Expectancy Theory – (Victor Vroom: Work Motivations, 1964)1
Individuals choose the option with greatest motivation forces (MF).
The Expectancy Theory has a formula as follows:
Motivational Force (MF) = Expectancy X Instrumentality X Valence
Expectancy Theory is made up of three perceptions, if any one of their values is
zero, the entire equation becomes zero.
Expectancy probability: (effort/performance) – It is the expectancy that one’s
effort will lead to the desired performance and is based on past experiences, self
confidence, and the perceived difficulty of the performance goal. Example: If I
work harder than everyone else in the plant will I produce more?
Instrumentality probability: (performance/reward) – The instrumentality is the
belief that if one does meet performance expectations, he or she will receive a
greater reward. Example: If I produce more than anyone else in the plant, will I
get rewarded?
Valence: (needs/goals/values) – The value the individual personally places on
the rewards. Example: Is a raise or promotion worth the extra effort?
http://www.quickmba.com/mgmt/expectancy-theory
1
Vroom, V. (1964). QuickMBA.com, The Knowledge to Power Your Business.
Retrieved September 2nd, 2006, From http://www.quickmba.com/mgmt/expectancy-theory
1
ERG Theory – (Clayton Paul Alderfer: Needs & Motivations, 1982)2
Clayton Alderfer’s ERG theory improved upon and simplified the Maslow’s
Hierarchy theory. Alderfer reduced the number of levels to three.
ERG - Existence, Relatedness and Growth.
1. Existence: Physiological and safety needs
2. Relatedness: Social and external esteem needs
3. Growth: Self-actualization and internal esteem needs
The ERG Theory allows for different levels of needs to be pursued
simultaneously. The order of needs can be different for different people. And if
the higher level need is unfulfilled the person can regress to a lower level.
(Known as the frustration-regression principle) An individual could be at more
than one level simultaneously.
ERG accounts for a wider range of observed behaviors. Example: people who
place growth needs above existence.
http://www.netmba.com/mgmt/ob/motivation/erg
2
Alderfer, C. (1982). NetMBA.com.
Retrieved September 2nd, 2006, From http://www.netmba.com/mgmt/ob/motivation/erg
2
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs – (Abraham Maslow: Needs and Motivation,
1964)3
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs:
Self-Actualization – Reaching the pinnacle of ones full potential, however this
level is never fully satisfied. Very few people reach this level in life.
Esteem Needs – Internal or external needs which bring social status. (Self
Respect, Achievement, Attention, Recognition, and Reputation.
Social Needs – Related to interact with other people. (Friends, Fit in with the
group, Give and receive love, A sense of belonging)
Safety Needs – The need to be free of physical and emotional threats. (Living in
a safe area, Medical insurance, Job security, Financial reserves)
Physiological Needs – Required Sustaining Life. (Air, Water, Nourishment,
Sleep)
Even though the ERG Theory has improved upon Maslow’s theory, it is a very
famous theory and has sparked a lot thought. This theory is the foundation to
other improved theories. Ten years from now the ERG theory will most likely be
another stepping stone to other improved theories.
http://www.netmba.com/mgmt/ob/motivation/maslow
3
Maslow, A. (1964). NetMBA Business Knowledge Center. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.
Retrieved September 10th, 2006, From http://www.netmba.com/mgmt/ob/motivation/maslow
3
Equity Theory – (John Stacy Adams: Employee Motivations, 1963)4
Individuals are happiest when a relationship has an equal amount of give and
take.
Equity Theory calls for a fair balance to be struck between an employee’s inputs
(hard work, skill level, tolerance, enthusiasm, etc.) and an employee’s outputs
(salary, benefits, intangibles such as recognition, etc.).
Inputs typically include: Effort, Loyalty, Hard Work, Commitment, Skill, Ability,
Adaptability, Flexibility, Tolerance, Determination, Enthusiasm, Trust in superiors,
Support of colleagues, Personal sacrifice, etc.
Outputs typically include:
Financial rewards (salary, benefits, perks, etc.)
Intangibles that typically include: Recognition, Reputation, Responsibility, Sense
of Achievement, Praise, Stimulus, Sense of Advancement/Growth, Job Security
http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newLDR_96.htm
4
Adams, J. S. (1963). Mindtools.com.
Retrieved September 2nd, 2006, From http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newLDR_96.htm
4
Motivation Hygiene Theory – (Fredrick Herzberg: Motivations, 1959)5
The study tests the concept that people have two sets of needs:
1. Their needs as animals to avoid pain
2. Their needs as humans to grow psychologically
Five factors stood out as strong determiners of job satisfaction:
Achievement
Recognition
Work Itself
Responsibility
Advancement
Six factors stood out as strong determiners of job dissatisfaction:
Company Policy
Administrative Policies
Supervision
Salary
Interpersonal Relations
Working Conditions
At the psychological level, the two dimensions of job attitudes appeared to reflect
a two-dimensional need structure:
1. One need structure for the avoidance of unpleasantness, and
2. A parallel need system for personal growth
People find satisfaction in work that is interesting and challenging. A desire to
fulfill our potential drives us to seek growth and provides the incentive to achieve.
http://www.netmba.com/mgmt/ob/motivation/herzberg
5
Herzberg, F. (1959). NetMBA.com.
Retrieved September 2nd, 2006, From http://www.netmba.com/mgmt/ob/motivation/herzberg
5
Goal-setting Theory – (Edwin A. Locke: Motivations, 1990)6
In order to direct ourselves we set ourselves goals that are:
1. Clear and understandable, so we know what to do and what not to do.
2. Challenging, so we will be stimulated and not be bored.
3. Achievable, so we are unlikely to fail.
If other people set goals without the follower’s involvement, then followers are
much less likely to be motivated to work hard. When we are working in the
task, we need feedback so we can determine whether we are succeeding or
whether we need to change direction.
A directional goal is one where we are motivated to arrive at a particular
conclusion. (Selects beliefs, etc. that support the conclusion.)
An accuracy goal is one where we are motivated to arrive at the most accurate
possible conclusion. These occur when the cost of being inaccurate is high.
http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/goals.htm
6
Locke, E. A. (1990). Changingminds.org.
Retrieved September 2nd, 2006, From http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/goals.htm
6
Acquired-Need Theory – (David McClelland: Needs & Motivations, 1975)7
An individual’s needs are acquired over time and are shaped by life experiences.
Most of these needs can be classified as achievement, affiliation, or power.
High need achievement individuals prefer work that has a moderate probability of
success, ideally a 50% chance. Achievers need regular feedback in order to
monitor the progress of their achievements. They prefer to work alone or work
with other high achievers. High achievers should be given challenging projects
with reachable goals. They should be provided frequent feedback. While money
is not an important motivator, it is an effective form of feedback.
A High need for affiliation need harmonious relationships with other people and
need to feel accepted by others. They perform well in customer service and
client interaction situations. Employees with a high affiliation need perform best
in a cooperative environment.
A High need for power can be two types: Personal and Institutional
Personal – Those who need personal power want to direct others.
Institutional – Those who need institutional power want to organize the efforts of
others to further the goals of the organization.
Management should provide power seekers the opportunity to manage others.
http://www.netmba.com/mgmt/ob/motivation/mcclelland
7
McClelland, D. (1975). NetMBA.com.
Retrieved September 2nd, 2006, From http://www.netmba.com/mgmt/ob/motivation/mcclelland
7
Soft Costs of Empowerment – (Peter Grazier: Empowerment, 2006)8
To attach dollars to the "soft" benefits of empowerment, evaluate the following:
1. Absenteeism - It typically goes down when empowerment takes hold. HR
departments can give you some figures on what absenteeism costs
organizations.
2. Turnover - Turnover is expensive, HR can also give you figures on what it
costs to search for, relocate, and train new employees.
3. Safety - These can be significant dollars, especially in accident- prone jobs.
4. Feeling Better - Feeling better equates to better performance.
5. Attorneys' Fees - Company suits may have dropped noticeably after
empowerment.
Whatever you do, keep at it. The "hidden" costs of restricting human potential in
the workplace are staggering!
http://www.teambuildinginc.com/article_softcosts.htm
8
Grazier, P. (2006). TeamBuildingInc.com, Quantifying the "Soft" Costs of Empowering Employees
Retrieved September 2nd, 2006, From http://www.teambuildinginc.com/article_softcosts.htm
8
What Followers Want From Their Leader – (Dave Kraft: Expectations,
2002)9
A. Followers want to see CHARACTER in their leader - More than anything else,
followers want leaders they can trust and emulate; leaders who are ethical and
honest. They are getting harder and harder to find. This quality in a leader is
increasingly being found at the top of the list of things that followers want most.
B. Followers want to see COMPETENCE in their leader - executives in
responding to what they thought the most important skill to get to the top was,
ranked competence over ambition, intelligence, and personality. Competence
has to do with the ability to see what others don't see, and before others see
coupled with being able and willing to do something about it.
C. Followers want to be CHALLENGED by their leader - Leaders who challenge
