
F. None of the Above
87. If you think you may have been exposed, remove your clothing, rapidly wash your entire body with
soap and water, __________________.
A. Exposure to chlorine
D. And get medical care as quickly as possible
B. Odor thresholds
E. Moisture, steam, and water
C. A corrosive material
F. None of the Above
How Chlorine Exposure is Treated
88. No antidote exists for____________________. Treatment consists of removing the chlorine from the
body as soon as possible and providing supportive medical care such as inhaled breathing treatments for
wheezing in a hospital setting.
A. Hydrogen sulfide
D. A characteristic pungent odor
B. Chlorine exposure
E. Chlorine release
C. Chlorine in solution
F. None of the Above
Chlorine’s Appearance and Odor (QA/QC)
89. ___________ is a greenish-yellow gas with a characteristic pungent odor. It condenses to an amber
liquid at approximately -34 degrees C (-29.2 degrees F) or at high pressures.
A. Hydrogen sulfide
D. A characteristic pungent odor
B. Oxomonosilane
E. Chlorine
C. Chlorine in solution
F. None of the Above
90. Odor thresholds ranging from 0.08 to part per million (ppm) parts of air have been reported.
Prolonged exposures may result in______________________.
A. Exposure to chlorine
D. Olfactory fatigue
B. Odor thresholds
E. Moisture, steam, and water
C. A corrosive material
F. None of the Above
Reactivity
91. Conditions Contributing to Instability: Cylinders of chlorine may burst when exposed to elevated
temperatures. Chlorine in solution forms______________.
A. Hydrogen sulfide
D. A characteristic pungent odor
B. Oxomonosilane
E. A corrosive material
C. Chlorine in solution
F. None of the Above
92. Incompatibilities: Flammable gases and vapors form explosive mixtures with chlorine. Contact
between chlorine and many combustible substances (such as gasoline and petroleum products,
hydrocarbons, turpentine, alcohols, acetylene, hydrogen, ammonia, and sulfur), reducing agents, and
finely divided metals may cause___________________ .
A. Exposure to chlorine
D. Fires and explosions
B. Odor thresholds
E. Moisture, steam, and water
C. A corrosive material
F. None of the Above
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93. Contact between chlorine and arsenic, bismuth, boron, calcium, activated carbon, carbon disulfide,
glycerol, hydrazine, iodine, methane, oxomonosilane, ________________, propylene, and silicon should
be avoided.
A. Hydrogen sulfide
D. A characteristic pungent odor
B. Potassium
E. Chlorine release
C. Chlorine in solution
F. None of the Above
94. Chlorine reacts with hydrogen sulfide and water to form____________, and it reacts with carbon
monoxide and sulfur dioxide to form phosgene and sulfuryl chloride.
A. Hydrogen sulfide
D. A characteristic pungent odor
B. Oxomonosilane
E. Hydrochloric acid
C. Chlorine in solution
F. None of the Above
95. Chlorine is also incompatible with ____________________.
A. Exposure to chlorine
D. Hydrogen sulfide
B. Odor thresholds
E. Moisture, steam, and water
C. A corrosive material
F. None of the Above
Disinfection Essentials
96. Selecting the right ______________requires understanding the factors governing the particular site
and the water or wastewater to be treated. In general, the selection of an appropriate disinfection system
should be evaluated against the following six criteria…
A. Operating costs
D. Breathing apparatus and protective clothing
B. Disinfection weapon
E. Net-positive environmental benefit
C. UV has safeguards
F. None of the Above
97. Safety. How does the disinfectant work and what types of precautions are needed to transport, store,
use, and operate the disinfectant system and associated chemicals? If a system will require significant
safety protection—such as use of breathing apparatus and protective clothing—as well as high levels of
operator training, it may be advisable to explore other,_____________. In addition, while the disinfectant
may be relatively safe to use, consideration also has to be made for the effects of both intentional and
unintentional releases to the environment.
A. Operating costs
D. Breathing apparatus and protective clothing
B. Less intensive systems
E. Net-positive environmental benefit
C. UV has safeguards
F. None of the Above
98. Effectiveness. How effective is the disinfectant against the pathogens present in the water or
wastewater? Since the intent is to reduce the levels of pathogens to acceptable standards, understanding
how effective the proposed disinfectant system is in achieving those_____________, as well as the
system's ability to reliably achieve the result, will be important to selecting the right system.
A. Target levels
D. Net-positive environmental benefit
B. Narrow tolerance
E. Acceptable standards
C. Desired parameters
F. None of the Above
99.
Cost. What are the costs associated with the disinfection system, both in terms of
_____________and ongoing operations and maintenance? Operating costs can vary in terms of the time
it takes to service the disinfectant system regularly, and the costs of supplies and components.
A. Operating costs
D. Breathing apparatus and protective clothing
B. Capital outlay
E. Net-positive environmental benefit
C. UV
F. None of the Above
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100. Complexity of use. How does the system operate and does it take specialized training to keep the
system within tolerances? Since the outflow from the treatment facility may be subject to various
standards and regulations, if the system is too complex it may require additional staff time to ensure that it
operates within the _______________.
A. Disinfectant system
D. Net-positive environmental benefit
B. Narrow tolerance
E. Acceptable standards
C. Desired parameters
F. None of the Above
101. Environmental/Adverse Effects. What are some of the potential downsides to the operation of the
system as it relates to the distribution system or watershed in which the treated effluent is discharged?
