НОУ ВПО ИНСТИТУТ УПРАВЛЕНИЯ, БИЗНЕСА И ПРАВА
И.В.Докучаева
УЧЕБНО-МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЙ КОМПЛЕКС
ДИСЦИПЛИНЫ
МЕТОДИКА ПРЕПОДАВАНИЯ ИНОСТРАННЫХ ЯЗЫКОВ
Ростов-на-Дону
2009
Учебно-методический комплекс материалов по дисциплине «Методика преподавания
иностранных языков» разработан в соответствии с требованиями Государственного
образовательного стандарта высшего образования и предназначен для студентов, обучающихся
по специальности 031001.65 «Филология» по специализации «Зарубежная филология
(английский язык и литература, второй иностранный язык)».
Учебно-методический комплекс одобрен решением кафедры «Филология», утверждён и
рекомендован к печати Учебно-методическим советом образовательного проекта «Гуманитарные
технологии в управлении и бизнесе» Института управления, бизнеса и права (протокол № от
00.04.2009).
Учебно-методический комплекс содержит учебную программу курса, учебно-тематические
планы проведения лекционных и практических занятий, список основной и дополнительной
учебной литературы, конспекты лекций, задания по выполнению самостоятельной работы,
структуру и балльную оценку рейтингового контроля знаний, перечень контрольных вопросов по
дисциплине, тестовые задания для самопроверки, экзаменационные вопросы, словарь ключевых
терминов и понятий.
Составитель: канд.филол.наук, доцент Докучаева И.В.
Рецензент: канд.псих.наук, доцент
СОДЕРЖАНИЕ
Введение
1. Учебная программа дисциплины
2. Учебно-тематический план
2.1 Лекционные занятия
2.2 Практические занятия
2.3 Учебно-методическое обеспечение дисциплины
3. Конспекты лекций по дисциплине
4. Содержание практических занятий
4.1 Планы практических занятий
4.2 Проблемные ситуации для обсуждения на практических занятиях
5. Организация самостоятельной работы
5.1 Содержание самостоятельной работы
5.2 Примерная тематика рефератов
5.3 Учебно-методическое обеспечение
6. Словарь основных терминов и понятий
7. Рейтинговая система контроля знаний студентов
7.1 Содержание и балльная оценка рейтингов по дисциплине
7.2 Вопросы рейтингового контроля
7.3 Тестовые задания для самопроверки
7.4 Вопросы экзаменационного контроля
ВВЕДЕНИЕ
Курс методики преподавания иностранных языков занимает одно из ведущих мест в
системе профессиональной подготовки будущего специалиста – преподавателя иностранных
языков.
Целью преподавания дисциплины является овладение студентами теорией изучения
иностранных языков, что предполагает:
1. Создание у студентов широкой теоретической базы для их будущей профессиональной
деятельности (студент должен знать основные методические категории, чётко
представлять дидактическую структуру процесса обучения иностранным языкам).
2. Знакомство студентов с наиболее важными методами, средствами и организационными
формами обучения иностранным языкам.
3. Выработку у студентов умения эффективно и творчески использовать эти формы и
методы обучения на практике.
Программа по курсу методики, на которую отводится 44 часа аудиторных занятий (22 часа
на лекции и 22 часа на практические занятия), состоит из трёх основных разделов:
1. Теоретические основы методики обучения иностранным языкам.
2. Обучение основным видам речевой деятельности. В начале раздела освещается
методика работы над фонетическим, грамматическим и лексическим аспектами этих
видов речевой деятельности.
3. Организация процесса обучения иностранным языкам.
Лекции по курсу должны ввести студентов в методику как науку. В них сообщаются
основные сведения по истории и теории современной отечественной и зарубежной методики
преподавания иностранных языков, излагаются методические проблемы и возможные пути
реализации действующих программ по иностранным языкам с опорой на знания студентов по
психолого-педагогическим и языковым дисциплинам. Лекции готовят студентов к критическому
анализу методической литературы, программ, учебников. На практических занятиях уделяется
большое внимание анализу учебных материалов, решению методических задач, планированию
методического процесса. Программа рассчитана также на углубленную самостоятельную работу
студентов.
В качестве основных задач теоретического курса «Методика преподавания иностранных
языков» выдвигаются следующие:
- раскрыть главные компоненты теории обучения иностранным языкам и на этой основе
научить студентов использовать теоретические знания при решении вопросов, относящихся к
практике преподавания;
- ознакомить студентов с современными ведущими тенденциями в обучении иностранным
языкам в России и за рубежом;
- приобщить будущих преподавателей к чтению специальной научно-методической
литературы с целью постоянного повышения уровня профессиональной квалификации.
