Friedrich Kittler: Gramophone, Film, Typewriter
Translators introduction
Media awakenings: the usual suspects
1960s interest in media Focus on the materialities of communication: Lévi-Strauss,
McLuhan, Mayr, Ong.
The material and technological aspects of communication >
psychogenetic and sociogenetic impact of changing media
ecologies.
Predecessors
Walter Benjarmin, Harold Innis. First attempts to outline
the world history according to the developments of media
technologies.
Kittler on mediality
to explain the how, what and why of media. The intrinsic
technological logic of media.
Parallels to the work of McLuhan.
> Enzensberger
> Baudrillard: a media theory inspired by structuralism and
semiotics.
Intellectual trajectory
Reconceptualize the media issue in terms of recent
theoretical developments, ‘French theory’.
Combination of discourse analysis, structuralist
psychoanalysis and first-generation media theory.
> Media discourse analysis
‘Lacancan and Derridada’: the French across the Rhine
Late 1970s: postReluctantly received.
structuralism in
Resistance from the Left: Irrationalismusvorwurf.
Germany
Resistance from the Right and Center, German traditional
hermeneutics.
Revisiting French post- Kittler: moves Lacan into the post-hermeneutic realm of
structuralism
information theory.
Parallels to the American association of French poststructuralims and new literary theory: Landow, Ultmer.
Poster on Foucaul’s surveillance techniques.
‘What hypertext and hypermedia are to post-structuralism,
cybernetics was to structuralism and semiotics’ (p: xix).
Re-read pages xix and xx: difficult
Discourse networks: from mother tongues to matters of inscription
Kittler’s intellectual
1970s: discourse analysis
career
1980s: the technologizing of discourse by electronic media.
1990s: digitalization.
Discourse Network (1990)
1980s: media and
begins by registering texts as material communicative
discourse analysis
events in historically, interdiscursive networks that link
writers, archivists, addresses and interpreters. Exhibit
regularities that point to rules programming what people
can say and write.
Standardized
possible in the early 1800s. People were programmed to
interpretation
operate upon media in ways that enabled them to elide the
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materialities of communication. But media have their own
biases and messages that must be taken into account.
How do media operate upon people.
Discourse-analysis with media-technological feet.
The discursive field of Described in terms of the spiritualized oralization of
1800
language.
Muttermund.
Writing as the sole, linear channel for processing and
storing information.
Phonography and film
Sounds and pictures were given their appropriate channels
> differentiation of data streams and the virtual abolition of
the Gutenberg Galaxy.
Discourse network of
Demystifies the animating function of Woman and the
1900
conception of language as naturalized inner voice.
Writers increasingly aware of the materiality of language
and communication.
Marshall McNietzsche: the advent of the electric trinity
Gramophone, Film,
Detailed accounts of the ruptures brought about by the
Typewriter
differentiation of media and communication technologies.
Post-Gutenberg
Record visual and acoustic effects of the real.
methods
Kittler relates phonography, cinematography and typing to
Lacan’s registers of the real, the imaginary and the
symbolic.
Coincidence of psycho-analysis and Edisonian technology.
Nietzsche
Unser Schreibzeug arbeitet mit an unseren Gedanken.
Kittler’s reading of
- technologically informed, post-structuralist reading.
Nietzsche
Key-concepts such as Subject, Authorship, Truth as effects
that arises from and proceeds to cover up underlying
discursive operations and materialities. Kittler: these effects
are bracketed through a shift of focus toward certain
external points – in particular bodies, margins, power
structures, and media technologies (p: xxix).
> Turing world
The third stage of Kittler’s intellectural career.
Reintegration of differentiated media technologies and
communication channels by the computer; the medium to
end all media.
Only connect: theory in the age of intelligent machines
1. Back to the ends of
Kittler’s rhetoric as a throwback to the heady days of
Man
militant anti-humanism.
‘Der sogenannte Mensch is about to disappear as a
cognitive and self-determining agent and be subsumed by
the march of technological auto-sophistication.
> Disenchantment
2. The stop and go of
Obvious technological determinism.
history
Kittler emphasises technological breakthroughs on the
expense of other causative factors.
But: our situation can determine our media >
Technomaterialism Dialectic exchange between the media-technological base
and the discursive superstructure > conflicts and tensions
that result in transformations at the level of media.