and bring out the best in followers are the key. I believe that people are looking
for something bigger than life to give themselves to.
http://navigators.gospelcom.net/cdm/ld/k8-02.htm
9
Kraft, D (2002). Leadership Development for the New Millennium, What Followers Want From Their
Leaders. Retrieved September 10th, 2006, From
http://navigators.gospelcom.net/cdm/ld/k8-02.htm
9
What Followers Want From Their Leader – (Jim Collins: Top Leadership,
2001)10
Level 5 managers rise to the top during a time of transition within a company or
industry.
A. Level 5 Executive - Builds enduring greatness through a paradoxical
blend of personal humility and professional will.
B. Level 4 Effective Leader – Catalyzes commitment to & vigorous pursuit of
a clear & compelling vision, stimulating higher performance standards.
C. Level 3 Competent Manager – Organizes people & resources toward the
effective and efficient pursuit of predetermined objectives.
D. Level 2 Contributing Team Member – Contributes individual capabilities
to the achievement of group objectives and works effectively with others in
a group setting.
E. Level 1 Highly Capable Individual – Makes productive contributions
through talent, knowledge, skill and good work habits.
http://www.ald-inc.com/leadership.asp
10
Collins, J. (2001). ALD, Inc. What Is Leadership?
Retrieved September 10th, 2006, From http://www.ald-inc.com/leadership.asp
10
Effective Listening Equals Effective Leadership – (Wendy Maynard:
Listening Leadership, 2005)11
No matter what role you play in your company, becoming a more effective
listener will help you get ahead in your position. It means fewer errors, improved
accuracy, and enhanced working relationships.
1. Don’t talk. Just listen. 2. Listen Fully. Your body language speaks volumes.
Maintain eye contact, sit still, lean slightly toward the speaker, and nod your
head. 3. Ask Clarifying Questions. 4. Provide Feedback. “I see...” or “Really?” or
“I know!” 5. Keep Your Mind Open. Be willing to gain new insights and learn
about someone else’s ideas. 6. Be on the Same Level. Have comfortable chairs
available so that a desk is not a barrier between you. 7. Respect Your Speaker.
If the conversation involves criticism from either party or contains personal
information, go to a private room for the discussion. 8. Pay Attention to Cues.
What isn't being said is often as important as what is being said. Body language
speaks volumes. Watch the speaker's facial expressions, posture, eyes,
gestures, and other nonverbal cues. 9. Avoid Invalidating Language. As an
active and effective listener, your role is to allow the person the time and space
to fully express his or her feelings. 10. Express Appreciation. Thank the listener
for sharing his or her thoughts and feelings. It takes courage to speak up. True
sharing builds trust and encourages further dialogue.
http://www.art-ofleadership.com/Effective%20Listening%20Equals%20Effective%20Leadership%
20Wendy%20Maynard.htm
11
Maynard, W. (2005). Kinesis, Inc. Effective Listening Equals Effective Leadership.
Retrieved September 10th, 2006, From http://www.art-ofleadership.com/Effective%20Listening%20Equals%20Effective%20Leadership%20Wend
y%20Maynard.htm
11
Motivation Theory Y – (Douglas McGregor: Listening Leadership, 1960)12
Motivation Theory Y
Theory Y manager makes the following general assumptions:
A. Work can be as natural as play if the conditions are favorable.
B. People will be self-directed and creative to meet their work and
organizational objectives if they are committed to them.
C. People will be committed to their quality and productivity objectives if
rewards are in place that addresses higher needs such as self-fulfillment.
D. The capacity for creativity spreads throughout organizations.
E. Most people can handle responsibility because creativity and ingenuity are
common in the population.
F. Under these conditions, people will seek responsibility.
Under these assumptions, there is an opportunity to align personal goals with
organizational goals by using the employee's own need for fulfillment as the
motivator. McGregor stressed that Theory Y management does not imply a soft
approach.
McGregor recognized that some people may not have reached the level of
maturity assumed by Theory Y and therefore may need tighter controls that can
be relaxed as the employee develops.
http://www.envisionsoftware.com/articles/TheoryX.html
12
McGregor, D. (1960). Envision Software, Inc. Motivational Theory Y.
Retrieved September 10th, 2006, From
http://www.envisionsoftware.com/articles/TheoryX.html
12
Thornton’s 3-C Leadership Model – (Paul B. Thornton: Trust, 2002)13
The model is based on the premise that leaders exist because individuals need
guidance, without which they do not always know what they can accomplish,
what they should accomplish, or how to accomplish it. Leaders can provide
challenge, confidence, and coaching.
1. Presenting a Challenge
 Help the follower inspire
to higher goal.
 Ask challenging
questions.
 Compare the practices of
others to challenge.
 Develop employees in all
aspects of the
organization.
2. Building Confidence
 Recognize and reward the positive accomplishments.
 Provide the training and development to build confidence through
competence.
 Empower employees through authority and responsibility.
 Verbally express confidence in the employees.
 Remind them of past successes to help in the new challenges.
3. Providing Coaching
 Providing feedback immediately after the employee performs an
important task.
 Show the employees good examples of past successes.
 Pose tough questions to help the employee better understand the
situation.
 Set the example of continually improving yourself.
Over coaching can cause an overly dependent employee, reduce initiative,
and make them feel micro-managed.
13
Thornton, P. B. (2002). QuickMBA.com, The Knowledge to Power Your Business.
Retrieved September 10th, 2006, From http://www.quickmba.com/mgmt/leadership/3c
13
The Trusted Leader Theory – (Robert Galford & Anne Seibold Drapeau:
Trust, 2003)14
Three main categories of trust.
1. Strategic Trust – Trust in the organizational strategy.
2. Organizational Trust – Trust in the fairness of the organizations policies.
3. Personal Trust – Trust in the organizations leaders.
The Trust Formula:
C+R+I
Trustworthiness = ----------------------S
C = Credibility – Earned Expertise and Honest
R = Reliability – Consistent and Dependable
I = Intimacy – Sensitive to Personal Needs
S = Self-Orientation – Individual Focus or Self Centered
The five stages of building PERSONAL trust:
1. Engaging – Relate to People
2. Listening – Shows You Care
3. Framing – Making Sure You Understand
4. Envisioning – Looking to the Future
5. Committing – Both Sides Commit to the Vision
The five variables of ORGANIZATIONAL trust.
1. Aspirations – The incentive for people in the organization to want to trust
each other.
2. Abilities – The capabilities required to fulfill the aspirations.
3. Actions – Staying focused and accomplishing the organizational goals.
4. Alignment – Equality and consistency between aspirations, abilities, and
actions.
5. Articulation – Communicate the aspirations, abilities, actions, and
alignment so every can articulate them as well.
6. Resistance – Expect skepticism, fear, frustration, and a “we-they” attitude.
http://www.quickmba.com/mgmt/leadership/trusted-leader
14
Galford, R. Drapeau, A. S. (2003). QuickMBA.com, The Knowledge to Power Your Business.
Retrieved September 10th, 2006, From http://www.quickmba.com/mgmt/leadership/trusted-leader
14
The Path-Goal Theory of Leadership – (House and Mitchell 1974)15
The Path Goal Theory helps clarify my expectations of the followers. It’s
important that leaders encourage and support their people, by setting attainable
goals to reach the overall vision.
It’s also important that leaders help eliminate all roadblocks, and bureaucracy
that might hinder them from attaining their goals.
Leaders should also reward the followers for meeting their goals and helping the
overall organization become successful.
It’s important to know your employees. If I knew one of my employees liked
football, I might reward him or her with tickets to a Michigan State football game.
I could also reward the entire department with lunch at a restaurant.
Each situation is different so every situation has many different variables. It’s
important to adapt as a leader.
Different kinds of leadership approaches to the Path-Goal Theory:
Supportive leadership
Supportive leadership considers the needs of the follower, showing concern for their welfare
and creating a friendly working environment. This includes increasing the follower's self-esteem
and making the job more interesting. This approach is best when the work is stressful, boring or
hazardous.
Directive leadership
Directive leadership tells followers what needs to be done and giving appropriate guidance
along the way. This includes giving them schedules of specific work to be done at specific
times. Rewards may also be increased as needed and uncertainty decreased by telling them
what they should be doing.
Participative leadership
Participative leaders consult with followers and take their ideas into account when making
decisions and taking particular actions. This approach is best when the followers are expert and
their advice is both needed and they expect to be able to give it.
Achievement-oriented leadership
Achievement-oriented leadership sets challenging goals, both in work and in self-improvement
(and often together). High standards are demonstrated and expected. The leader shows faith in
the capabilities of the follower to succeed. This approach is best when the task is complex.
http://changingminds.org/disciplines/leadership/styles/path_goal_leadership.htm
15
House, R. J., & Mitchell, R. R. (1974). Changingminds.org. The Path-Goal Theory of Leadership.
Retrieved September 22nd, 2006,
From http://changingminds.org/disciplines/leadership/styles/path_goal_leadership.htm
15
The Trait Theory – (Stogdill 1974)16