В результате изучения курса студенты должны знать:
- основные методические категории,
- основные направления развития современной лингводидактики,
- прогрессивные технологии обучения иностранным языкам.
Студенты должны уметь:
- свободно проектировать и моделировать учебный процесс по иностранным языкам на
основе теоретических закономерностей и передовой педагогической практики,
- отбирать учебный материал и структурировать его в соответствии с необходимым
целеполаганием,
- отбирать наиболее эффективные формы и методы обучения и контроля.
Курс методики преподавания иностранных языков даёт студентам общий подход к
профессиональному решению педагогических задач, на основе которого в ходе последующей
активной педагогической практики у них формируются профессиональные умение и навыки.
1 УЧЕБНАЯ ПРОГРАММА ДИСЦИПЛИНЫ
Цели, содержание и средства обучения иностранным языкам
Практические общеобразовательные и воспитательные цели обучения иностранным языкам в
средней школе. Их взаимосвязь и взаимозависимость
Содержание обучения иностранному языку. Понятие "содержание обучения". Различные точки
зрения на сущность содержания обучения иностранному языку. Составные части содержания.
Учебный материал по фонетике, лексике и грамматике. Понятие "минимума" языкового и
речевого материала. Проблема отбора минимума. Тематика учебного материала для обучения
устной речи и чтению.
Роль и место основных и вспомогательных средств в обучении иностранным языкам. Понятие
"средство обучения языку". Учебник, книга для чтения, наглядные пособия. Технические
средства обучения, средства зрительной, слуховой и зрительно-слуховой наглядности,
программированные средства обучения.
Проблема учебника и учебного комплекса по иностранному языку. Основные концепции,
положенные в основу учебных комплексов; их структура и принципы построения. Содержание и
оформление учебных комплексов для разных ступеней обучения.
Основные
этапы
развития
методики
обучения
иностранным
языкам
Краткий исторический обзор методики обучения иностранным языкам в России и за рубежом
XIX и начала XX в; переводные и прямые методы.
Социальные и экономические причины, психологические и лингвистические предпосылки
возникновения переводных и прямых методов. Грамматико-переводной и текстуальнопереводной методы в России и за рубежом.
Прямые методы в России и за рубежом (основные представители, цели, содержание, принципы и
методические приемы). Критический анализ прямых методов.
Метод Г.Палмера и метод М.Уэста. Краткий обзор их учебников. Смешанный метод в России и
за рубежом.
Новые тенденции в обучении иностранным языкам за рубежом. Социальные и экономические
причины, психологические и лингвистические предпосылки возникновения новых тенденций.
Аудиовизуальный и аудиолингвальный методы. Основные представители, цели, содержание,
принципы и методические приемы обучения. Принципы построения учебников по этим методам.
Современные методы обучения иностранным языкам.
Обучение фонетике, грамматике и лексике
Комплексный характер использования языкового материала (фонетического грамматического и
лексического) во всех видах речевой деятельности, аудировании, говорении, чтении и письме.
Проблема отбора и методической организации языкового материала с учетом вида речевой
деятельности. Роль и место правил при обучении фонетическому,
грамматическому и
лексическому материалу. Понятие о произносительных, грамматических и лексических навыках,
их особенности, взаимодействие в различных видах речевой деятельности (говорении, чтении и
письме).
Обучение фонетике
Фонетическая правильность устной речи как одно из важных условий пользования ею как
средством коммуникации. Основная цель обучения фонетическому аспекту речи - создание
произносительных и ритмико-интонационных навыков. Особенности рецепции и репродукции
звуковой стороны речи. Способы введения и приемы объяснения фонетического материала на
разных этапах обучения. Возможность и целесообразность использования транскрипции.
Типология фонетических упражнений. Использование технических средств при обучении
произношению. Приемы и способы контроля произносительных и ритмико-интонационных
навыков. Предупреждение и исправление фонетических ошибок.
Овладение прочными зрительными и слухо-речемоторными связями - главный фактор
фонетически правильного чтения. Роль устного опережения для формирования механизмов
чтения. Трудности формирования графемно-фонемных связей на иностранном языке,
обусловленные расхождениями систем графемно-фонемных связей в родном и иностранных
языках. Типология упражнений, направленных на формирование и совершенствование
зрительных и слухо-речемоторных и смысловых связей (навыков чтения).
Этапы работы над произносительной стороной устной речи и чтения. Задачи и особенности
каждого этапа. Способы объяснения фонетического материала. Роль имитации, аналогии и
правил при обучении произношению.
