THE ILLICIT ANTIQUITIES TRADE
Illegal digging at archaeological sites and the trade in illicitly-obtained art and antiquities represent serious threats to the preservation of
cultural heritage. Antiquities trafficking is reportedly a multi-billion dollar industry in which organized criminal and even terrorist networks
are rumored to have become involved. Despite its criminal dynamics & reported connections to other criminal activity, the illicit antiquities
trade has been understudied among criminologists until recently. Below is a summary of facts known and unknown about the trade;
suggestions for future research directions are subsequently included.
Knowns
 The antiquities trade represents a transnational “grey” market with both licit and illicit dynamics. It is similar to and different from
other criminal markets and can therefore be studied fruitfully in comparison with other criminal trades and within a criminological
framework. Dealers’ attitudes, for example, are very similar to other white-collar criminals in terms of how they rationalize their
wrongdoing.

The antiquities trade is largely fueled by site looting. In fact, antiquities market and collecting trends are correlated with intensified
looting and destruction at archaeological sites.

Looting is a globally pervasive problem that occurs in both impoverished and wealthier industrialized nations; sites are repeatedly
victimized and looting does not appear to be decreasing in frequency.

There is some evidence to suggest that organized criminal groups of all types are now smuggling not only illicit drugs and arms but
are also dealing in looted antiquities.

Smuggling of looted antiquities has also reportedly been connected to the funding of terrorist activities.
Unknowns
 What is the size of the illegal market, in terms of either monetary value or numbers of artifacts? What proportion of the overall
antiquities trade is, in other words, illicit? How much of the overall market takes place off the public record?

The ability to move illicit antiquities transnationally presumably requires smuggling networks and some corruption. But how
exactly do objects travel from the ground in source countries to market nations? What exactly happens along these routes, who is
involved, and how do networks form, collaborate, and bond? What is the nature of the inner-workings of markets and trafficking
patterns?

Is there a profile of a criminal or smuggler who deals in antiquities? If so, what is it?

To what extent is antiquities trafficking connected to other forms of illegal activity, such as organized crime, drug trafficking, and
terrorism? Do the same people do both? Are the same criminal networks and smuggling routes used?

How amenable are dealers and collectors to criminal deterrence? Would restorative (non-punitive) responses be an effective
supplement to extant criminal sanctions?
Future Research Directions
 Filling in the knowledge gaps listed above, plus:

Within a criminological framework, explore whether a harm reduction or demand reduction strategy can be a viable approach to
reducing the illicit market

Particularly through a criminological lens, examine the role that looting plays in the supply-demand tug-of-war in the illicit
antiquities market

Pursue empirical documentation of the intersections of the illicit antiquities trade with organized crime, drug trafficking, and
terrorism. Examination of court and investigative records, development of victimization surveys, interviews with informants, and
ethnographic approaches to data collection are but a few possibilities.
Blythe A. Bowman, Ph.D., Virginia Commonwealth University, USA
Simon Mackenzie, Ph.D., Scottish Centre for Crime & Justice Research, University of Glasgow, Scotland
Matthew Pate, ABD, University of Albany, USA
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