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3. Arms and no man
4. Hail the conquering
engineer
5. Reactionary
postmodernism?
Fetishism of technological innovations produced by
military applications.
Engineers (Edison, Muybridge, Mary, Lumière) have made
a world in which technology reigns supreme.
Unquestioning admiration of (media)-technological
innovations. But with Kittler, there is traditional right-wing
rhetoric of soul, Volk.
Somewhat determination to sever the connection between
technological and social advancement; install Technology
as the new, authentic subject of history.
Introduction
Kittler on convergence
On McLuhan
Prior to the
electrification of media
Storage technologies
Text and scores
The regime of the
symbolic
Memory capacity
Reproductive power
of media
Typewriters
Lacan’s
“methodological
Book published in 1986.
Entertainment media as a by-product of war technology.
On digitalisation of media: will erase the concept of
medium.
Accurate understanding of McLuhan’s the medium’s
content is always another medium?
Mechanical apparatuses: silent film,
phonograph/gramophone
“We need a coincidence in the Lacanian sense: that
something ceases not to write itself” (page: 3).
Record and reproduce the time flow of acoustic and optical
data. Autonomous ears and eyes. “Media define what really
is.”
Based on a writing system whose time is symbolic (Lacan).
The bottleneck of the signifier. But not possible to encode
real time.
Foucault: “the last historian or the first archaeologist.
Writing as a communication medium. History as “wavelike
successions of words.”
Only what is written exists (beyond time?),
But does Kittler claim that writing is more symbolic than
photographs, gramophones, computers?
“the body, which did not cease not to write itself, left
strangely unavoidable traces.” (page 8).
Before optical and acoustic storage media, words and books
strongly connected to human memory capacity.
The need for the powers of hallucination.
Not only resembling the object, but guarantee the
resemblance < a product of the object. A reproduction
authenticated by the object itself. Refers to the bodily real,
escapes all symbolic grids.
1865/1868
Thus a historical synchronicity in the development of the
typewriter, phonograph and cinema – separated optical,
acoustic and written data flows, autonomous.
(to again be recombined with electronic media),
The real; the imaginary; the symbolic
- as the theory or historical effect of that differentiation.
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distinction”
Modern psychoanalysis
The McLuhanesque
Kittler
1950 Alan Turing
The symbolic encompasses linguistic signs in their
materiality and technicity.
The imaginary – the optical illusion of cinema.
“Of the real nothing more can be brought to light than what
Lacan presupposes – that is, nothing.”
Distinctions of media technology – methodological
distinctions of psychoanalysis.
This is where the phonograph fits in: the real has the status
of the phonograph.
The technological differentiation of optics, acoustics and
writing > the essence of Man escapes into apparatuses.
Machines take over functions of the central nervous system.
Clear differentiation of (the so-called) Man into physiology
and information technology.
“Computing machinery and intelligence”.
“All data streams flow into a state n of Turing’s universal
machine.” (page 19).
Gramophone
1877: Edison’s
phonograph
Frequency
Synthetic production of
frequencies
1857: Scott’s
phonautograph
> Edison’s phonograph
Jean-Marie Guyau:
Memory and
phonograph
Time axis reversals
> Psychoanalysis
(record and play)
records overtones: (frequency) vibrations per second.
- Time as an independent variable.
- Quantifies movements too fast for the human eye.
- The real takes the place of the symbolic.
Noise as a scientific research object
Mechanical language reproduction > automata.
The first machine to record sound: i.e. converting sound
into visible traces.
“Thus came into being autographs or handwritings of a data
stream that heretofore had not ceased not to write itself”.
(page 26).
> Phonetics and speech physiology.
A result of the synthetic production of frequencies
combined with their analyses.
“A telegraph as an artificial mouth, a telephone as an
artificial ear- the stage was set for the phonograph.
Functions of the central nervous system had been
technologically implemented”. (page 28).
Uses the phonograph as a metaphor for the human mental
abilities. Delboeuf: “The soul is the notebook of
phonographic recordings.” The analogy between the
phonograph and the human brain.
> allow ears to hear the unheard-of:
Kittler seems to emphasize both with the phonograph and
film/cinema that these apparatuses make sensible, reality
beyond our directly perceived reality.
How is this relevant for Kittler’s history of the phonograph?