Обучение грамматике
Роль грамматики при обучении устной речи, чтению и письму. Критерий отбора
грамматического материала для обучения устной речи и чтению. Различные подходы к решению
вопроса о методической организации грамматического материала при обучении устной речи и
чтению.
Основная цель обучения грамматической стороне устной речи - создание грамматических
навыков (автоматизмов). Различные точки зрения на грамматические навыки. Основные этапы
работы над грамматическим материалом. Пути и способы введения грамматического материала в
зависимости от характера языкового явления и ступени обучения. Возможность и
целесообразность «лексического» усвоения отдельных грамматических явлений. Различные
взгляды на типологию грамматических упражнений (языковые подготовительные, речевые,
условно-речевые, подлинно-коммуникативные). Классификация одноязычных упражнений. Роль
и место переводных упражнений.
Грамматические трудности при аудировании и пути их преодоления. Способы и приемы
исправления грамматических ошибок в устных высказываниях учащихся.
Особенности грамматических навыков и умений чтения. Пути и способы введения и закрепления
грамматического материала для рецептивного усвоения. Роль и место грамматического анализа
текста. Упражнения, направленные на формирование рецептивных грамматических навыков
чтения. Требования к грамматической стороне учебных текстов. Приемы и способы проверки
грамматических навыков чтения
Обучение лексике
Различные точки зрения на лексические навыки и умения. Принципы организации лексики при
обучении иностранному языку. Основные этапы работы над лексическими навыками. Работа над
изолированным словом и словом в контексте. Приемы и способы раскрытия значения лексики в
зависимости от характера слова и ступени обучения (наглядность, перевод, толкование, контекст,
словообразовательный анализ).
Классификация лексически направленных упражнений. Требование к упражнениям для
автоматизации лексики: ограничение лексических трудностей; рациональная дозировка новой
лексики, вводимой на одном уроке с учетом особенностей слова, цели и ступени обучения;
тренировка нового слова в знакомом лексическом окружении и в знакомых грамматических
формах и конструкциях и др.
Лексические трудности при аудировании и пути их преодоления. Формы и способы контроля
лексических навыков. Приемы и способы исправления ошибок в устных высказываниях
учащихся. Возможности использования технических средств обучения при работе над
лексической стороной устной речи.
Особенности лексических навыков чтения. Пути и способы введения и закрепления лексического
материала. Овладение словообразовательными элементами изучаемого языка. Формирование
потенциального словаря учащихся при чтении. Упражнения, развивающие догадку о значении
нового слова. Упражнения, обучающие учащихся пользованию словарем.
Обучение речевым умениям
Устная и письменная речь. Краткая характеристика устной речи: мотивированность,
информативность, автоматизированность в восприятии и пользовании языковым материалом.
Понятие о структуре речевой деятельности: мотив, цель, средство, условие. Условия подлинной
коммуникация. Проблема мотивации речевой деятельности учащихся.
Обучение аудированию
Аудирование как вид речевой деятельности. Взаимосвязь аудирования с говорением чтением и
письмом. Основные лингвистические и психологические трудности при восприятии и понимании
речи на слух (стиль произношения, темп звучащей речи, направленность
внимания,
композиционные и стилистические особенности воспринимаемых речевых сообщений);
способы их предупреждения и преодоления. Особенности аудирования ситуативной и
контекстной, монологической и диалогической речи, особенности понимания речи при
непосредственном общении и речи в магнитной записи.
Основные ступени обучения аудированию и их взаимосвязь. Упражнения, направленные на
развитие умения аудирования: а) упражнения в аудировании диалогической речи; б) упражнения
в аудировании монологической речи.
Приемы и способы контроля понимания диалогической и монологической речи на слух.
Использование технических средств при обучении аудированию.
Приемы и способы контроля навыков и умений аудирования.
Обучение говорению
Говорение как вид речевой деятельности. Взаимосвязь говорения с аудированием, чтением и
письмом.
Основные
лингвистические
и
психологические
трудности
говорения.
Автоматизированные и неавтоматизированные компоненты говорения. Понятия подготовленной
и неподготовленной речи. Соотношение подготовленной и неподготовленной речи при обучении
иностранному языку. Основные виды устной речи: монологическая и диалогическая. Проблема
последовательности обучения диалогической и монологической речи. Понятие "речевая
ситуация". Основные виды речевых ситуаций и способы их создания.
Структура речевой коммуникации и проблема создания ситуаций в учебном процессе:
1. Определение понятия "ситуация" в методической литературе.
2. Структура речевой ситуации (мотив, направленность речевого акта, обстоятельства, участники
общения, отношения между предметами и явлениями и между собеседниками).