While some systems may provide a net-positive environmental benefit through increased
________________, other systems may need to have additional treatment of the disinfected effluent in
order to render it benign when released.
A. Operating costs
D. Breathing apparatus and protective clothing
B. Other than chlorine E. Oxygenation of the receiving waters
C. Safeguards
F. None of the Above
102. Flow and Water Characteristics. Can the system handle fluctuations within the flow or with
changing characteristics of the water or wastewater being processed? If a system has a narrow tolerance
for the amount of water or wastewater flow, this could impact the effectiveness of the overall system. In
addition, if the system cannot adjust for ____________such as dry or wet weather flow rates of the
receiving water body, this may also affect the system's appropriateness for your application.
A. Off-site concerns
D. Net-positive environmental benefit
B. Narrow tolerance
E. Acceptable standards
C. Desired parameters
F. None of the Above
103. With those criteria in mind, there are primarily four basic disinfection systems currently available—
chlorination, ozone gas, ultraviolet radiation, and______________.
A. Operating costs
D. Chemical treatment other than chlorine
B. Other than chlorine
E. Net-positive environmental benefit
C. UV has safeguards
F. None of the Above
104. A variety of factors come into play in deciding which type of disinfectant system is right for your
operation. The decision to install a system could be the result of local concerns and potential to mitigate
health risks, as well as_____________. In any event, the operator of an onsite water or wastewater
treatment plant needs to consider some of the safeguards that need to be in place as well.
A. Improved community relations
D. Net-positive environmental benefit
B. Narrow tolerance
E. Acceptable standards
C. Desired parameters
F. None of the Above
105. "Typical safeguards include operator training and instrumentation monitoring that will perform a
shutdown function if something goes above a certain level," says Schilling. "If they detect [for example] an
ozone leak, you can do an interconnect and do a plant shutdown. UV has safeguards where you have
monitors that tell you what your ________________ is, and if you're over or under your dosage it will
perform some kind of warning of whatever you want to do."
A. Operating costs
D. Dosage
B. Other than chlorine
E. Net-positive environmental benefit
C. UV has safeguards
F. None of the Above
Chlorine Basics
106. Chlorine is one of 90 natural elements, the basic building blocks of our planet. To be useful, an
element must be relatively abundant or have_______________. Chlorine has both characteristics.
A. Moon germs
D. Manganese dioxide
B. Bacteria and viruses
E. Basic building blocks of our planet
C. Extremely desirable properties
F. None of the Above
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107. As a result -- over the course of many decades of careful research and development -- scientists
have learned to use chlorine and the products of chlorine chemistry to make drinking water safe, destroy
life-threatening germs, produce life-saving drugs and medical equipment, shield police and fire fighters in
the line of duty, and___________________.
A. Chlorine chemistry
D. Economical germ-killers
B. Compound of oxygen
E. Ensure a plentiful food supply
C. Chlorine's powerful disinfectant qualities
F. None of the Above
108. In 1774, in his small experimental laboratory, Swedish pharmacist Carl Wilhem Scheele released a
few drops of hydrochloric acid onto a piece of manganese dioxide. Within seconds, a greenish-yellow gas
arose. Although he had no idea at the time, he had just discovered_____________.
A. Moon germs
D. Manganese dioxide
B. Bacteria and viruses
E. Basic building blocks of our planet
C. Chlorine
F. None of the Above
109. The fact that the greenish-yellow gas was actually an element was only recognized several decades
later by English chemist Sir Humphrey Davy. Until that time, people were convinced that the gas was a
________________.
A. Chlorine chemistry
D. Economical germ-killers
B. Compound of oxygen
E. Life-threatening infections, viruses, and bacteria
C. Chlorine's powerful disinfectant qualities
F. None of the Above
110. Davy gave the element its name on the basis of the Greek word khloros, for _______________. In
1810 he suggested the name "chloric gas" or "chlorine."
A. Economical germ-killers
D. Manganese dioxide
B. Bacteria and viruses killer
E. Basic building blocks
C. Greenish-yellow
F. None of the Above
111. One of the most effective and_______________, chlorine also destroys and deactivates a wide
range of dangerous germs in homes, hospitals, swimming pools, hotels, restaurants, and other public
places.
A. Chlorine chemistry
D. Economical germ-killers
B. Compound of oxygen
E. Life-threatening infections, viruses, and bacteria
C. Chlorine's powerful disinfectant qualities
F. None of the Above
112. Chlorine's powerful disinfectant qualities come from its ability to bond with and destroy the outer
surfaces of _________________.
A. Moon germs
D. Manganese dioxide
B. Bacteria and viruses
E. Basic building blocks of our planet
C. Salmonella and E. coli
F. None of the Above
113. First used as a germicide to prevent the spread of "child bed fever" in the maternity wards of Vienna
General Hospital in Austria in 1846, chlorine has been one of society's most potent weapons against a
wide array of _______________________ for 150 years.
A. Bacteria and viruses
D. Economical germ-killers
B. Compound of oxygen
E. Life-threatening infections, viruses, and bacteria
C. Chlorine's powerful disinfectant qualities
F. None of the Above
114. When the first men to set foot on the moon returned to earth (Apollo 11 mission: 24.7.69) a
hypochlorite solution was chosen as one of the disinfectants for destroying any possible __________.
A. Moon germs
D. Manganese dioxide
B. Bacteria and viruses
E. Basic building blocks of our planet
C. Salmonella and E. coli
F. None of the Above
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What Happens to Chlorine When it Enters the Environment?