“And lyrics fulfilled what psychoanalysis – originating not
coincidentally at the same time – saw as the essence of
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Rainer Maria Rilke,
“Primal sound” (1919)
Writing without a
subject
Lothar (1924)
Shannon and Turing’s
vocoder
Maurice Renard:
“Death and the shell”
(1907)
Rewriting eroticism
> psychoanalysis?
Friedlander: “Goethe
speaks into the
phonograph” (1916)
Flesh and machines
Saussure’s linguistics
desire: hallucinatory wish fulfilment”. (page 37).
Freud on hallucinations: memory as sensory perception and
psychic apparatus as its own simulacrum.
Of the similarities between the skull, more precisely the
coronal suture of the skull and the wavy line engraving
needle of the phonograph. The skull reduced to a cerebral
container. The coronal suture as a writing of the real.
Since the invention of the phonograph.
The relationship between noise and signals.
Our capacity for illusion > forget about the mechanical
interference.
(1942-1945). Encodes any given data stream A with the
envelope curves of another sound sequence B. Modulates
one signal with another.
What significance does Kittler mean the vocoder has?
Again, a story showing how technological media
apparatuses like the phonograph extend our senses.
Bringing us voices of the dead. Also, the analogy of the
phonograph and the seashell. But why does Kittler include
this story?
“Once technological media guarantee the similarity of the
dead to stored data by turning them into the latter’s
mechanical product, the boundaries of the body, death and
lust, leave the most indelible traces”. (page 55).
Under the conditions of gramophony and telephony. How?
Why? What sense does these paragraphs make?
Partial objects that can be separated from the body and
excite desires prior to sexual differentiation: breast, mouth,
feces (Freud). Lacan added: the gaze and the voice >
psychoanalysis in the media age: cinema restores the
disembodied gaze; the telephone restores the disembodied
voice.
Does this make any sense and how?
Intriguing short story. Seems to make sense, and again
illustrates the connection between the phonograph and the
reality beyond our senses (prior in time. Thus the common
time-space distance.
In the founding days of media technology: Implementing
the function of the central nervous system into the media
technologies – reconstructing bodily functions.
> Scott’s phonautograph
> Bell’s telephone
The interchangeability of an instrument both as a
transmitter and a receiver.
Anatomical and technical reconstructions of language.
Based on the difference between langue and
parole/language and speech.
> speech analyses and production without the flesh?
“A Turing machine no longer needs artificial flesh. The
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Philosophy and media
technology
Otto Wiener: the
extension of senses
Nietzsche on poetry
Technological sound
storage
High and low culture
Science: the third party
The epoch of nonsense
> psychoanalysis
Sound storage and
transmission as mass
media
The radio
Realism in sound
analogue signal is simply digitized”. (page 75).
> Foucault: The archaeology of knowledge based on
Saussure: a finite body of rules that authorizes an infinite
number of performances. Discursive events however as
limited (to the linguistic context).
Back to Friedlander: inspired by the technified version of
Kant’s pure forms of intuition (sense knowledge). Spatial
and temporal forms of intuition.
Friedlander’s philosophy follows in the wake of media
technology.
(1900): The extension of our senses by instruments.
Declares the Kantian notions of a priori perception of time
and space as unnecessary. Media render Man.
A mnemotechnology : “it was noticed that men remember a
verse much better than ordinary speech” (79).
A solution that came about under oral conditions >
increased the storage capacity.
(writing did not change this).
Obliterated the necessities of poetry as memory.
Technology triumphs over mnemotechnology.
> “Records turn and turn until phonographic inscriptions
inscribe themselves into brain physiology” (80).
With the invention of technical sound storage > the new
lyrics of hits and charts. High and low culture as the two
options of modern media.
Technological media register distinguishing particulars
(again then the real beyond our senses (and memory?)).
The shift in technologies of power follows the switch from
writing to media. Limited self-control in the public (media)
reality. Data and signs beyond our control.
> Science is for the first time in possession of a machine
that records noises regardless of so-called meaning.
Writing: always (un)intentional selections of meaning.
“Mechanization relieves people of their memories and
permits a linguistic hodgepodge”. (86)
Talking cure, unconscious cerebration. Segmentation of
speech. Uncovering minor symptoms in the flow of speech.
Psychoanalytic case studies as media technologies <
consciousness and memory as mutually exclusive. ??
Psychoanalysis as phonograph (sort of), as writing
interposes itself between the unconscious and its storage.
