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Political Participation
US well known for low voter turnout – usually in the mid 40% to 50% range
Europe averages mid 70%
Most Americans follow political campaigns over 80%
73% of Americans say they voted in 2000 Pres election yet only 50% did
Who participates
 Education – the more education, the more likely to vote
 Religious involvement – as religious involvement increases so does participation
 Race and Ethnicity – Whites vote in higher % than blacks and Latinos
 Age – 18-24 year least likely to vote; the 45 year old and above vote in largest %
 Gender – since 1992 women vote in larger # than men, but PS’s say rate is =
 2 Party system – Lower competition lower voter turnout; rates increase greatly during
Presidential elections
 Since all people fit in various demographics, cross cutting cleavages form :
Would a 45 year old black female, regular church goer, with a PhD be more or less likely
to vote than a white male, with a high school dropout, heathen, 23 year old
Expanding Suffrage
 1830’s property restrictions lifted
 15th Amendment
Jim Crow Laws – attempts to limit black voters: in place through the
1960s; Plessey v. Ferguson – Separate but = IS Constitutional
Civil Rights Act 1964 and Voting Rights Act 1965 – Kills Jim Crow
Commerce clause
 Women’s Suffrage 19th Amendment 1919
 26th Amendment 1971 – 18 year olds allowed to vote
Voter Turnout
 Measured 2 ways
Proportion of registered voters that vote v. % of eligible voters that vote
 The 1st method reflects a much higher turnout
 More likely to vote if registered
 US is very low compared to other democracies – England 75%, Italy and Australia 90%
Voter Registration:
 States determine voter eligibility, no state allowed to impose more than a 30 day waiting
period
 “Motor-Voter” – allows citizens to register when getting or renewing their driver’s
license
Low voter turnout:
 Difficulty/process of absentee voting
 The vast number of offices
 Weekday v. weekend/holiday voting
 Weak Political parties
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Ballot fatigue
Americans tend to participate in large numbers beyond the traditional voting; campaign
contribution, community involvement, political volunteers, contacting public officials
Questions:
1. Why would over 70% of US citizens say they voted in the last Presidential election, when
in reality it was only approximately 50%
2. Is low voter turnout a “Bad” thing?
3. Why do younger citizens vote in smaller numbers than older citizens? How do you
propose to increase voter turnout for the 18-24 year old demographic?
4. Do you believe 527s increased the vote or did citizens recognize the significance of
voting?
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Elections and Campaigns
Over 500,000 elective offices nationwide
Campaigns are longer and more expensive than in previous years
Functions of elections
 Allows for political participation
 Legitimizes positions of power
Guidelines for elections
 Constitution sets broad parameters for elections
Sets terms for elected office
House 2 years
Senate 6 years
President 4 years, no more than 2 terms
 Sets date for national elections
Tuesday after the 1st Monday in November
Role of Political Parties
 Compared to other democracies, party in US less important: the candidate is responsible
for announcing, campaigning, collecting signatures, and fund raising
 Party influence greatly declined since 19th century
- Direct election of Senators 17th amendment
- Nominating conventions v. party caucuses (no more smoked filled rooms)
- New campaigning techniques, internet, email, cell phones, computers, etc. have
made candidates much less dependent on party
- Much less “Straight ticket” voting, now more split ticket
Winner take all
 Candidate who wins the most votes – wins: In most elections a plurality is all that is
required not a majority
 Single member districts
- Nearly insures a 2 party system since US does not operate a Proportional system
- Limits multiple parties
Primaries and General elections
 Primary – Reform from 19th century allowing more citizen participation
- Primary used to select the party’s candidates
 Closed Primary – Only party members are allowed to vote in their party’s primary (most)
 Open Primary – Voters choose for which party’s candidates to vote (only a few states)
 Blanket Primary – Can select different candidates for each office from both parties
 Caucus – Iowa: See note handout
 More people vote in General elections than in primaries 50% of eligible v. 25% eligible
Congressional v. Presidential elections
 Congressional Regional or statewide
 House elections less competitive: Strong incumbency advantage
 Fewer voters vote in midterm elections averages 36%
Mid term voters more activist and ideological than Presidential year votes
 Presidential popularity affects mid terms positively or negatively – Coattail effect
 Congress people have much more personal contact with constituents
 President relies on mass media
 Congress people can deny responsibility: Blame President or other members
Campaign and election reform
 Reform Act of 1974
- all contributions over $100 must be disclosed
- No foreign contributions
- Individual contributions limited to $1,000/candidate, $20,000 to a national party, and
$5,000 to a PAC
- PACs are allowed: contributions not to exceed $5,000 to a candidate and $15,000 to a
national party
- Federal matching funds provided to major candidates; only funds allowed after
conventions
 1976 Buckley v. Valeo: No limit on personal spending for your own campaign
- Ross Perot 1992 and 1996
 Soft Money - $ not specified for a candidate but given to party for “Party building”
Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act 2002
- Banned soft $ to national parties
- Limited campaign ads by interest groups
- Raised individual contributions to $2,000, and maximum to all candidates to $95,000
over a two year election cycle
Election 2000:
Bush v. Gore: Showed the problems of multiple ballot methods
527’s outgrowth of BCRA
 2002 restrictions led to 527’s
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Not a special interest or PAC: Independent but partisan groups raised significant amounts
of $ for both parties; ran negative campaign ads - can not say “do not vote for” or “vote
for” candidate X
In 2004 527’s raised characters issues
Critical realignment elections
 Realignment – Significant shift in the way a large group of voters from 1 party to another
 Realignment occurs because of significant issues: Primarily economic or social
 Election of 1860: Slavery divided the Democrats; 4 candidates; Republicans win; creates
a North – South split
- Republicans will dominate national politics until 1932
 Election of 1896: Economic realignment Democratic split: Farmer v. Laborer; former
democratic supporting laborers realign with Republicans: continues Repub dominance
 Election of 1932: Depression and citizen reaction to a perceived Republican inefficiency
- New Deal Coalition: Farmers, urban workers, northern blacks, southern whites
- Democrats will dominate until 1960s’
Dealignment: Recently voters less likely to affiliate with either party
 2004 election: alignment according to Red/Blue, primarily North/South, Urban/Rural
- New alliance highly religious w/out regard to religious affiliation – mainly voting
Republican
Questions:
1. Should any restrictions be placed on campaign contributions? Are campaign donations a
form of free speech?