115. When released to air, chlorine will react with water to form hypochlorous acid and hydrochloric acid,
which are removed from the atmosphere by__________________.
A. Generation of free oxygen radicals D. Manganese dioxide
B. Chlorine gas
E. Rainfall
C. Hydrochloric acid
F. None of the Above
116. Chlorine is____________. It reacts with water to form hypochlorous acid and hydrochloric acid. The
hypochlorous acid breaks down rapidly. The hydrochloric acid also breaks down; its breakdown products
will lower the pH of the water (makes it more acidic).
A. Free oxygen radicals
D. A greenish-yellow, noncombustible gas
B. Slightly soluble in water
E. Basicly hypochlorous and hydrochloric acid
C. Hydrochloric acid
F. None of the Above
117. Since chlorine is a gas it is rarely found in soil. If released to soil, chlorine will react with moisture
forming ______________. These compounds can react with other substances found in soil.
A. Generation of free oxygen radicals D. A greenish-yellow, noncombustible gas
B. Chlorine gas
E. Hypochlorous acid and hydrochloric acid
C. Hydrochloric acid
F. None of the Above
118. Chlorine does not accumulate in the____________.
A. Food chain
D. Manganese dioxide
B. Bacteria and viruses
E. Basic building blocks of our planet
C. Salmonella and E. coli
F. None of the Above
Disinfectant Qualities
119. Restaurants and meat and poultry processing plants rely on chlorine bleach and other chlorinebased products to kill harmful levels of bacteria such as ___________ on food preparation surfaces and
during food processing.
A. Salmonella and E. coli
D. Studying and synthesizing organic compounds
B. Chlorine disinfection
E. Animals
C. Chemical bridges
F. None of the Above
120. Chlorine is so important in poultry processing that the US Department of Agriculture requires an
almost constant chlorine rinse for much of the cutting equipment. In fact, no proven economical
alternative to chlorine disinfection exists for use in____________________.
A. Salmonella and E. coli
D. Harnessed innovatively for good use
B. Chlorine disinfection
E. Meat and poultry processing facilities
C. Chemical bridging
F. None of the Above
Properties
121. Because it is highly reactive, chlorine is usually found in nature bound with other elements like
sodium, potassium, and magnesium. When chlorine is isolated as___________, chlorine is a greenish
yellow gas, which is 2.5 times heavier than air. It turns to a liquid state at -34°C (-29°F), and it becomes a
yellowish crystalline solid at -103°C (-153°F).
A. A free oxygen radicals
D. A free element
B. A gas
E. Hypochlorous acid and hydrochloric acid
C. An acid
F. None of the Above
122. Chemists began experimenting with chlorine and _______________in the 18th century. They
learned that chlorine has an extraordinary ability to extend a chemical bridge between various elements
and compounds that would not otherwise react with each other.
A. Salmonella and E. coli
D. Organic compounds
B. Chlorine disinfection
E. Animals
C. Chlorine compounds
F. None of the Above
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123. Chlorine has been especially useful in studying and ____________ -- compounds that have at least
one atom of the element carbon in their molecular structure. All living organisms, including humans, are
composed of organic compounds.
A. Synthesizing organic compounds
D. Organic compounds
B. Chlorine disinfection
E. Most abundant chemical elements
C. Chlorine compounds
F. None of the Above
124. Chlorine is one of the _______________ on Earth. It is ubiquitous in soils, minerals, plants and
animals.
A. Synthesizing organic compounds
D. Organic compounds
B. Chlorine disinfection
E. Most abundant chemical elements
C. Chlorine compounds
F. None of the Above
125. Seawater is a huge reservoir of ___________________from the continents and transported to the
oceans by Earth's rivers.
A. Workhorse chemical
D. Useful chemical elements
B. Chlorine-based disinfectants
E. Dissolved chlorine weathered
C. Ancient seawater
F. None of the Above
126. Chlorine is also one of the most useful chemical elements. Each chemical element has its own set
of unique properties and chlorine is known as _____________--so reactive, in fact, that it is usually found
combined with other elements in the form of compounds. More than 3,500 naturally occurring chlorinated
organic (associated with living organisms) compounds alone have been identified.
A. Synthesizing organic compounds
D. Organic compounds
B. A very reactive element
E. Most abundant chemical elements
C. Chlorine compounds
F. None of the Above
127. Chlorine's ________________have been harnessed innovatively for good use. For example, this
element plays a huge role in public health.
A. Synthesizing organic compounds
D. Organic compounds
B. A very reactive element
E. Chemical properties
C. Chlorine compounds
F. None of the Above
128. _______________ are capable of removing a wide variety of disease-causing germs from drinking
water and wastewater as well as from hospital and food production surfaces.
A. Workhorse chemical
D. Useful chemical elements
B. Chlorine-based disinfectants
E. Organic compounds
C. Ancient seawater
F. None of the Above
129. Additionally, chlorine plays an important role in the manufacture of thousands of products we
depend upon every day, including such diverse items as cars, computers, pharmaceuticals and military
flak jackets. As the ninth largest chemical produced in the U.S. by volume, chlorine is truly a "________ ."
A. Workhorse chemical
D. Useful chemical elements
B. Chlorine-based disinfectants
E. Organic compounds
C. Ancient seawater
F. None of the Above
Released From the Salt of the Earth
130. Chlorine is produced industrially from the compound sodium chloride, one of the many salts found in
geologic deposits formed from the slow evaporation of ______________.