People are born with inherited traits.

Some traits are particularly suited to leadership.

People who make good leaders have the right (or sufficient)
combination of traits.
Early research on leadership was based on the psychological focus of the day,
which was of people having inherited characteristics or traits. Attention was thus
put on discovering these traits, often by studying successful leaders, but with the
underlying assumption that if other people could also be found with these traits,
then they, too, could also become great leaders.













Traits
Adaptable to situations
Alert to social
environment
Ambitious and
achievement-orientated
Assertive
Cooperative
Decisive
Dependable
Dominant (desire to
influence others)
Energetic (high activity
level)
Persistent
Self-confident
Tolerant of stress
Willing to assume
responsibility









Skills
Clever (intelligent)
Conceptually skilled
Creative
Diplomatic and tactful
Fluent in speaking
Knowledgeable about
group task
Organised (administrative
ability)
Persuasive
Socially skilled
McCall and Lombardo (1983) researched both success and failure identified four primary traits
by which leaders could succeed or 'derail':




Emotional stability and composure: Calm, confident and predictable, particularly when
under stress.
Admitting error: Owning up to mistakes, rather than putting energy into covering up.
Good interpersonal skills: Able to communicate and persuade others without resort to
negative or coercive tactics.
Intellectual breadth: Able to understand a wide range of areas, rather than having a
narrow (and narrow-minded) area of expertise.
http://changingminds.org/disciplines/leadership/theories/trait_theory.htm
16
Stogdill, R. (1974). Changingminds.org. The Trait Theory.
Retrieved September 22nd, 2006,
From http://changingminds.org/disciplines/leadership/theories/trait_theory.htm
16
Charismatic Leadership – (Sharon Drury, 2003)17
Charismatic leadership is a term that became known in the management field
initially with the work of Max Weber, published in 1924/1947. A German
sociologist, Weber described certain leaders as having exceptional qualities—a
charisma—that enabled them to motivate followers to achieve outstanding
performance. Charisma is a Greek word meaning “gift bestowed by the gods.”
As an adaptation of a theological concept, Weber’s model was an explanation for
what sometimes happens in complex organizations—especially in times of
crisis—when a leader was granted a special gift of extraordinariness by
colleagues and subordinates instead of paternal or divine authority that was
general expected in that era (Sashkin & Sashkin, 2003).
Robert House (1977) studied the psychological motives behind transformational
leadership, and observed that charisma is the central aspect of a transforming
leader, though he does not believe the terms are synonymous. House uses four
phrases to define charismatic leadership:
o Dominant
o Strong desire to influence others
o Self-confident
o Strong sense of one’s own moral values
Jay Conger (1989) proposed the following four-stage model of charismatic
leadership:
1. Continual assessment of the environment to formulate what
must be done; establishes goals
2. Communication of his or her vision; uses motivational and
persuasive arguments
3. Building trust and commitment; unexpected behavior, risktaking; technical proficiency
4. Role modeling, empowerment, and unconventional tactics
Charismatic leaders are generally spurred to action by ideology and vision, or by
crisis. They usually take on hero status with their followers, employees, and
sometimes nations. The dangers, however, with this style of leadership, have
been highlighted by Bass and the Sashkins, and may include extreme need for
control over others and dependent followers.
http://www.drurywriting.com/sharon/2.charismatic.leadership.htm
18
Drury, S. (2003). Leadership Theory Handbook. Organizational Leadership, Charismatic
Leadership. Retrieved September 22nd, 2006,
From http://www.drurywriting.com/sharon/2.charismatic.leadership.htm
17
Consistency Theory – (Leon Festinger 1957)18
When our inner systems (beliefs, attitudes, values, etc.) all support one another
and when these are also supported by external evidence, then we have a
comfortable state of affairs. The discomfort of cognitive dissonance occurs
when things fall out of alignment, which leads us to try to achieve a maximum
practical level of consistency in our world.
Almost everyone has beliefs, attitudes, and values. But when something
conflicts with your beliefs, attitudes and values, you tend to make excuses to
remain consistent. This theory shows why we need to understand ourselves
and why we need to be clear on our judgments as leaders.
Ways we achieve consistency between conflicting items include:






Denial or ignoring : 'I didn't see it happen.'
Rationalization and excuses : 'It was going to fall anyway.'
Separation of items :'I don't use my car enough to make a difference .'
Transcendence : 'Nobody is perfect.'
Changing item : 'I'll be more careful next time.'
Persuasion : 'I'm good, really, aren't I?'
If you find yourself uncomfortable within your belief system on a regular basis,
maybe you should reevaluate your entire belief system. Start asking tough
questions to your self. True leaders don’t make excuses. The true leaders
expose the problems and fix them. Great leaders are comfortable with them
selves because they have clarified their belief system, and have no problems
expressing them selves.
http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/consistency_theory.htm
18
Festinger, L. (1957). Changingminds.org. Consistency Theory.
Retrieved September 22nd , 2006,
From http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/consistency_theory.htm
18
Cognitive Dissonance – (L. Festinger, 1957)19
This is the feeling of uncomfortable tension which comes from holding two
conflicting thoughts in the mind at the same time.
Dissonance increases with:



The importance of the subject to us.
How strongly the dissonant thoughts conflict.
Our inability to rationalize and explain away the conflict.
Dissonance is often strong when we believe something about ourselves and
then do something against that belief. If I believe I am good but do something
bad, then the discomfort I feel as a result is cognitive dissonance.
Cognitive dissonance is a very powerful motivator which will often lead us to
change one or other of the conflicting belief or action. The discomfort often
feels like a tension between the two opposing thoughts. To release the tension
we can take one of three actions:



Change our behavior.
Justify our behavior by changing the conflicting cognition.
Justify our behavior by adding new cognitions.
Dissonance is most powerful when it is about our self-image. Feelings of
foolishness, immorality and so on (including internal projections during
decision-making) are dissonance in action.
If an action has been completed and cannot be undone, then the after-the-fact
dissonance compels us to change our beliefs. If beliefs are moved, then the
dissonance appears during decision-making, forcing us to take actions we
would not have taken before. Dissonance increases with the importance and
impact of the decision, along with the difficulty of reversing it.
Cognitive dissonance is a good reason why we need to understand ourselves as
leaders. If you can’t clarify your values to your self, then you’re going to have a
hard time clarifying your values to others.
http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/cognitive_dissonance.htm
19
Festinger, L. (1957). Changingminds.org, Cognitive Dissonance.
Retrieved September 17th, 2006,
From http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/cognitive_dissonance.htm
19
Communication Accommodation Theory – Giles and Wiemann (1987)20
When we talk with other people, we will tend to subconsciously change our style
of speech (accent, rate, types of words, etc.) towards the style used by the
listener. We also tend to match non-verbal behaviors.
This type of communication can help the listener understand you better.
However, it could make the listener feel uncomfortable or make them feel like
your mocking them.
Communication Accommodation Theory used to be called Speech
Accommodation Theory.
Howard Giles (1973) and his colleagues formed the accommodation theory in
the 1960’s and 1970’s. Although the accommodation theory is considered a
sociolinguistic theory by origin, researchers mentioned that this has been
employed in variety of settings “including speech, writing, songs, radio
broadcasting, courtroom proceedings, and human-computer interaction” (see
Giles, Coupland, and Coupland 1991 for a review and synthesis of the
literature).
Accommodating Communication can be in many forms. If you communicate to
others and try to see the situation through their eyes, it could be an effective
way to reach your followers. As long as the followers know you’re a sincere
leader, I think it could be a very effective way to bond with your followers. The
followers would know you’re making a conscience effort to communicate with
them specifically.
http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/communication_accomodation.htm
http://www.ciadvertising.org/sa/fall_05/adv392/ethnicidentification/website/THEORIES1.htm
20
Giles, H. & Wiemann, J. M. (1987). Changingminds.org. Communication Accommodation.
Retrieved September 17th, 2006,
From http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/communication_accomodation.htm
20
Leader-Member Exchange Theory – (Dasereau, Graen and Haga 1975)21
Leader-Member Exchange Theory, also called LMX or Vertical Dyad Linkage
Theory, describes how leaders in groups maintain their position through a series
of unspoken exchange agreements with their members.
In-group and out-group
In particular, leaders often have a special relationship with an inner circle of
trusted lieutenants, assistants and advisors, to whom they give high levels of
responsibility, decision influence, and access to resources. This in-group pays for
their position. They work harder, are more committed to task objectives, and
share more administrative duties. They are also expected to be fully committed
and loyal to their leader. The out-group, on the other hand, is given low levels of
choice or influence.
This also puts constraints upon the leader. They have to nurture the relationship
with their inner circle by giving out enough power and benefits.
The LMX process
This relationship starts very soon after a person joins the in-group. There are
three stages to follow:
1. Role taking
The member joins the team and the leader assesses their abilities and talents.
Based on this, the leader may offer them opportunities to demonstrate their
capabilities. Another key factor in this stage is the discovery by both parties of
how the other likes to be respected.
2. Role making
In the second phase, the leader and member take part in an unstructured and
informal negotiation whereby a role is created for the member and the often
unspoken promise of benefit and power in return for dedication and loyalty takes
place. Trust-building is very important in this stage, and any felt betrayal,
especially by the leader, can result in the member being relegated to the outgroup.
21
Dansereau, F. Jr, Graen, G. and Haga, W.J. (1975). Changingminds.com. Member-Leader
Exchange. Retrieved September 23rd, 2006,
From http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/leader_member_exchange.htm
21
This negotiation includes relationship factors as well as pure work-related ones,
and a member who is similar to the leader in various ways is more likely to
succeed. This perhaps explains why mixed gender relationships regularly are
less successful than same-gender ones (it also affects the seeking of respect in
the first stage). The same effect also applies to cultural and racial differences.
3. Routinization
In this phase, a pattern of ongoing social exchange between the leader and the
member becomes established.
Success factors:
Successful members are thus similar in many ways to the leader (which perhaps
explains why many senior teams are all white, male, middle-class and middleaged). They work hard at building and sustaining trust and respect.
To help this, they are empathetic, patient, reasonable, sensitive, and are good at
seeing the viewpoint of other people (especially the leader). Aggression, sarcasm
and an egocentric view are keys to the out-group wash-room.
The overall quality of the LMX relationship varies with several factors. Curiously,
it is better when the challenge of the job is extremely high or extremely low. The
size of the group, financial resource availability and the overall workload are also
important.
Onwards and upwards:
The principle works upwards as well. The leader also gains power by being a
member of their manager's inner circle, which then can then share on
downwards. People at the bottom of an organization with unusual power may get
it from an unbroken chain of circles up to the hierarchy.
I’ve seen this type of leadership in many forms. I really despise this type of
leadership. In this type of leadership, the leader ends up only communicating the
goals and vision to the in-group, while the out-group is left out. This type of
leadership drives a wedge between the in-group and the out-group. The result is
that it creates two separate groups that distrust each other. The leader needs to
clarify their voice and values to everyone. An organization divided against it self
will not stand!
http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/leader_member_exchange.htm
22
Behavioral Theory – (David Straker 2006)22