“Only psychoanalysis can write what does not cease not to
write itself” (94).
The record mass market. Mass-produced sound storage +
mass-produced communication + recording media > global
ascendancy.
The uniting of the phonograph and the radio.
Kittler couples the development with the world war
Coupled with WWII.
Development of hi-fi: frequency reaching both limits of the
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1966: Yellow
submarine
The FM vs. AM radio
The magnetophone
The tape decks
Manipulation
Rock music
audibility range.
> The principle of feedback
> The development of stereo records (EMI 1957).
The coincidence of hypnosis and recording technology
Hypnotic sound detection: Hi-fi stereophony simulating any
acoustic space: real space or psychedelic spaces.
FM: technical superiority and relative cheapness as an
investment medium.
Multiplexing via FM: broadcast separate signals
simultaneously > hi-fi via radio.
Here also coupled with military innovations.
Germany WWII. “Part of the cultural SS”. Motorized and
mobilized audiotape.
Revolutionized secret transmissions.
Inaugurated the musical-acoustic present. Storage,
transmission and empires of simulation: can execute any
possible manipulation of data.
Audiotapes modernized sound production.
Made music consumers mobile, automobile.
Audiotapes make the unmanipulable manipulable.
Studio manipulations.
Burrough’s tape cut-up technique
“Play to the powers that be their own melody”(110).
Cut-ups: interceptions, chopping, feedback, amplification.
Film
Manipulation
Cuts from beginning
1878: Edward
Muybridge
Making of films
Theoretical
preconditions for the
invention of cinema
1) Afterimages
“(…) cinema has been the manipulation of optic nerves and
their time” (115). E.g. flash-like images of coca-ads in
feature-films.
Cinema began with reels, cuts and splices (as opposed to
sound recording).
Serial photographs > animal motion, later human motion.
Individually and sequentially positioned cameras.
> Thus, what invention did in fact mark the beginning of
film.
nothing but cutting and splicing: chopping up of continuous
motion/history before the lens.
Thus, cuts an fundamental difference from acoustic data
storage. Inaugurated the difference between the imaginary
and the real (phonograph as recording of the real, although
a reality beyond our senses). “Phonography and feature film
correspond to one another as do the real and the imaginary”
(119).
not merely celluloid
postulation of caesuras (break, pause)
> research on the 1) stroboscopic effect and 2) afterimages
Goethe, Fechner, Nietzsche
The physiological theory of perception as applied
perceptual practise.
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2) The stroboscopic
effect
Marey: the
chronophotographic
gun,
War and film
Dobbelgänger
Friedlander: “Fata
morgana machine”
(1920)
1891: Demeny
Film and madness
The simulacrum of
madness
Edgar Morin: “respond to the projection screen like a retina
inverted to the outside that is remotely connected to the
brain.” (121). Each image leaves an after-image.
Transforms the continuous flow of movement into
interferences. Discontinuity > second and imaginary
continuity.
Faraday: theory of alternating current
“Chopping and cutting in the real, fusion and flow in the
imaginary.”
Camera shaped like a rifle that records twelve successive
photographs per second.
Kittler again couples the development of media
technologies to war:
“the history of the movie camera thus coincides with the
history of automatic weapons” (124).
The power of images and film as a form of reconnaissance
and persuasion.
Ernst Jünger
“When war and cinema coincide, a communications zone
becomes the front, the medium of propaganda becomes
perception, and the movie theatre of Douchy the scheme or
schemes for an otherwise invisible enemy” (132).
“Two parts of one force, fused into one body (Jünger)”
(132). The meeting of an imaginary other > Lacan (1936): a
mirror image that might restore the body back to wholeness.
The fictional, resistant Minister of war: “war would become
an impossibility that way” (135).
Dobbelgänger factory: film conditioned new bodies.
What is meant by these dobbeltgängers?
Photography of speech, with the use of Marey’s
chronophotograph. Apparently exaggerated oral movements
capturing what our eye cannot perceive.
Assignments from the French army: optimizing army
movements.
“Film’s other subject”.
Storing and reproducing hysteria.
Psychoanalyses. Imitates the dobbelgänger film by
translating it [what?] into words. The talking cure.
“Literally, psychoanalysis means chopping up an internal
film” (143). Freud unlocks images to decode the puzzles of
their signifiers (and not to store them).
Hans Hennes: filming as the only apparatus able to capture
precise observations that is not possible to see in real life.