2. Should there be a national standard for ballots? Would this be an infringement on states
rights?
3. The primary season is a long, expensive process. Should the US go to a 1 day or 1 week
super primary system?
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Political Parties
Recent pride in “independent” status; avoid labels like staunch Republican or loyal
democrat
Parties appear quickly during GWs 1st term
2004 may have reversed the anti label ideology
Political Party functions
 Connecting citizens to government: Linkage function – connecting a large population to
the governments at all levels
 Increases Political efficacy - the ability of a citizen to influence or be influenced by the
government
 Running candidates for office: Parties help fund and organize candidates
 Informing the public: Provide voters information on policy and candidates issues
 Organize government: Coordinate governmental policy; provides cohesion among 50
disparate states
Why 2 party system
 Consensus of values: Most Americans agree on broad political ideas, concepts and values
- In general limited range of beliefs v. Europe w/significant range of political beliefs
 History
 Winner take all system – single member district, pluralist electoral system; no proportion
 Organization of 2 party system
Grass roots organization: Strong state and local organization
- National chairman and committee
- National convention every 4 years to nominate Presidential candidate
- Congressional campaign committee to assist incumbents and challengers
- Broad ideological base to appeal to a large group: “Large umbrella or Big tent”
Historical development
 Federalists v. Anti Federalists 1790’s – 1810’s 2 party
 Era of Good Feelings 1816-1824 1 party
 Jacksonian Democracy 1828-mid 1800s 2 party emergence of Whigs
- Beginning of Democratic Party
- Universal manhood suffrage
- Nominating conventions
 Whigs few successes: Harrison and Taylor; no ideological coherence
 North south tension: Emergence of Republican Party will dominate through 1932
- End of Democratic dominance
- Characterized by Laissez Faire economic policy
 2nd Democratic Era 1932 - 1968
- Beginning of cooperative federalism
- More national government involvement in economy and states; Court Packing plan
 Era of Divided government
- 1968 - ? : Gridlock? Executive and Legislative Branch of differing parties for extended
 Republican hold on Presidency 1969 – 1993
- Republicans begin to use more professional approach, consultants, electronic media,
highly structured and organized
- Democrats begin a period of Grass roots organizing
- Reputation of leaderless, disorganized, and directionless – Lack vision
Minor parties/3rd Parties See notes handout
 Why 3rd parties do not win
- Often not taken seriously
- Issues they represent are co opted by major parties
- Funding is difficult
- Dominance of 2 parties
- “Winner take all” system, single member district
Party Power: Realignment v. Dealignment
 Straight ticket v. Split ticket voting
 2004
- Red v. Blue, West, Midwest, and Northeast v. Rest of nation
- Stronger party identification
- Breakup of the Solid South – Republicans gain control of Southern states
- National security and religion play significant role; creation of new religious alliance
Questions:
1. Is the dominance of a 2 party system antithetical to the true essence of democracy
2. What is the most significant factor causing party realignment/dealignment? Do you agree
that the 2004 election was a realignment?