A. Workhorse chemical
D. Useful chemical elements
B. Chlorine-based disinfectants
E. Organic compounds
C. Ancient seawater
F. None of the Above
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hlorine’s Effectiveness
131. The effectiveness of ___________ depends on the chlorine demand of the water, the concentration
of the chlorine solution added, the time that chlorine is in contact with the organism, and water quality.
A. Chlorine residual
D. Chlorination
B. Color change
E. Required contact time
C. Chlorine demand
F. None of the Above
132. As the concentration of the chlorine increases, the ________________ to disinfect decreases.
A. pH increases
D. Required contact time
B. Chlorine level and water quality
E. Not available for disinfection
C. Free chlorine residual
F. None of the Above
133. Chlorination is more effective as______________.
A. Chlorine residual
D. Chlorination
B. Color change
E. Water temperature increases
C. Chlorine demand
F. None of the Above
134. Chlorination is less effective as the _____________(becomes more alkaline).
A. Water's pH increases
D. Required contact time
B. Chlorine level and water quality
E. Is not available for disinfection
C. Free chlorine residual
F. None of the Above
135. Chlorination is less effective in___________.
A. Chlorine residual
D. Chlorination
B. Color change
E. Cloudy (turbid) water
C. Chlorine demand
F. None of the Above
136. When chlorine is added to the water supply, _____________in water (like iron, manganese,
hydrogen sulfide, and ammonia) and is not available for disinfection.
A. pH increases
D. Required contact time
B. Chlorine level and water quality
E. Part of it combines with other chemicals
C. Free chlorine residual
F. None of the Above
137. The amount of chlorine that reacts with the other chemicals plus the amount required to achieve
disinfection is the _____________ of the water.
A. Chlorine residual
D. Chlorination
B. Color change
E. Free chlorine residual
C. Chlorine demand
F. None of the Above
138. The safest way to be sure that the amount of chlorine added is sufficient is to add a little more than
is required. This will result in ____________that can be measured easily. This chlorine residual must be
maintained for several minutes depending on chlorine level and water quality.
A. pH increases
D. Required contact time
B. Chlorine level and water quality
E. A free chlorine residual
C. Chlorine demand
F. None of the Above
139. Kits are available for measuring the _________ by looking for a color change after the test chemical
is added. The test is simple and easy for a homeowner to perform.
A. Chlorine residual
D. Free chlorine residual
B. Color change
E. Required contact time
C. Chlorine demand
F. None of the Above
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140. If chlorination is required for the water supply, the chlorine residual should be tested regularly to
make sure the system is working properly. The kit should specify that it measures the free chlorine
residual and not the______________.
A. pH increases
D. Required contact time
B. Chlorine level and water quality
E. Total chlorine
C. Free chlorine residual
F. None of the Above
141. Once chlorine has combined with other chemicals it is not effective as a disinfectant. If a test kit
does not distinguish between free chlorine and __________with other chemicals, the test may result in an
overestimation of the chlorine residual.
A. Chlorine residual
D. Chlorination
B. Color change
E. Chlorine combined
C. Chlorine demand
F. None of the Above
142. Chlorine will kill bacteria in water, but it takes some time. The time needed depends on the
concentration of chlorine.__________: simple chlorination and superchlorination.
A. pH increases
D. Required contact time
B. Chlorine level and water quality
E. Two methods of chlorination are used to disinfect water
C. Free chlorine residual
F. None of the Above
Oxidation Chemistry
143. Oxidation chemistry has long been an accepted and effective part of many water treatment
programs. Oxidizing chemicals used in today's water treatment programs include: chlorine, chlorine
dioxide, bromine, bromine/chlorine releasing compounds, ozone and_____________.
A. Limit the effects of organic material
D. An additional killing mechanism
B. Hydrogen peroxide
E. Limit the travel of pathogens
C. Residual level of disinfection
F. None of the Above
144. _____________are often found at the forefront of many cooling water treatment programs. In large
volume or once-through cooling systems they are usually the primary biocide and often are the most costeffective programs available to a plant.
A. Oxidizing microbiocides
D. The primary methods used for the disinfection
B. Disinfection process
E. Economical and versatile chemicals
C. Environmental and regulatory impact
F. None of the Above
145. When selecting these _______________,
sound program is implemented.
A. As necessary
B. Disinfection process
C. Environmental and regulatory impact
several factors should be considered before a technically
D. The primary methods used for the disinfection
E. Economical and versatile chemicals
F. None of the Above
146. Environmental and regulatory impact, ________, process contamination, and equipment capital and
maintenance expense all play a role in the decision-making process.
A. As necessary
D. The primary methods used for the disinfection
B. Disinfection process
E. Economical and versatile chemicals
C. System pH
F. None of the Above
147. The primary killing mechanism these types of microbiocides use is oxidizing protein groups within a
microorganism. Proteins are the basic components of ________that are necessary for life-sustaining
cellular processes such as respiration.
A. Total Coliform (TC)
D. Cryptosporidium
B. Indicator organisms
E. Essential cellular enzymes
C. Cholera, polio, typhoid, hepatitis
F. None of the Above
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148. The destruction of these proteins deprives the cell of its ability to carry out ______________and
quickly kills it. One oxidant is chlorine dioxide, which appears to provide an additional killing mechanism.