3.Приемы создания речевых ситуаций в учебном процессе.
Упражнения как основной способ организации речевой деятельности учащихся при обучении
иностранным языкам и методические требования к ним.
Обучение монологической речи. Психологическая характеристика монологической речи
(логическая связность, смысловая завершенность, контекстность и др.).
Лингвистическая
характеристика
монологической
речи
(полносоставность,
развернутость,
разноконструкторность
предложений,
наличие
в
них
связующих
элементов).
Лингвометодическая характеристика единицы обучения монологической речи.
Упражнения для обучения монологической речи:
а) логически связное сочетание предложений;
б) обучение развернутым высказываниям по тексту, по теме, на основе ситуации. Приемы и
способы контроля уровня владения монологической речью.
Обучение диалогической речи. Психологическая характеристика диалогической речи (наличие
не менее двух партнеров, обращенность, ситуативная обусловленность и спонтанность,
коммуникативная мотивированность, эмоциональная окрашенность). Лингвистическая
характеристика
диалогической
речи
(реплецирование, неполносоставность реплик, их
Экстралингвистическая обусловленность, наличие речевых штампов и др.). Диалогическое
единство как исходная единица обучения диалогической речи. Характеристика основных типов
диалогических единств для обучения диалогической речи и последовательность овладения их
сочетанием в соответствии с целями обучения.
Упражнения для развития диалогической речи:
а) обучение речевому реагированию на реплику собеседника;
б) обучение речевому стимулированию (т. е. умению начинать диалог);
в) обучение двусторонней речевой активности (умение поддерживать разговор).
Создание наглядно-ситуативных и контекстных опор (диалог с опорой на зрительную
наглядность, на заданные слова, прочитанный или прослушанный текст, диалог по заданной теме
или межтемным ситуациям).
Обучение чтению
Чтение как вид речевой деятельности. Роль и место чтения в обучении иностранным языкам в
средней школе. Психофизиологическая природа чтения: процессы восприятия и понимания
печатного текста, внутренняя и внешняя речь при чтении. Связь чтения с устной речью и
письмом.
Виды чтения, различные способы их классификации. Отбор текстов и их адаптация. Требования
к текстам для разных видов чтения. Лексический и грамматический минимум. Рецептивный и
потенциальный словарь учащихся.
Обучение технике чтения. Упражнения для обучения технике чтения вслух и про себя. Развитие
скорости чтения. Приемы исправления ошибок при обучении технике чтения.
Чтение с непосредственным пониманием. Назначения данного вида чтения. Краткая
характеристика текстов для беспереводного чтения с точки зрения их содержания, языковых
особенностей и композиции. Упражнения для обучения беспереводному чтению.
Объем классного и домашнего беспереводного чтения. Учет и контроль чтения. Виды домашних
задании и приемы их проверки. Использование текстов для контроля понимания прочитанного.
Чтение со словарем. Использование элементов анализа. Назначение данного вида чтения.
Требования к текстам. Обучение пользованию словарем. Методика обучения чтению с
элементами анализа на разных ступенях. Понятие об адекватном и дословном переводе. Анализ и
интерпретация. Контроль чтения, виды домашних заданий и приёмы их проверки, критерии
оценок.
Обучение письму
Письмо как вид речевой деятельности. Роль письма на различных ступенях обучения.
Краткая психофизиологическая характеристика письма. Связь письма с устной речью и чтением.
Обучение технике письма: овладение графикой, каллиграфией и орфографией. Фонетико орфографические упражнения для закрепления звуко-буквенных соответствий. Роль наглядных
пособий и технических средств при обучении навыкам письма. Приемы исправления ошибок в
орфографии и правописании.
Методика обучения умениям правильно выражать свои мысли в письменной форме. Виды
письменных работ (изложение или сочинение на изученную тему, аннотация или рецензия на
прочитанный текст, составление текста письма).
Примерные требования к речевым письменным сообщениям на различных ступенях обучения и
критерии оценок. Классные и домашние письменные работы и методика их исправления. Работа
над ошибками.
Контроль знаний и умений
Роль контроля и учета знаний, речевых умений и навыков в процессе обучения иностранному
языку. Обучающая функция контроля. Объекты контроля. Виды контроля: текущий, итоговый.
Формы контроля: устный и письменный. Приемы, используемые учителем при контроле:
индивидуальный и фронтальный контроль. Самоконтроль. Роль тестов и программирования в
проведении контроля и самоконтроля.
Проблема нормативов по отдельным видам речевой деятельности и критерий оценок.