Leaders can be made, rather than are born.
Successful leadership is based in definable, learnable behavior.
Behavioral theories of leadership do not seek inborn traits or capabilities.
Rather, they look at what leaders actually do.
If success can be defined in terms of describable actions, then it should be
relatively easy for other people to act in the same way. This is easier to teach
and learn then to adopt the more ephemeral 'traits' or 'capabilities'.
Behavioral is a big leap from Trait Theory, in that it assumes that leadership
capability can be learned, rather than being inherent. This opens the floodgates
to leadership development, as opposed to simple psychometric assessment that
sorts those with leadership potential from those who will never have the chance.
A behavioral theory is relatively easy to develop, as you simply assess both
leadership success and the actions of leaders. With a large enough study, you
can then correlate statistically significant behaviors with success. You can also
identify behaviors which contribute to failure, thus adding a second layer of
understanding.
http://changingminds.org/disciplines/leadership/theories/behavioral_theory.htm
22
Straker, D. (2006). Changingminds.org. Behavior Theory.
Retrieved September 23rd, 2006,
From http://changingminds.org/disciplines/leadership/theories/behavioral_theory.htm
23
The Great Man Theory – (David Straker 2006)23


Leaders are born and not made.
Great leaders will arise when there is a great need.
Early research on leadership was based on the study of people who were
already great leaders. These people were often from the aristocracy, as few from
lower classes had the opportunity to lead. This contributed to the notion that
leadership had something to do with breeding.
The idea of the Great Man also strayed into the mythic domain, with notions that
in times of need, a Great Man would arise, almost by magic. This was easy to
verify, by pointing to people such as Eisenhower and Churchill, let alone those
further back along the timeline, even to Jesus, Moses, Mohammed and the
Buddha.
This type of theology was one of the reasons people left Europe for America.
Many decades ago, if your name wasn’t tied to royalty, you were stuck as a
commoner and could not improve your status in life. Times have changed; even
a computer nerd named Bill Gates can become great!
Great leaders do rise to the occasion! It’s sort of like the cream rising to the top.
http://changingminds.org/disciplines/leadership/theories/great_man_theory.htm
The General Ethics Theory – (Herb Rubenstein 2003)24
23
Straker, D. (2006). Changingminds.org. The Great Man Theory.
Retrieved September 23rd, 2006,
From http://changingminds.org/disciplines/leadership/theories/great_man_theory.htm
24
Rubenstein, H. (2003, February 8). Conservative Monitor. Ethical Leadership.
24
We start with the understanding that what one culture considers ethical, another
culture will consider unethical. The fact that there is not one universal set of
behaviors one considers ethical and the fact that the terms moral and ethical are
often used interchangeably should not dissuade people from seeking to develop
a general theory of ethical leadership. “Leadership,” in the broadest sense of the
term encompasses behaviors that are ethical as well as those that are generally
considered unethical.
Leaders can lead by misinforming their followers, making false claims to justify
their actions and can base their actions on the convenient point of view that the
“ends justify the means.” Lying, which one can reasonably assert is unethical
(except possibly to “spare an innocent life”) is the standard operating procedure
often practiced by many sales leaders, political leaders and business leaders.
Unethical behavior is today but one tool in the arsenal of many that leaders use
in the world to accomplish goals. The New Jersey rule (“it is not unethical until
you get caught”) seems to be a popular view when it comes to assessing
whether a behavior is unethical.
Since, there is no general theory of ethical leadership, there is no research or
solid evidence that shows that ethical behavior produces superior “leadership
results” in the long term or the short term. And as long as we define “leadership
results” as success (e.g. sales, revenues, sports victories, promotions, awards,
etc.), and do not monitor or analyze the underlying leadership behavior in terms
of whether it was ethical or not, that produced these results we can never show
statistically that ethical behavior, however defined, is a superior result producer
than unethical behavior.
In order to begin to develop a theory of ethical leadership, one must realize that
the term “ethical” in front of the word “leadership” today is merely seen as
imposing constraints on the leader. Ethics today is taught from a negative point
of view.
One studies ethics in law school, other graduate schools and in new courses
springing up in the business and non-profit worlds and each of these courses
tries to teach people what not to do. No body of knowledge and certainly no
successful behavioral modification training can ever be based on trying to teach
people what not to do. The number and categories of unethical behavior are
infinite and only limited by the imaginations of the six billion people on the planet.
No course can ever tell someone all the things not to do or even describe all of
the categories of actions that are proscribed.
Retrieved September 23rd, 2006,
From http://www.conservativemonitor.com/opinion03/28.shtml
25
Any theory of ethical leadership must be based on two new premises. First,
ethical leadership is a system of thought based on setting rules for what to do,
not on what not to do. Second, our definition of leadership must evolve to include
ethical behavior not because ethical behavior is simply a natural good in and of
itself, but mainly as part of the core of what leadership is for pragmatic reasons.
This theory raises some good questions. However, the one aspect that it misses
is the teachings of Jesus Christ. The Bible clearly states what we should, and
should not do. The author, Herb Rubenstein views the current teaching of ethics
as constraints on the leader. This description from Herb is clearly what most call,
“self control”. Herb is conveying that there is no real measurement for ethical
behavior, and that there is no general theory on ethical behavior, accept for a
bunch of constraints on the leaders.
http://www.conservativemonitor.com/opinion03/28.shtml
A Cross-Cultural Test of Implicit Leadership Theory –
26
(Anne Huff, Dr. Christine Communal, Dr. Frank Fishwick, David S. McKie)25
This research builds on Implicit Leadership Theory, which suggests that a
leader's performance is likely to be higher when there is congruence between a
follower's prototype of what a leader should be and his or her perception of the
leader's behavior. The essence of effective leadership, according to this theory,
is being seen as a leader by others.
This study found that the nature of the relationship between congruence and
leader performance varies significantly between all five countries. More
specifically the data suggests that congruence does not always lead to high
performance.
This experiment reaffirms that cultures are very different around the world. What
might work for leaders in America, might not work in other countries. This theory
also believes that you’re not a true leader unless you’re perceived as the leader.
https://dspace.lib.cranfield.ac.uk/handle/1826/115
25
Huff, A., Communal, C., Fishwick, F., McKie, S. D. (2003, November). A Cross-Cultural Test of
Implicit Leadership Theory. Cranfield University. Retrieved September 24th, 2006,
From https://dspace.lib.cranfield.ac.uk/handle/1826/115
27
7 Habits of Highly Effective Leaders – (Stephen Covey 1989)26
Our character is a collection of our habits, and habits have a powerful role in our
lives. Habits consist of knowledge, skill, and desire. Knowledge allows us to
know what to do, skill gives us the ability to know how to do it, and desire is the
motivation to do it.
The Seven Habits move us through the following stages:
1. Dependence: the paradigm under which we are born, relying upon
others to take care of us.
2. Independence: the paradigm under which we can make our own
decisions and take care of ourselves.
3. Interdependence: the paradigm under which we cooperate to
achieve something that cannot be achieved independently.
Habit One: Be Pro Active
Change starts from within, and highly effective people make the decision to
improve their lives through the things that they can influence rather than by
simply reacting to external forces.
Habit Two: Begin with the End in Mind
Develop a principle-centered personal mission statement. Extend the mission
statement into long-term goals based on personal principles.
Habit Three: Put First Things First
Spend time doing what fits into your personal mission, observing the proper
balance between production and building production capacity. Identify the key
roles that you take on in life, and make time for each of them.
Habit Four: Think Win/Win
Seek agreements and relationships that are mutually beneficial. In cases where
a “win/win” deal cannot be achieved, accept the fact that agreeing to make “no
deal” may be the best alternative. In developing an organizational culture, be
sure to reward win/win behavior among employees and avoid inadvertently
rewarding win/lose behavior.
26
Covey, S. (1989). QuickMBA.com, The Knowledge to Power Your Business. The 7 Habits of
Highly Effective People. Retrieved September 10th, 2006,
From http://www.quickmba.com/mgmt/7hab
28
Habit Five: Seek First to Understand, Then to Be Understood
First seek to understand the other person, and only then try to be understood.
Stephen Covey presents this habit as the most important principle of
interpersonal relations. Effective listening is not simply echoing what the other
person has said through the lens of one’s own experience. Rather, it is putting
oneself in the perspective of the other person, listening empathically for both
feeling and meaning.
Habit Six: Synergize
Through trustful communication, find ways to leverage individual differences to
create a whole that is greater than the sum of the parts. Through mutual trust
and understanding one often can solve conflicts and find a better solution than
would have been obtained through either person’s own solution.
Habit Seven: Sharpen the Saw
Take time out from production to build production capacity through personal
renewal of the physical, mental, social/emotional, and spiritual dimensions.
Maintain a balanced among these dimensions.
http://www.quickmba.com/mgmt/7hab
29
Role Theory – (David Straker 2006)27