A. Limit the effects of organic material
D. An additional killing mechanism
B. Numerous alternative disinfection processes
E. Fundamental life functions
C. Residual level of disinfection
F. None of the Above
149. Chlorine dioxide is able to diffuse readily through hydrophobic lipid layers of an organism, allowing it
to react with__________, which directly inhibits protein synthesis. Since amino acids are the basic
building blocks of all cellular proteins, destruction of these molecules has a devastating effect on the
microorganism.
A. Cellular amino acids
D. The primary methods used for the disinfection
B. Disinfection process
E. Economical and versatile chemicals
C. Environmental and regulatory impact
F. None of the Above
Understanding Disinfection
Wastewater Disinfection
150. There are a number of chemicals and processes that will____________, but none are universally
applicable. Most septic tanks discharge into various types of subsurface wastewater infiltration systems
(SWIS), such as tile fields or leach fields. These applications rely on the formation of a biomat at the
gravel-soil interface where "biodegradation and filtration combine to limit the travel of pathogens.
A. Limit the effects of organic material
D. Disinfect wastewater
B. Numerous alternative disinfection processes
E. Limit the travel of pathogens
C. Residual level of disinfection
F. None of the Above
151. Aerobic treatment processes reduce pathogens, but not enough to qualify as a _______.
A. As necessary
D. Primary methods used for the disinfection
B. Disinfection process
E. Economical and versatile chemicals
C. Environmental and regulatory impact
F. None of the Above
Water Disinfection
152. Disinfection is usually the final stage in the __________in order to limit the effects of organic
material, suspended solids and other contaminants.
A. Limit the effects of organic material
D. Water treatment process
B. Numerous alternative disinfection processes
E. Limit the travel of pathogens
C. Residual level of disinfection
F. None of the Above
153. Like the disinfection of wastewater, the primary methods used for the ________in very small (25500 people) and small (501-3,300 people) treatment systems are ozone, ultraviolet irradiation (UV) and
chlorine.
A. Chlorates are powerful oxidizers
D. Microbiological contamination
B. Adverse health effects
E. Sodium chloride
C. Disinfection of water
F. None of the Above
154. There are ____________ that have been less widely used in small and very small water treatment
systems, including chlorine dioxide, potassium permanganate, chloramines and peroxone
(ozone/hydrogen peroxide).
A. Limit the effects of organic material
D. Additional killing mechanism
B. Numerous alternative disinfection processes
E. Pathogens
C. Residual level of disinfection
F. None of the Above
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Residual Disinfection
155. The EPA requires a residual level of disinfection of water in pipelines to prevent microbial re-growth
and help protect treated water throughout the distribution system. ________are 4 mg/l for chlorine, 4 mg/l
for chloramines and 0.8 mg/l for chlorine dioxide.
A. Acid/base balance
D. EPA”s maximum residual disinfection levels (MRDLs)
B. Stable perchlorates
E. Chemical formula CaCl2
C. Formula ClO-3
F. None of the Above
156. Although chlorine levels are usually significantly lower in tap water, EPA believes that levels as high
as the ________________pose no risk of adverse health effects, allowing for an adequate margin of
safety (U.S. EPA, 1998a).
A. MRDLs
D. Microbiological contamination
B. Adverse health effects
E. Sodium chloride
C. The chloride ion
F. None of the Above
Chlorate Ion
157. The chlorate anion has the formula ClO-3. In this case, the chlorine atom is in the +5 oxidation
state. "Chlorate" can also refer to chemical compounds containing this anion; chlorates are the salts of
chloric acid. "Chlorate", when followed by a roman numeral in parentheses, e.g. chlorate (VII), refers to a
particular oxyanion of chlorine. As predicted by VSEPR, chlorate anions have___________.
A. Acid/base balance
D. Trigonal pyramidal structures
B. Stable perchlorates
E. Chemical formula CaCl2
C. Formula ClO-3
F. None of the Above
158. ____________ and should be kept away from organics or easily oxidized materials. Mixtures of
chlorate salts with virtually any combustible material (sugar, sawdust, charcoal, organic solvents, metals,
etc.) will readily deflagrate.
A. Chlorates are powerful oxidizers
D. Microbiological contamination
B. Adverse health effects
E. Sodium chloride
C. Formula ClO-3
F. None of the Above
159. Chlorates were once widely used in _________for this reason, though their use has fallen due to
their instability. Most pyrotechnic applications which formerly used chlorates in the past now use the more
stable perchlorates instead.
A. Acid/base balance
D. Pyrotechnics
B. Stable perchlorates
E. Chemical formula CaCl2
C. Formula ClO-3
F. None of the Above
Chloride Ion
160. The chloride ion is formed when the_________, a halogen, gains an electron to form an anion
(negatively-charged ion) Cl-.
A. Chlorates are powerful oxidizers
D. Microbiological contamination
B. Adverse health effects
E. Sodium chloride
C. Element chlorine
F. None of the Above
161. The salts of hydrochloric acid contain chloride ions and can also be called chlorides. The chloride
ion, and its salts such as sodium chloride,_______________. It is an essential electrolyte located in all
body fluids responsible for maintaining acid/base balance, transmitting nerve impulses and regulating
fluid in and out of cells.
A. Acid/base balance
D. Are very soluble in water
B. The stable perchlorates
E. The chemical formula CaCl2
C. The formula ClO-3
F. None of the Above
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162. The word chloride can also form part of the name of chemical compounds in which one or more
chlorine atoms are covalently bonded. For example, methyl chloride, more commonly called
chloromethane, (CH3Cl) is___________, which does not contain a chloride ion.