Организация процесса обучения иностранным языкам
Планирование
Виды занятий по иностранному языку: обязательный курс и внеклассная работа.
Планирование работы каждого из указанных видов. Важнейшие требования к планированию
знаний учащихся, их подготовки по иностранному языку, интересов и общего уровня развития;
значение программ, учебников, учебных пособии и других средств обучения; использование
конкретных условий в целях более успешного обучения данному предмету.
Урок иностранного языка. Требования к современному уроку (коммуникативная направленность;
единство практических, общеобразовательных и воспитательных задач; самостоятельность и
творческая активность учащихся; создание мотивации учения и др.).
Характеристика системы уроков. Соотношение основной задачи урока с целями и содержанием
обучения. Структурные типы уроков. Сущность и критерии типологии уроков. Характеристика
уроков разного типа.
Виды планов: тематический и поурочный. Творческое использование книг для учителя при
составлении указанных видов плана. Тематическое планирование и его задачи. Отражение в
тематическом плане взаимодействия аудиторных, лабораторных и домашних занятий.
Составление поурочных планов на основе тематического плана.
Курс иностранного языка в средней общеобразовательной школе и вузе
Три ступени обучения иностранному языку в школе: начальная, средняя, старшая.
Особенности обучения иностранным языкам в высшей школе.
Цели и задачи факультативного курса. Содержание курса. Организация факультативных занятий.
Методика проведения факультативных занятий.
Роль внеурочной работы по иностранному языку в повышении мотивации учения. Виды и
формы внеурочной работы по иностранному языку на разных ступенях обучения. Задачи и
содержание внеурочной работы в зависимости от её видов и формы. Методика проведения
внеурочной работы, определяемая видом, формой и ступенью обучения.
2 УЧЕБНО-ТЕМАТИЧЕСКИЙ ПЛАН
№
п/п
Темы лекций
Краткое содержание лекций
1
Teaching methodology
2
Learning and teaching processes
3
Teaching the language
4
Teaching language skills
5
Evaluation
6
Planning lessons
1. Methods of foreign language
teaching as a scientific theory
2. Approaches, methods, procedures
and techniques
3. Syllabuses and course books
4. Educational technology and other
teaching equipment
1. The teaching process
2. Presentations and explanations
3. Practice activities. Task types and
parameters
4. Class organization
1. Teaching pronunciation
2. Teaching vocabulary
3. Teaching grammar
1. Teaching listening
2. Teaching speaking
3. Teaching reading
4. Teaching writing
1. Correction and feedback
2. Tests and testing
1. The necessity of planning
2. Unit planning
3. Planning a class period
Итого:
Кол-во
часов
2.1 Лекционные занятия
4
4
4
4
4
2
22
2.2 Практические занятия
1
Innovative approaches
1. Comprehension-based
approaches
2. Production-based learning
3. Humanistic
and
psychosuggestive approaches
4. Communicative approach
4
2
Techniques for classroom interaction
1.
2.
3.
4.
4
3
Focusing on language
1. Pronunciation teaching
2. Teaching grammar
3. Vocabulary
learning
teaching
4
Receptive and productive
skills
Whole-class teaching
Individualized learning
Pair work
Group work
1. Teaching receptive skills:
- reading;
4
and
4
- listening
2. Teaching productive skills:
- speaking;
- writing
3. Integrated skills
4. Communication games
5
Tests and testing
1.
2.
3.
4.