People define roles for themselves and others based on social learning
and reading.
People form expectations about the roles that they and others will play.
People subtly encourage others to act within the role expectations they
have for them.
People will act within the roles they adopt.
We all have internal schemas about the role of leaders, based on what we
read, discuss and so on. We subtly send these expectations to our leaders,
acting as role senders, for example through the balance of decisions we take
upon ourselves and the decisions we leave to the leader.
Leaders are influenced by these signals, particularly if they are sensitive to the
people around them, and will generally conform to these, playing the leadership
role that is put upon them by others.
Within organizations, there is much formal and informal information about what
the leader's role should be, including 'leadership values', culture, training
sessions, modeling by senior managers, and so on. These and more (including
contextual factors) act to shape expectations and behaviors around leadership.
Role conflict can also occur when people have differing expectations of their
leaders. It also happens when leaders have different ideas about what they
should be doing vs. the expectations that are put upon them.
http://changingminds.org/disciplines/leadership/theories/role_theory.htm
27
Straker, D. (2006). Changingminds.org, The Role Theory.
Retrieved September 24th, 2006,
From http://changingminds.org/disciplines/leadership/theories/role_theory.htm
30
Chaos Theory – (Gregory Rae 2006)28
The chaos theory is about finding knowledgeable information out of complex
random data. The chaos theory is more of a mathematical theory for the
Einstein’s of the world. However, I included this theory to my list, because as
leaders we are looked upon from others to find knowledgeable information out of
what looks like a complete mess. Louis Gerstner, former CEO of IBM had to
model the way for IBM’s turnaround. When Mr. Gerstner arrived in 1993, many
thought it was too late. However, Louis Gerstner saw through the dilemma and
chaos and transformed a dying giant.
http://www.imho.com/grae/chaos/chaos.html
28
Rae, G. (2006). Chaos Theory: A Brief Introduction. Retrieved September 24th, 2006,
From http://www.imho.com/grae/chaos/chaos.html
31
Hersey & Blanchard’s Situational Theory – (Hersey, P. and Blanchard, K. H,
1999)29
Leaders should adapt their style to follower development style (or 'maturity'),
based on how ready and willing the follower is to perform required tasks (that
is, their competence and motivation).
There are four leadership styles (S1 to S4) that match the development levels
(D1 to D4) of the followers.
The four styles suggest that leaders should put greater or less focus on the task
in question and/or the relationship between the leader and the follower,
depending on the development level of the follower.
S1: Telling / Directing
Follower: D1: Low competence, high commitment / Unable and willing
Leader: High task focus, low relationship focus
When the follower cannot do the job but is willing to try, then the leader takes a
highly directive role, telling them what to do but without a great deal of concern
for the relationship. The leader may also provide a working structure, both for
the job and in terms of how the person is controlled.
If the leader focused more on the relationship, the follower may become
confused about what must be done and what is optional. The leader thus
maintains a clear 'do this' position to ensure all required actions are clear.
S2: Selling / Coaching
Follower: D2: Some competence, low commitment / Unable and unwilling
Leader: High task focus, high relationship focus
When the follower can do the job, at least to some extent, but is not motivated
to do it then the leader must turn attention to the human aspects.
29
Hersey, P. and Blanchard, K. H. (1999). Hersey & Blanchard Situational Theory.
Retrieved September 24th, 2006, From
http://changingminds.org/disciplines/leadership/styles/situational_leadership_hersey_blan
chard.htm
32
The leader first finds out why the person is not motivated and if there are any
limitations in ability. These two factors may be linked, for example where a
person believes they are less capable than they should be may be in some
form of denial or other coping. They follower may also lack self-confidence as a
result.
The leader thus spends time listening and advising and, where appropriate,
helping the follower to gain necessary skills through coaching methods.
S3: Participating / Supporting
Follower: D3: High competence, variable commitment / Able and unwilling
Leader: Low task focus, high relationship focus
When the follower can do the job, but is refusing to do it or otherwise showing
insufficient commitment, the leader need not worry about showing them what to
do, and instead is concerned with finding out why the person is refusing and
thence persuading them to cooperate.
There is less excuse here for followers to be reticent about their ability, and the
key is very much around motivation. If the causes are found then they can be
addressed by the leader. The leader thus spends time listening, praising and
otherwise making the follower feel good when they show the necessary
commitment.
S4: Delegating
Follower: D4: High competence, high commitment / Able and willing
Leader: Low task focus, low relationship focus
When the follower can do the job and is motivated to do it, then the leader can
basically leave them to it, trusting them to get on with the job.
Followers at this level have less need for support or frequent praise, although
as with anyone, occasional recognition is always welcome.
http://changingminds.org/disciplines/leadership/styles/situational_leadership_hersey_blanchard.ht
m
33
Visionary Leadership And Strategic Management – (Frances Westley &
Henry Mintzberg - 1989)30
Leaders envision where the company should be in the future. The vision is then
communicated to the followers. The communication should be empowering the
followers to execute the vision.
VISION (IDEA)  C OMMUNICATION (WORD)  EMPOWERMENT (ACTION)
Westley and Mintzberg suggest that there are strong and weak visions. Some
visions do not always have a positive effect on follower’s attitudes. Every vision
should be scrutinized for content and distinguished for effectiveness.
Henry
Mintzberg
30
Frances Westley
Westley, F.R., & Mintzberg, H. (1989). Visionary Leadership and Strategic Management.
Strategic Management Journal, 10(SI), 17-32.
34
The Leader of the Future – (Ronald Heifetz - 1999)31
Leaders help people face reality and to mobilize them to make painful changes.
This theory focuses on how leaders:




SEE PROBLEMS – Face reality
LISTEN – Ask questions, not always give answers
FAIL – Keep people in discomfort zone, without effecting production or
anger
STAY ALIVE – Don’t take things personally, they aren’t attacking you, but
the issue.
Distinguish your role from your self.
You need partners/allies in and out of the organization to help you remain
neutral and objective.
Find a sanctuary to find worth and focus in your work.
(Pray and Meditate)
Ronald Heifetz
The Art of Innovation – (Thomas Kelley - 2001)32
31
Heifetz, R. (1999). “The Leader of the Future.” Retrieved October 29th, 2006,
from http://www.fastcompany.com/online/25/heifetz.html
35
Tom Kelley is general manager of IDEO, which has created hundreds of cutting
edge products and services. IDEO boasts it has won wore awards in the last 10
years than any other company of its kind.
IDEO taps into the entire organization for their ideas.
Overview:




IDEO first creates an environment of expressing ideas, breaking the rules,
and freeing people to design their own work environments.
IDEO focuses on teamwork in generating ideas.
IDEO believes in an intense process called, “The Deep Drive”, which
focuses on a fast process time from brainstorm to the building process.
IDEO examines their ideas from the perspective of the customer.
IDEO Problem Solving Method:
1. Carefully observing the behavior or "anthropology" of the people who will
be using a product or service
2. Brainstorming with high-energy sessions focused on tangible results
3. Quickly prototyping ideas and designs at every step of the way
4. Cross-pollinating to find solutions from other fields
5. Taking risks, and failing your way to success
6. Building a "Greenhouse" for innovation
This theory is certainly a proactive approach in getting the entire organization to
inspire the future.
Thomas Kelley
http://www.leadershipnow.com/leadershop/9984-1.html
32
Kelley, T. (2001). The Art of Innovation. Retrieved October 20 th, 2006,
from http://www.leadershipnow.com/leadershop/9984-1.html
36
John R. Hoyle – (Leadership and Futuring: Making Visions Happen - 1995)33
John Hoyle is a professor at Texas A&M University.
Extraordinary leaders such as Jesus Christ, Joan of Arc, or Winston Churchill
share three main characteristics.
1. The capacity to care
2. The ability to communicate in clear, simple terms
3. The commitment to persist
These extraordinary leaders were never obsessed with the importance of them
selves. They always finish what they began and remain steadfast in
accomplishing their goals.
Hoyle advocates asking people to reflect on their personal and professional
dreams and visions because successful leaders carry visions of success that
persuade and motivate others to look beyond immediate obstacles.
John Hoyle
http://calbears.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0JSD/is_3_53/ai_77195802
33
Hoyle, J. (1995). Leadership and Futuring: Making Visions Happen.
Retrieved October 20, 2006
from http://calbears.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0JSD/is_3_53/ai_77195802
37
PEST Analysis theory (John Middleton - 2003) 34
The PEST Analysis Theory helps leaders understand the broad overall
environment an organization might be facing. The PEST Analysis Theory is used
by business leaders all over the world, to build their vision of the future
Reasons why the PEST Analysis is important:
1. Firstly, by making effective use of PEST Analysis, you ensure that what
you are doing is aligned positively with the powerful forces of change that
are affecting our world. By taking advantage of change, you are much
more likely to be successful.
2. Secondly, good use of PEST Analysis helps you avoid taking action that is
doomed to failure for reasons beyond your control.
3. Thirdly, PEST is useful when you start operating in a new country or
region. Use of PEST helps you break free of unconscious assumptions,
and helps you quickly adapt to the realities of the new environment.
Using the PEST Analysis Theory is a three stage process:
1. Firstly, you brainstorm the relevant factors that apply to you.
2. Secondly, you identify the information that applies to these factors.
3. Thirdly, you draw conclusions from the political, economic, sociocultural, and technological environment.
This provides the context within which more detailed planning can take place to
take full advantage of the opportunities that present themselves.
http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTMC_09.htm
34
Middleton, J. (2003). The Ultimate Strategy Library. Retrieved October 28, 2006,
from http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTMC_09.htm
38
Ultimate Terms Theory – (Richard M. Weaver - 1953) 35
There are words which have special meaning within each culture and carry
power where they are used. Changing one word can inspire many people!