A. Chlorates are powerful oxidizers
D. An organic covalently bonded compound
B. Adverse health effects
E. Sodium chloride
C. The chloride ion
F. None of the Above
Chlorite Ion
163. The chlorite ion is__________. A chlorite (compound) is a compound that contains this group, with
chlorine in oxidation state +3. Chlorites are also known as salts of chlorous acid.
A. Chemical formula CaCl2
D. Corresponding anions Cl-, ClO-, ClO2-, ClO3-, or ClO4
B. Chloride
E. Chlorine dioxide
C. ClO2F. None of the Above
164. Chlorine can assume oxidation states of -1, +1, +3, +5, or +7 within the corresponding anions Cl-,
ClO-, ClO2-, ClO3-, or ClO4-, known commonly and respectively as__________ .
A. Chemical formula CaCl2
D. Chloride, hypochlorite, chlorite, chlorate, and perchlorate
B. Chloride
E. Chlorine dioxide
C. Chlorite ion is ClO2-.
F. None of the Above
165. An additional oxidation state of +4 is seen in the neutral compound_________, which has a similar
structure to chlorite ClO2- (oxidation state +3) and the cation chloryl (ClO 2+) (oxidation state +5).
A. Chemical formula CaCl2
D. Corresponding anions Cl-, ClO-, ClO2-, ClO3-, or ClO4
B. Chloride
E. Chlorine dioxide ClO2
C. Chlorite ion is ClO2-.
F. None of the Above
Chlorine Dioxide
166. Chlorine dioxide is a chemical compound with the formula _________. This yellowish-green gas
crystallizes as bright orange crystals at -59 °C. As one of several oxides of chlorine, it is a potent and
useful oxidizing agent used in water treatment and in bleaching.
A. Chemical formula CaCl2
D. Corresponding anions Cl-, ClO-, ClO2-, ClO3-, or ClO4
B. Chloride
E. ClO2
C. Chlorite ion is ClO2-.
F. None of the Above
167. The molecule _________ has an odd number of valence electrons and it is therefore a
paramagnetic radical. Its electronic structure has long baffled chemists because none of the possible
Lewis structures are very satisfactory. In 1933 L.O. Brockway proposed a structure that involved a threeelectron bond.
A. Chemical formula CaCl2
D. Corresponding anions Cl-, ClO-, ClO2-, ClO3-, or ClO4
B. Chloride
E. ClO2
C. Chlorite ion is ClO2-.
F. None of the Above
168. Chemist Linus Pauling further developed this idea and arrived at two resonance structures involving
a double bond on one side and a single bond plus three-electron bond on the other. In Pauling's view the
latter combination should represent a bond that is slightly weaker than the double bond. In molecular
orbital theory this idea is commonplace if the third electron is placed in an anti-bonding orbital. Later work
has confirmed that the HOMO is_____________________.
A. An anti-bonding orbital
D. A common undesirable by-product of drinking water chlorination
B. A single halogen
E. Indeed an incompletely-filled orbital
C. Hypochlorite compounds
F. None of the Above
(S) Means the answer can be plural or singular
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169. ______________ is a highly endothermic compound that can decompose extremely violently when
separated from diluting substances. As a result, preparation methods that involve producing solutions of it
without going through a gas phase stage are often preferred. Arranging handling in a safe manner is
essential.
A. High-test calcium hypochlorite(s)
D. Negative charge of the conjugate base
B. Calcium hypochlorite tablets
E. Chlorine dioxide
C. Hypochlorous acid
F. None of the Above
Haloacetic Acids
170. Haloacetic acids are ____________________in which a halogen atom takes the place of a
hydrogen atom in acetic acid. Thus, in a monohaloacetic acid, a single halogen would replace a hydrogen
atom. For example, chloroacetic acid would have the structural formula CH2ClCO2H.
A. An anti-bonding orbital
D. Carboxylic acids
B. A single halogen
E. Calcium hypochlorite
C. Hypochlorite compounds
F. None of the Above
171. In the same manner, in dichloroacetic acid two chlorine atoms would take the place of two hydrogen
atoms (CHCl2CO2H). The inductive effect caused by the _____________often result in the higher acidity
of these compounds by stabilizing the negative charge of the conjugate base.
A. High-test calcium hypochlorite(s)
D. Electronegative halogens
B. Calcium hypochlorite tablets
E. Chlorine dioxide
C. Hypochlorous acid
F. None of the Above
Contaminants in Drinking Water
172. Haloacetic acids (HAAs) are a common undesirable by-product of drinking water chlorination.
Exposure to such ________________in drinking water has been associated with a number of health
outcomes by epidemiological studies, although the putative agent in such studies has not been identified.
A. An anti-bonding orbital
D. Disinfection by-products
B. A single halogen
E. Calcium hypochlorite
C. Hypochlorite compounds
F. None of the Above
Hypochlorites
173. Hypochlorites are calcium or sodium salts of hypochlorous acid and are supplied either dry or in
liquid form (as, for instance, in commercial bleach). The same residuals are obtained as with gas chlorine,
but the effect on the ____________of the treated water is different.