Interest Groups
Interest group – Organization of people who enter the political process to achieve a goal
 About 2/3 of Americans belong to interest groups
 The practical application of Madison’s “Factions” in Federalist 10
Parties, Interest groups, PACs, and 527s
 All attempt to influence government policy making
Parties v. Interest groups
 Parties work through the electoral process; Parties run candidates – IGs and PACS
support candidates
 Parties generate and support a broad spectrum of policies – IGs and PACS very specific
policy issues
PACS and 527s
 PACS are the political arm of interest groups, legally entitled to raise voluntary funds to
candidates or parties
 The number of PACS has grown rapidly since 1974
 527s not regulated by Federal Election Commission
Pluralism v. Elitism v. Hyperpluralism
The growth of Interest Groups
 K Street
 Lobbyists
 General interest groups v. specific
Types of membership
 Individual v. Organizational
 Individual – Sierra Club, NAACP, AFL-CIO, NOW, AARP, Christian Coalition
 Organizational – National Council of Education, National League of Cities, NMA
Types of IGs
 Economic – profits, prices and wages
- Labor Unions – In decline
- Agricultural groups – Not as powerful as used to be
- Business groups – US Chamber of Commerce, Pharmaceutical lobby: over 200 million
spent on lobbying in 2000
- Professional groups – AMA, AAUP, NEA, ABA: Attempt to influence policy on issues
specific to their professions
Consumer and Public Interest Groups
 Ralph Nader
 PIRGs, Common Cause – Electoral reform, League of Women Voters
 Environmental interests – Sierra Club, Audubon Society
Sometimes Interest Groups are in Conflict: Economic IGs are in conflict with environmental or
consumer groups.
How IGs work
 Lobbying
- contacting Government officials
- Meeting and socializing
- Lunches
- Testifying at Congressional hearings
- Lobbyists can provide expert testimony and information to Congressman which
sometimes Congressman do not have time to get on their own
 Electioneering
- Supporting candidates via $
- PACs help pay costs of candidates sympathetic to their issue
 Litigation
- IGs will sue to bring their issue to the fore
- Successful in Civil Rights legislation of 1950s and 60s
- Brown v. Board
- Amicus Curiae briefs – Friends of the court: Written arguments to courts supporting a
particular cause, issue or case
- Class Action suits – similar plaintiffs file as one large group: Brown v. Board
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Appealing to the Public
- Beef: It is what’s for dinner
- Pharmacy
- NRA
Ratings game
 IGs rate candidates on issues that are important to them
IG $$
 Foundation grants – Ford Foundation, Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, EDF
 Federal Grants and contracts
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Direct Solicitation – Individuals make contributions directly to a cause: NAACP, NRA,
ACLU
Effective Interest Groups
 Size – AARP
- Free Rider – The larger the group - more likely members will think others will do work
 Intensity – Single issues groups are most intense: Gun control, Pro choice/life
 Financial resources – Fund raising is critical
Revolving Door
 Government officials often times end up working for IGs that once lobbied them
Most current SC ruling on Lobbyists and interest groups
 Citizens United v. FEC
Questions:
1. Are IGs dangerous to a democratic society or is it simply as Madison predicted in
Federalist 10?
2. Is there too much $$$ in Washington? Do lobbyists have too much influence?
3. Does an IG need all 3 parts to be effective? Consider the AARP v. NRA
Public Opinion
Polling data
Measuring public opinion – Relatively new science
 Gallup Poll 1932
 Today CNN, Fox, CBS, USA Today, NYT all sponsor polls
 Representative Sample
- Random Sampling Usually 1000 – 1500 respondents = a +/- 3% error rate
 1936 Literary Digest Poll fiasco – See notes handout
 Respondents knowledge – Must allow for respondents lack of knowledge
 Careful and objective wording – Cautious of loaded questions or words
- Question can be yes/no or list of strength responses
 Cost v. Accuracy – Call in polls are not reliable but are cheap
 Variance between samples – Sampling error
Factors that influence Political Attitudes
 Political socialization – Lifelong process whereby an individual gains their opinion and
beliefs
1. Family – Most significant influence on beliefs: Correlation between parents political
beliefs and children – Not as strong recently – Growth of independents
2. Gender – “Gender Gap” Women are more likely to vote Democratic, although may be in
decline – 2004 48% of women voters voted Republican
- Women vote more often than men
3. Married v. Unmarried – Married more likely to vote Republican: Wide disparity
4. Religion – See notes handout – Rise of fundamentalism 2004
5. Education – The higher the economic level more likely to vote Conservative, although a
college education tends to make citizens more liberal in their political, economic, and
social views
6. Social Class – the strong links that used to exist no longer do: No clear connection
between social class and voting patterns
7. Race and Ethnicity – Most groups tend to vote Democratic, exception Cuban –
Americans who vote in large numbers for Republicans: strongest affiliation is blacks who
overwhelmingly vote Democratic 90%, decrease from previous years
8. Geographic Region – Coasts tend to be more liberal: Maybe a more urban/rural split
Solid South no longer Democratic: civ Rights issues have become social, moral and
security issues
Push polling – Polls intentionally designed to make voters think a specific way
 Results are not generally recorded, really have no meaning, poll is only intended to make
voters react
 John McCain 2000 SC primary; 2002 Ga. Senate election Max Cleland
Questions:
1. Do politicians place too much emphasis on polling?
2. In what ways may polls be misleading? What is critical for polls to be effective?