The characteristics of tests
Types of test item
Teaching the test
Public exams
6
Practical lesson management
1. The shape of a lesson
2. Lesson preparation
3. Varying lesson components
4. Ordering components
5. Practical lesson management
6. Criteria for evaluating lesson
effectiveness
Итого:
Всего:
4
2
22
44
2.3 Учебно-методическое обеспечение дисциплины
2.3.1 Основная литература
1. Р.П.Мильруд. Методика преподавания английского языка. English Teaching Methodology. –
М.: Дрофа, 2005
2. Jeremy Harmer. The Practice of English Language Teaching – Longmаn, 2001
3. Penny Ur. A Course in Language Teaching – Cambridge University Press, 1996
4. Marianne Celce – Murсia, Editor. Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language – Boston,
Massachusetts, 1991
5. G.V.Rogova, Methods of Teaching English – M.: Просвещение, 1983
2.3.2 Дополнительная литература
1. М.Julian Edge. Essentials of English Language Teaching – Longmаn, 1996
2. Donn Byrne. Techniques for Classroom Interaction – Longmаn, 1996
3. Jeremy Harmer. Teaching and Learning Grammar – Longmаn, 1996
2.3.3 Методические пособия
1. Докучаева И.В. Методика обучения иностранным языкам. Учебно-методический комплекс. –
Ростов н/Д: ИУБиП, 2004
2. Программа педагогической практики по специальности «Филология». / Составитель:
Докучаева И.В. - Ростов н/Д: ИУБиП, 2004
2.3.4 Программное обеспечение
СДО Прометей / Библиотека / Электронный УМК «Методика обучения иностранному языку»
3 КОНСПЕКТЫ ЛЕКЦИЙ
CONTENTS
Lecture 1
Teaching methodology (4 часа)
1. Methods of foreign language teaching as a scientific theory
2. Approaches, methods and techniques
3. Syllabuses and course books
4. Educational technology and other teaching equipment
Lecture 2
Learning and teaching processes (4 часа)
1. The teaching process
2. Presentations and explanations
3. Practice activities. Task types and parameters
4. Class organization
Lecture 3
Teaching the language (4 часа)
1. Teaching pronunciation
2. Teaching vocabulary
3. Teaching grammar
Lecture 4
Teaching language skills (4 часа)
1. Teaching listening
2. Teaching speaking
3. Teaching reading
4. Teaching writing
Lecture 5
Evaluation (2 часа)
1. Correction and feedback
2. Tests and testing
Lecture 6
Planning lessons (2 часа)
1. The necessity of planning
2. Unit planning
3. Planning a class period
LECTURE 1 TEACHING METHODOLOGY
1.1 Methods of Foreign Language Teaching as a Scientific Theory
MFLT (Methods of Foreign Language Teaching) is a scientifically tested theory concerning the
teaching of foreign languages in schools and other educational institutions. It covers three main
problems:
1. aims of teaching a FL
2. content of teaching (i.e. what to teach to attain the aims)
3. methods and techniques of teaching (how to teach a FL to attain the aims in the most effective
way)
MFLT is closely related to other sciences such as pedagogy, psychology, physiology, linguistics and
some others.
In MFLT we differentiate between aims (long-term goals) and objectives (short-term goals,
immediate lesson goals).
Aims of teaching a foreign language
There are three aims which should be achieved in FL teaching: practical, educational, cultural.
The practical aim: the acquisition of a FL as a means of communication.
The educational aim: through FL study we can develop the pupil’s intellect. Teaching a FL helps the
teacher to develop the pupils’ voluntary and involuntary memory, his imaginative abilities and will
power.
Cultural aims: learning a FL makes the pupil acquainted with the life, customs and traditions of the
people whose language he studies through visual material and reading material; with the countries
where the target language is spoken.
Content of FLT
The first component is habits and skills which pupils should acquire (listening comprehension,
speaking, reading and writing).
The second component is a linguistic one. It includes:
1. Language material (sentence – patterns, pattern – dialogues, texts)
2. Linguistic material, i.e. phonology, grammar and vocabulary
3. The third component – methodological component, i.e. the techniques which pupils should
acquire to learn the FL in a most effective way. The content of teaching is laid down in the syllabus and
realized in teaching materials and in the teacher’s own speech.
Principles of FLT
MFLT are based on the fundamental principles of didactics: scientific approach in teaching school
subjects, accessibility, durability, conscious approach and activity, visualization and individual approach
to language institutions.
1. Scientific approach implies careful determination of what and how to teach to achieve the aims
set by the syllabus. Since the leading role belongs to the practical aim, one of the main methodological
principles is the principle of practical or communicative approach. It means pupils should be involved in
oral and written communications throughout the whole course of learning the FL. Pupils are taught a FL
as a means of communication.
2. The next principle is closely connected with the selection of the material and its arrangement to
provide accessibility for language learning on the part of the pupils.
3. The principle of durability implies the ability of a pupil to keep in his memory linguistic and
language material. The durability is ensured by vivid presentation of the material, by constant revision
of drill, by the use of the material for communicative needs, by systematic control.
4. The principle of conscious approach to language learning implies comprehension of a linguistic
phenomenon of language material by the pupil. Pupils are supposed to understand both the form and the
content of the material and to be aware of how they should treat the material while performing various
examples.
5. The principle of activity. In teaching a FL it is necessary to stimulate pupils’ activity by
involving them in the act of communication in the target language, either in its oral (listening, speaking)
or written (reading, writing) form. One needs a lot of practice in the use of the language to master it.
6. The principle of visualization. Visualization may be defined as specially organized
demonstration of linguistic material and language behavior characteristic of the target language with the
purpose of helping the pupil in understanding, assimilating and utilizing this in connection with the task
set. Visualization implies an extensive use of audio-visual aids and audio-visual materials throughout
the whole course of FLT.