A. High-test calcium hypochlorite(s)
D. Negative charge
B. Calcium hypochlorite tablets
E. pH
C. Hypochlorous acid
F. None of the Above
174. Hypochlorite compounds contain an excess of ________and tend to raise the pH of the water.
A. An anti-bonding orbital
D. A common undesirable by-product of drinking water chlorination
B. Alkali
E. Calcium hypochlorite
C. Hypochlorite compounds
F. None of the Above
175. Calcium hypochlorite tablets are the predominant form in use in the United States for swimming
pools. _______________is the only liquid hypochlorite disinfectant in current use. There are several
grades and proprietary forms available.
A. High-test calcium hypochlorite(s)
D. Sodium hypochlorite
B. Calcium hypochlorite tablets
E. Chlorine dioxide
C. Hypochlorous acid
F. None of the Above
176. Pound-for-pound of available chlorine, ______________have oxidizing powers equal to gas
chlorine and can be employed for the same purposes in water treatment.
A. Hypochlorite compounds
D. And some undesirable by-product of drinking water chlorination
B. And some acids
E. With calcium hypochlorite
C. Hypochlorous compounds F. None of the Above
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177. Gas chlorination requires a larger initial investment for feed equipment than what is needed for
____________.
A. High-test calcium hypochlorite(s)
D. Negative charge of the conjugate base
B. Calcium hypochlorite tablets
E. Hypochlorite compounds
C. Hypochlorous acid
F. None of the Above
178. Calcium hypochlorite materials used in the water industry are chemically different from those
materials variously marketed for many years as bleaching powder, chloride of lime, or chlorinated lime.
Materials now in common use are ________containing about 70 percent available chlorine and marketed
under several trade names.
A. An anti-bonding orbital
D. High-test calcium hypochlorites
B. A single halogen
E. Calcium hypochlorite
C. Hypochlorite compounds
F. None of the Above
Disinfection Byproducts
179. ________________ are formed when disinfectants used in water treatment plants react with
bromide and/or natural organic matter (i.e., decaying vegetation) present in the source water. Different
disinfectants produce different types or amounts of disinfection byproducts.
A. Disinfection byproducts
D. Occurring organic and inorganic matter in water
B. Other disinfectants
E. Most prevalent THM
C. Naturally occurring bromide F. None of the Above
180. _________________for which regulations have been established have been identified in drinking
water, including trihalomethanes, haloacetic acids, bromate, and chlorite.
A. Chlorine dioxide
D. Trihalomethanes, haloacetic acids, bromate, and chlorite
B. HAA5
E. Disinfection byproducts
C. Trihalomethanes
F. None of the Above
Trihalomethanes (THM)
181. _______________are a group of four chemicals that are formed along with other disinfection
byproducts when chlorine or other disinfectants used to control microbial contaminants in drinking water
react with naturally occurring organic and inorganic matter in water.
A. Disinfection byproducts
D. Occurring organic and inorganic matter in water
B. Other disinfectants
E. Trihalomethanes (THM)
C. Naturally occurring bromide F. None of the Above
182.
The _____________ are chloroform, bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane, and
bromoform. EPA has published the Stage 1 Disinfectants/Disinfection Byproducts Rule to regulate total
trihalomethanes (TTHM) at a maximum allowable annual average level of 80 parts per billion.
A. Chlorine dioxide
D. Trihalomethanes, haloacetic acids, bromate, and chlorite
B. HAA5
E. Chloroform
C. Trihalomethanes
F. None of the Above
Haloacetic Acids (HAA5)
183. Haloacetic Acids (HAA5) are a group of chemicals that are formed along with other disinfection
byproducts when chlorine or other disinfectants used to control _________in drinking water react with
naturally occurring organic and inorganic matter in water.
A. Disinfection byproducts
D. Occurring organic and inorganic matter in water
B. Other disinfectants
E. Microbial contaminants
C. Naturally occurring bromide F. None of the Above
(S) Means the answer can be plural or singular
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184. The regulated haloacetic acids, known as _______________, are: monochloroacetic acid,
dichloroacetic acid, trichloroacetic acid, monobromoacetic acid, and dibromoacetic acid. EPA has
published the Stage 1 Disinfectants/Disinfection Byproducts Rule to regulate HAA5 at 60 parts per billion
annual average.
A. Chlorine dioxide
D. Trihalomethanes, haloacetic acids, bromate, and chlorite
B. HAA5
E. Chloroform
C. Trihalomethanes
F. None of the Above
185. Bromate is a chemical that is formed when ___________used to disinfect drinking water reacts with
naturally occurring bromide found in source water. EPA has established the Stage 1
Disinfectants/Disinfection Byproducts Rule to regulate bromate at annual average of 10 parts per billion in
drinking water. This standard will become effective for large public water systems by December 2001 and
for small surface water and all ground public water systems in December 2003.
A. Disinfection byproducts
D. Occurring organic and inorganic matter in water
B. Other disinfectants
E. Ozone
C. Naturally occurring bromide F. None of the Above
Chlorite
186. _______________is a byproduct formed when chlorine dioxide is used to disinfect water. EPA has
published the Stage 1 Disinfectants/Disinfection Byproducts Rule to regulate chlorite at a monthly
average level of 1 part per million in drinking water.
A. Chlorite
D. Trihalomethanes, haloacetic acids, bromate, and chlorite
B. HAA5
E. Chloroform
C. Trihalomethanes
F. None of the Above
Chloroform
187. Chloroform, typically the most prevalent ________ measured in chlorinated water, is probably the
most thoroughly studied disinfection byproduct. Toxicological studies have shown that high levels of
chloroform can cause cancer in laboratory animals.