God terms carry blessings, demand sacrifice and obedience. E.g.
progress, value.
 Devil terms are reviled and evoke disgust. E.g. fascist, pedophile.
 Charismatic Terms are not like God and Devil terms, which are
associated with observable things. These terms are more intangible. E.g.
freedom, contribution.
These terms can change, and God or Charisma terms that are over-used can
turn into Devil terms. They are also sometimes called power words, especially
by sales people. Words used in sales often appeal to basic needs, such as:









Safety: guarantee, proven
Control: powerful, strong
Understanding: because, as, so, truth, real
Greed: money, cash, save, win, free, more
Health: safe, healthy, well
Belonging: belong, happy, good, feel
Esteem: exclusive, only, admired
Identity: you, (their name), we
Novelty: new, discover
Negative words are also used in this context to scare people into action. These
often address those self-same needs, but now from the opposite direction:









Safety: dangerous,
Control: uncertain, scarce
Understanding: change, complicated
Greed: lose, stolen
Health: unhealthy, sick, old
Belonging: wrong, alone, rejected
Esteem: ridicule, laughed at
Identity: they, he
Novelty: outdated, unfashionable
http://www.changingminds.org/explanations/theories/ultimate_terms.htm
35
Weaver, R. M. (1953). The ethics of rhetoric. Chicago: Henry Regnery.
39
Richard
Weaver
The Theory of Change – (The NewSchools Network) 36
NewSchools has developed a theory of change that serves as a blueprint for how
they plan to help move public education from where it is to where they believe it
needs to be. By linking their activities to their desired impact - and testing their
progress along the way - NewSchools can ensure that its money, time and
expertise are used most effectively to spark dramatic improvement in public
education.
Core Beliefs:





All children are entitled to a high-quality education.
Entrepreneurs can change large, complex systems - even systems like
public education that are traditionally impervious to change.
Significant and systemic changes in education require entrepreneurial
teams with a unique, "hybrid" set of skills from across the education,
business and nonprofit sectors.
To be effective in a $500 billion industry, solutions must leverage public
dollars, not just great ideas.
NewSchools' role is to catalyze this shift toward creating and sustaining
"performance-driven" school systems. We do this through a two-pronged
strategy: venture building and network building.
First, we invest in and provide management assistance and education services to
promising entrepreneurial ventures in two categories.
Second, through the NewSchools Network, we educate, inform and collaborate
with key thought leaders in an effort to create an environment that supports these
performance-driven systems. We do this by connecting the work of our
entrepreneurs with the broader education reform landscape, by mobilizing
"hybrid" leaders from across the sectors to engage in transforming public
education, by convening them at our annual Summit and other events, and by
developing and disseminating intellectual capital that helps strengthen the field.
http://www.newschools.org/strategy/theory_of_change.htm
36
Mitchell, T. (2006). Theory of Change. NewSchool Venture Fund.
Retrieved October 28th, 2006, from
http://www.newschools.org/strategy/theory_of_change.htm
40
Eight Considerations When Changing Organizational Cultures – (Harrison
Trice & Janice Beyer - 1996)37
EIGHT CONSIDERATIONS TO KEEP IN MIND WHEN CHANGING
ORGANIZATION CULTURES
1. Capitalize on Propitious Moments. For example poor financial
performance. Make sure people actually perceive the need for change.
2. Combine Caution with Optimism. Create an optimistic outlook
regarding what the change effort will bring.
3. Understand Resistance to Culture Change. Both and the individual
level [fear of the unknown, self-interest, selective attention and retention,
habit, dependence, need for security] and at the organizational or group
level [threats to power and influence, lack of trust, different perceptions
and goals, social disruption, resource limitations, fixed investments,
interorganizational agreements].
4. Change Many Elements, But Maintain Some Continuity. For
example identify the principles that will remain constant.
5. Recognize the Importance of Implementation. Initial acceptance and
enthusiasm are insufficient to carry change forward:
 Adoption
 Implementation
 Institutionalization.
6. Select, Modify, and Create Appropriate Cultural Forms. Employing
symbols, rituals, languages, stories, myths, metaphors, rites,
ceremonies.
7. Modify Socialization Tactics. The primary way that people learn the
corporate culture is through the socialization process at the beginning of
their employment. Because of that, if these socialization processes are
changed, an organization’s culture will begin to change.
8. Find and Cultivate Innovative Leadership. Members are unlikely to
give up whatever secure stability they derive from existing cultures and
follow a leader in new directions unless that leader exudes selfconfidence, has strong convictions, a dominant personality, and can
preach the new vision with drama and eloquence.
http://www.12manage.com/methods_trice_beyer_changing_organizational_cultur
es.html
37
Trice, H., Beyer, J. (1989). Eight Considerations to Keep in Mind When Changing Organization
Cultures. Retrieved October 28th, 2006, from
http://www.12manage.com/methods_trice_beyer_changing_organizational_cultures.html
41
Six Approaches to Deal with Resistance to Change – (Kotter & Schlesinger
- 1979)38
REASONS FOR RESISTANCE TO CHANGE
According to Kotter and Schlesinger (1979), there are four reasons that certain
people are resisting change:
1. Parochial self-interest. Some people are more concerned with the
implication of the change for themselves and how it may affect their own
interests, rather than considering the effects for the success of the
business.
2. Misunderstanding. Communication problems; inadequate information.
3. Low tolerance of change. Certain people are very keen on feeling
secure and having stability in their work.
4. Different assessments of the situation. Some employees may disagree
with the reasons for the change and with the advantages and
disadvantages of the change process.
SIX APPROACHES TO DEAL WITH RESISTANCE TO CHANGE
Kotter and Schlesinger have set out the following six (6) change approaches to
deal with change resistance:
1. Educations and Communication. Where there is a lack of information
or inaccurate information and analysis. One of the best ways to overcome
resistance to change is: to information and education people about the
change effort beforehand. Preceding communication and education helps
employees see the logic in the change effort. This reduces unfounded
and incorrect rumors concerning the effects of change in the organization.
2. Participation and involvement. Where the initiators do not have all the
necessary information to design the change, and where others have
considerable power to resist. When employees are involved in the
change.
3. Facilitation and Support. Where people are resisting change, because
of adjustment problems. By being supportive of employees during difficult
times, managers can prevent potential resistance. Managerial support
helps employees to deal with their fear and anxiety during a transition
period. The basis of resistance to change is likely to be: there perception
that there will be some form of detrimental effect occasioned by the
38
Kotter, & Schlesinger. (1979). Six Approaches to Deal with Resistance to Change.
Retrieved October 28th, 2006, from
http://www.12manage.com/methods_kotter_change_approaches.html
42
change in the organization. Typical for this approach are special training
and counseling, outside normal office premises.
4. Negotiation and Agreement. Where someone or some group may lose
out because of a change, and where that individual or group has
considerable power to resist. Managers can combat reisitance by offering
incentives to employees not to resist change. This can be done by
allowing people who are resisting the change to veto certain elements of
change that are threatening. Or the people who are resisting the change
can be offered incentives to leave the company thorough early buyouts or
through retirements. In order to avoid the experience of the change effort.
This approach will be appropriate where those resisting change are in a
position of power.
5. Manipulation and Co-option. Where other tactics will not work or are too
expensive. Kotter and Schlesinger suggest that an effective manipulation
technique is: to co-opt with people who are resisting the change. Cooption involves bringing a person into a change management planning
group for the sake of appearances rather than their substantive
contribution. This often involves selecting leaders of the people who are
resisting the change, to participate in the change effort. These leaders
can be given a symbolic role in decision-making, without threatening the
change effort. Note this: if these leaders feel that they are being tricked,
they are likely to push resistance even further than if they were never
included in the change effort leadership.
6. Explicit and Implicit Coercion. Where speed is essential. And to be
used only as last resort. Managers can explicitly or implicitly force
employees into accepting change, by making clear that resistance to
change can lead to: jobs losses, dismissals, employee transfers, or not
promoting employees.
http://www.12manage.com/methods_kotter_change_approaches.html
43
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