7. The principle of individualization. The teacher should assess the progress of each individual in
the class and find the way how to manage the classroom activity so that the slowest learners are not
depressed by being left behind and the fastest and most able learners are not frustrated by being held
back.
1. 2 Approaches, Methods and Techniques
Approach refers to theories about the nature of language and language learning that serves as the
source of practices and principles in language teaching.
A method is the practical realization of an approach. Method may be defined as a way of governing
or guiding the learning. In a teaching – learning process method may be considered as a structural –
functional component of Teacher – Learner activity. Teacher and learner are interrelated. This
interrelation is carried out through methods.
The methods of teaching – learning process include:
1. The acquisition of new info about a new linguistic or language phenomenon (the pupil gets
knowledge of what he is to learn).
2. The drill and exercises (the pupil performs exercises to form habits on the material he learns).
3. Making use of the acquired habits in the act of communication, i.e. in listening, speaking,
reading, writing, in other words, in language skills.
Each method is realized in techniques. A technique is a way to organize a learning procedure. By a
technique we mean an individual way in doing something, in gaining a certain goal in teaching –
learning process. For example, while organizing pupils’ acquisition of a new sound the teacher can use
either demonstration of the pronunciation of the sound or an explanation of how the sound should be
pronounced in the target language or he uses both demonstration and explanation. To help pupils to
grasp this sound and produce it correctly as an isolated element, then in a word in which it occurs and in
various sentences with the word. An activity is a procedure of getting involved in learning. An exercise
is a skill-developing procedure.
The choice of techniques is of great importance for effective teaching. When organizing pupils’
acquisition of a new material the teacher thinks of the techniques which are more suitable for his pupils:
he takes into consideration pupils’ age, the progress in language learning (the stage of learning), their
intellectual development, and the conditions under which pupils learn.
Pre-communication methods
The way towards communicative teaching has been a long and controversial one with advances and
set backs. The focus of attention has gradually shifted from the language as a systematic code to the
language as a means of communication with the search for an effective method of instruction and
consideration of the learner's personality.
Grammar translation method included detailed analysis of grammar rules, translating sentences and
texts into and out of the target language, memorizing rules and manipulating morphology and syntax,
reading and writing.
Direct method encouraged the use of foreign language in the classroom. Classroom teaching was
conducted in the target language only. The learning process was mostly based on imitation and
memorization.
Oral approach or situational language teaching was based on selection and organization of the
"situations". "Situations" were organized with the use of concrete things and pictures. They were used to
introduce the new grammar structures.
Audio-lingual method applied the principles of structural linguistics to language teaching. Pattern
practice became a basic classroom technique. Audio-lingual method was the combination of structural
linguistic theory and fundamentals of behaviorism (stimulus, response, reinforcement).
The Natural approach put emphasis on the exposure to language (comprehensible input) rather than
formal exercises. The following hypotheses were at the foundation of the Natural approach: the
acquisition/ learning hypothesis (only natural-like acquisition can result in mastering the language
while "learning" helps getting knowledge about the language), the monitor hypothesis (explicit
knowledge has only one function, that of monitoring correctness of the utterance), the natural order
hypothesis (the acquisition of grammar structures proceeds in a predictable order), the input
hypothesis (the relationship between the input and language acquisition shows that learners need
comprehensible input), the affective filter hypothesis (learners with high motivation, self-confidence,
low anxiety generally do better in language acquisition).
Humanistic approach
Humanistic approach emerged as a reaction to the behaviorist approach to teaching with the rigid
teacher's control over the learners' behavior. The concern of humanistic tendencies was to enhance
people's self-fulfilment and their role in directing their own lives.
Humanistic approach to language teaching emphasized the value of developing the learner's whole
personality, the socialization of an individual in a group, creative activities with music, arts, etc. It was
further developed in community language teaching. The method was based on counseling techniques.
In lay terms, counseling is giving support to another person. This method was described as humanistic
with self-fulfilment and secured self-esteem of the learners.
The priorities of the method were to develop learners' relationships in the group, to encourage the
learners' feeling of security and belonging to a group as well as asserting their personal identity.
"Learner autonomy" became a new and much discussed concept. Affective learning and learner anxiety
were taken seriously as an important factor of effectiveness. Instead of the formulaic knowledge (the
product of behaviorism) teachers tried to develop in learners heuristic knowledge.