A. Disinfection byproducts
D. Occurring organic and inorganic matter in water
B. Other disinfectants
E. THM
C. Naturally occurring bromide F. None of the Above
Sodium Chlorate
188. Sodium chlorate is a chemical compound with the chemical formula (NaClO 3). When pure, it is a
white crystalline powder that is readily soluble in water. It is hygroscopic. It decomposes above 250 °C to
release oxygen and leave______________. Industrially, sodium chlorate is synthesized from the
electrolysis of a hot sodium chloride solution in a mixed electrode tank.
A. Sodium chlorate
D. Electrolysis of a hot sodium chloride solution
B. Ascorbic acid
E. Sodium chloride
C. Phosphorus
F. None of the Above
Chemical Oxygen Generation
189. Chemical oxygen generators, such as those in commercial aircraft, provide emergency oxygen to
passengers to protect them from drops in cabin pressure by catalytic decomposition of ___________.
The catalyst is normally iron powder.
A. Sodium chlorite
D. Electrolysis of a hot sodium chloride solution
B. Ascorbic acid
E. Sodium chlorate
C. Phosphorus
F. None of the Above
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Toxicity in Humans
190. Due to its oxidative nature, sodium chlorate can be very toxic if ingested. The oxidative effect on
hemoglobin leads to methaemoglobin formation, which is followed by denaturation of the globin protein
and a cross-linking of ___________with resultant damage to the membrane enzymes.
A. Sodium chlorate
D. Electrolysis of a hot sodium chloride solution
B. Ascorbic acid
E. Erythrocyte membrane proteins
C. Phosphorus
F. None of the Above
Formulations
191. Sodium chlorate comes in dust, spray and granule formulations. There is a risk of fire and explosion
in dry mixtures with other substances, especially organic materials, and__________, sulfur, phosphorus,
powdered metals, strong acids. In particular, when mixed with sugar, it has explosive properties.
A. Sodium chlorate
D. Electrolysis of a hot sodium chloride solution
B. Ascorbic acid
E. Other herbicides
C. Phosphorus
F. None of the Above
Sodium Chlorite
192. Sodium chlorite, like many oxidizing agents, should be protected from inadvertent contamination by
organic materials to avoid the formation of________. The chemical explodes on percussive impact, and
will ignite if combined with a strong reducing agent.
A. Sodium chlorate
D. An explosive mixture
B. Ascorbic acid
E. Catalytic decomposition of sodium chlorate
C. Phosphorus
F. None of the Above
Toxicity
193. _____________is a strong oxidant and can therefore be expected to cause clinical symptoms
similar to the well-known sodium chlorate: methemoglobinemia, hemolysis, renal failure.
A. Sodium chlorate
D. Electrolysis of a hot sodium chloride solution
B. Ascorbic acid
E. Sodium chlorite
C. Phosphorus
F. None of the Above
Understanding Commonly Used Water Disinfectants
194. Almost all U.S. systems that disinfect their water use some type of chlorine-based process, either
alone or in combination with _______________.
A. Other disinfectants
D. Disease-causing organisms
B. Residual disinfectant
E. Eliminates slime bacteria
C. Removes chemical compounds
F. None of the Above
195. In addition to controlling disease-causing organisms, chlorination offers a number of benefits
including:….
Reduces many_______________________;
A. Combination with other disinfectants D. Disease-causing organisms
B. Residual disinfectant
E. Disagreeable tastes and odors
C. Removes chemical compounds
F. None of the Above
The Risks of Waterborne Disease
196. Where adequate water treatment is not readily available, the impact on public health can be
devastating. Worldwide, about 1.2 billion people lack access to safe drinking water, and twice that many
lack adequate sanitation. As a result, the World Health Organization estimates that 3.4 million people,
mostly children, die every year from______________________.
A. Total Coliform (TC)
D. Cryptosporidium
B. Water-related diseases
E. Giardia
C. Cholera, polio, typhoid, hepatitis
F. None of the Above
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197. New regulations from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) will require water systems to
monitor __________ and adopt a range of treatment options based on source water Cryptosporidium
concentrations. Most water systems are expected to meet EPA requirements while continuing to use
chlorination.
A. Total Coliform (TC)
D. Cryptosporidium
B. Indicator organisms
E. Giardia
C. Cholera, polio, typhoid, hepatitis
F. None of the Above
The Benefits of Chlorine
Potent Germicide
198. Chlorine disinfectants can reduce the level of ___________ in drinking water to almost
immeasurable levels.
A. Cryptosporidium parvum and Giardia lamblia
D. Sodium hypochlorite solution
B. Many disease-causing microorganisms
E. Chlorine disinfectants
C. Nitrogenous compounds
F. None of the Above
Taste and Odor Control
199. Chlorine disinfectants reduce many disagreeable tastes and odors. Chlorine oxidizes many naturally
occurring substances such as____________, sulfides and odors from decaying vegetation.
A. Cryptosporidium parvum and Giardia lamblia
D. Sodium hypochlorite solution
B. Many disease-causing microorganisms
E. Foul-smelling algae secretions
C. Nitrogenous compounds
F. None of the Above
Biological Growth Control
200. Chlorine disinfectants eliminate __________that commonly grow in water supply reservoirs, on the
walls of water mains and in storage tanks.
A. Cryptosporidium parvum and Giardia lamblia
D. Slime bacteria, molds and algae
B. Many disease-causing microorganisms
E. Chlorine disinfectants
C. Nitrogenous compounds
F. None of the Above
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