“Once the filming is done, the pictures are available for
reproduction” (145) > Film are more real than reality, their
reproductions are productions.
< possible film tricks chopping up and reassembling body
movements.
“The age of media (not just since Turing’s game of
imitation) renders indistinguishable what is human and
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what is machine” (146).
Robert Wiene’s
Follows cinematographically modernized psychiatry.
Cabinet of Dr. Caligari Indistinguishability between framed and framing story.
(1920)
Storage technologies cannot and do not want to record the
difference (between sane and insane?).
Film dobbelgängers
film filming itself. In the line of fire of technological media
> Barbara La Marr in Arnold Bronnen’s novel. “Film
transforms life into a form of trace detection” (150).
> undermines the mirror stage: “films anatomize the
imaginary picture of the body that endows humans (in
contrast to animals) with a borrowed I” (150). Film as the
perfect mirror,
< as opposed to literature: not able to store bodies.
Film returned the imaginary, the fantasy to the world.
Film and fantasy
Based on the arguments of the dobbelgänger?
“the splitting of discourse into white noise and imagination,
speech and dream” (154).
Heinz Ewers: The student of Prague (1913)
Paul Lindau: The other (1913)
Hugo Münsterberg
The photoplay: a psychological study (1916). Relates film
and the central nervous system. Psychotechnology:
describes the science of the soul as an experimental setup.
Afterimages and stroboscopic effects necessary but not
enough > the creation of movement and life from the
pictures on the screen. Assembles reality from
psychological mechanism, film plays through what
attention, memory, imagination and memory perform as
unconscious acts. Film instantiates the neurological flow of
data.
Henri Bergson
Creative evolution (1907): “We take snapshots, as it were,
of the passing reality”, which – once it is “recomposed…
artificially, “ like a film – yields the illusion of movement”
(160).
Neurology and
1. Attention: Facts defined by their signal-to-noise ratio.
technological
“The close-up has objectified in our world of perception our
correlatives
mental act of attention” (162).
Béla Balázs The cinematic montage > renders unconscious processes
visually; the rhythm of montage reproduces the original
speed of the process of association.
Trick-film, fantasy and “Every dream becomes real”. How the camera can create
dream
magic, reverse action, turn flowers into girls.
> an imaginary beyond our direct sense of reality.
(today easily found in numerous music-videos).
Lacan’s theory
The real or even ‘knowledge’ as an impossibility. The
imaginary as an optical trick . Materializing the imaginary?
????
“You are infinitely more than you can imagine, subjects of
gadgets and instruments of all kinds – ranging from the
microscope to radio and television – that will become
Media technologically
elements of your being” (170).
differentiation
The separation of the three dimensions of media (real,
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> Media links
The silent film
imaginary and symbolic?) separated in a technologically
pure way.
The distinct data flows of optics, acoustics and writing
reunited. “The central nervous system was resurrected but
as a Golem made of Golems” (170).
> Lacan’s seminars on connecting the real, the symbolic
and the imaginary.
> The Internet as a relevant example?
Technological handicaps as aesthetics. Resistance to the
sound film in theories. “defensive measures against the
approaching media links” (172).
Typewriter
Inverts gender
Typescript
Mechanising writing
Discourses in the age
of Goethe
De-spiritualization of
the I and the I think?
Mechanical language
War context
> women secretaries
Martin Heidegger on
the hand and the
typewriter
The convergence of a profession, a machine and a sex.
Inverted the gender of writing > inverts the material basis of
literature.
Women as readers (but not writers) in the Guntenberg
Galaxy. Writing is a job for men.
Desexualising writing. Writing merely as word processing.
Requires redefined values. ‘Writing-machine’ as an
impossible term in the age of Goethe.
Authority and authorship, handwriting and re-reading, the
narcissism of creation and reader obedience. ???
The collapse of this system required for writing-machines
to develop.
The spirit and the ‘I think’ and the unity of apperception.
The centre of Man. This had to be collapsed and was
collapsed with the body and soul becoming the objects of
scientific experiments. Psychophysics and
psychotechnology > Nietzsche’s ‘humans are perhaps only
thinking, writing, and speaking machines.’ (188).
Language as a feedback loop of mechanical relays (pov.
Brain physiology) > typewriter; the writing machine. The
body and soul first had to be objects for research > the
mechanical body.
Writing instruments with the speed of nervous pathways.
Kittler again returns to the significance of war: Typwriting
as a by-product of the American civil war.
“The typewriter became a discursive machine-gun” (‘191).
Typewriters developed a profession of women secretaries.
Near exponential growth in women typists. “Women were
allowed to reign over text processing all by themselves.
Since then, ‘discourse has been secondary’ and
desexualised” (195).
The relationship among Being, Man and typwriter.
The word is degraded to a mere means of communication
(as opposed to what previously?). “(…) when writing was
withdrawn from the origin of its essence, i.e., from the
hand, and was transferred to the machine, a transformation
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Nietzsche
Malling Hansen’s
skrivekugle
Ecriture automatique
De-masculinized
Lou von Salomé
On the Genealogy of
Morals
Literary desk couples
The effect of
technology on writing
A new discourse?
Carl Schmitt: “Die
Buribunken” (1918)
occurred in the relation of Being to man” (1999). The
typewriter changes the modern relation of the hand to
writing (to the word, to the unconcealedness of Being).
First to use a typewriter due to his near-blindness.
Writing technology changes our way of thoughts. Like with
N’s change to aphorisms, telegram-style writing, puns.
Made Nietzsche into a laconic.
Made to compensate for physiological deficiencies and to
increase writing speed.
> McLuhan: fuses composition and publication.
Nietzsche: “The eyes no longer have to do their work”
(202).
Mechanic writing refuses the phallocentrism of pens and
quills. Feminization.
Replaced his writing ball.
Nietzsche’s philosophy implemented the desexualization of
writing and the university. ???
> aiming toward the creation of machine memory.
Presupposes the typwriter
“To make forgetful animals into human beings, a blind
force strikes that dismembers and inscribes their bodies in
the real, until pain itself brings forth a memory” (210).
Communication technologies forms humans.
??? Difficult pages
8 case studies to illustrate how women became important as
typewriters. To strengthen the argument of the feminisation
of writing.
> Make room for the woman author. Whereas women
earlier had to be anonymous and use pseudonyms.
A desexualized writing profession > empowers the domain
of text processing.
The Kafka and Felice Bauer story:
Also illustrated by a citation from T.S. Eliot: “that I am
sloughing off all my long sentences which I used to dote
upon” (229).
With reference to Foucault’s methodological explanation.
“Singular and spatialized, material and standardized,
stockpiles of signs indeed undermine so-called Man with
his intentions and the so-called world with its meaning”
(Kittler 229).
Alters the relationship of Being to Man (Heidegger and his
student Foucault).
The world history of inscription, “ein
geschictsphilosophischer Versuch”. Buribunks: diarytyping machines.
> modern loop of endless replication.
“the desire to record every second of one’s existence for
history, to immortalize oneself” [-> Lyotard].
Ferker. Be your own history, be accessible to your
biographer.
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The Buribunkic cosmos
The outsiders
The philosophy of
Buribunks
The media system
development
Digitalization
Schnekke: “Auf einer Ebene, wo das in eine dinghafte DuWelt sich projizierende Ich mit gewaltigem Rhytmus in das
Welt-Ich zurückströmt, ist in der absoluten Hingabe aller
Kräfte an das innerste Selbst und seine Identität die höchste
Harmonie errungen” (Schmitt: 100).
Schnekke lives for, in and through his diary.
A collective organism of diaries.
The pertinent registry of diary-entries. Unlimited and
infinitely understanding tolerance.
Outside of all discourse, no attention. Nonentities. “As if
swallowed from the earth, nobody knows them anymore,
nobody mentions them in their diaries, they are neither seen
nor heard” (240).
Here it is almost impossible not to use blogs to think with.
“Iche denke, also bin ich; ich rede, also bin ich; ich
schreibe, also bin ich; ich publiziere, also bin ich” (Schmitt:
103).
We understand ourselves as writing subjects. Writing
history as history writes us.
Kittler divides the history of media system into three parts:
1: American Civil War >: storage technologies for
acoustics, optics and scripts: film, gramophone, typewriter.
2: WWI>: electric transmission technologies for each
storage content:
3: WWII>: transferred the schematic of a typewriter to a
technology of predictability.
All media back to basics.
From continuity to bits.
Kittler proposes that Turing’s machine, the computer,
finally automate intelligent thinking? (As with the eye and
the ear previously?).
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