Special attention was given to the issue of "debilitating anxiety", which unlike "facilitating anxiety"
could hinder and even block the process of language acquisition. As a result of debilitating anxiety
during the lesson, learners usually develop a "defense mechanism". Some of them withdraw from the
work of the class, make a game of a task, fidget and let their attention wander or plunge into the world
of fantasy. They can challenge the teacher with unacceptable behavior or passive aggression in the form
of "silent protest". Some learners accuse others of their own learning problems. As expression of protest
the learners join subgroups of other failure-learners.
An important issue which is tackled by the humanistic approach to teaching is the rejection of the
learners by their teachers. The rejection of this type can be hidden and show itself indirectly. These
teachers prefer not to look at the learners, which they dislike (gaze of avoidance). The whole teacher's
body movement is in the direction opposite to the learners they dislike. The teachers keep these learners
at a greater distance and give them less verbal contact and addresses. These learners are denied teacher's
supportive intervention and detailed feed-back that other learners formally enjoy. They are given a
reduced teacher's waiting time.
The humanistic approach advocated "non-conflict", "non-judgement" and "empathy" in the relations
of the teacher and learners. The importance of the humanistic approach lies not just in the effectiveness
of language learning but also in the development of the personality.
The humanistic approach facilitates the self-fulfillment of learners. Self-fulfilled people have a
healthier psyche and are more capable of a creative non-stereotyped behavior. This helps them to
identify easily with the group. They demonstrate a more accurate perception of reality and accept it
without unnecessary conflicts. They focus more on cognitive problems and less on themselves. These
learners possess the capacity for peak experiences (through love, music, art, nature, etc.) and a greater
aptitude for empathy with other people. They are able to see things other than in black and white. Selffulfillment of learners is achieved through learner-centered teaching by using interactive tasks in pairs
and small groups, creating a supportive environment and building confidence in learners.
Intensification tendency
Total Physical Response (TPR) is the combination in the teaching method of speech and action. The
method combined verbal rehearsal with motor activities.
The Silent Way was based on the premise that the teacher should be silent as much as possible in the
classroom, while the learners will produce more language. A typical feature of the Silent Way is the use
of color charts and rods as memorable images and signals to help in verbal responses. The proposition
underlying this method of instruction was that learning is facilitated if the learners discover or create
even with minimal language skills rather than rehearse and remember.
Suggestopedy aimed at optimizing learning by music and rhythm, authoritative teacher's behavior and
‘infantalisation’ of learners, physical and psychological relaxation. The focus was on the memorization
processes, which according to the authors, was 25 times faster than in conventional learning.
Another example of exploiting resources of the human psyche in teaching languages is neurolinguistic programming (NLP), NLP is shaping one's inner world through reevaluating one's
experience and using the power of the word. It aims at opening up one's inner resources as a way
towards accelerated learning.
Communicative approach
Communicative language teaching is based on a number of typical features of the communication
process. Language teaching is understood as learning to communicate through communication. The
emphasis is put on the meaningful and motivated use of language by the people who communicate in
order to achieve a certain goal.
Language for learning is derived from communicative experience in a variety of real world situations.
Fluency is put over accuracy. Interactive learning is encouraged as the way towards acquiring
communication skills.
The learners are taught “negotiating” the meaning (working towards better understanding each other),
and using “communication strategies”.
Communicative competence
The idea of communicative competence started to develop with the construct of “linguistic
competence”. Linguistic competence is understood as innate knowledge of language. Linguistic
competence is only part of what is needed for communication.
Communicative competence encompasses the knowledge of how to use language in the real world,
without which the rules of grammar would be useless.
Communicative competence can be described as including grammar competence (knowledge of
grammar rules, lexis and phonetics), pragmatic competence (knowledge of how to express a message),
strategic competence (knowledge of how to express a message in a variety of circumstances), sociocultural competence (knowledge of social etiquette, national mindset and values, etc.) Communicative
competence breaks down into the two major components of knowledge: knowledge of language and
knowledge of how to achieve the goal of communication.
Competence is not the same as ability. In order to be able to communicate, people need psychophysiological mechanisms, i. e. communicative skills.
Communication is the process of interpersonal interaction and requires the knowledge of social
conventions, i. e. the knowledge of rules about proper ways to communicate with people.
In accordance with the social conventions, participants in communication perform communicative
functions (to socialize, to inform, to persuade, to elicit information, to manipulate behavior and
opinions, to perform rituals, etc) and communicate roles (leader, informer, witness, participant, catalyst,
entertainer, etc). In order to perform these functions a speaker needs more than just the knowledge of the
language.
The process of communication is characterized by communicative strategies of achieving a goal
through communication.
Success of communication depends very much on the knowledge of successful strategies chosen by
the speakers. E.g. the Prince (in “The Prince and the Pauper” by M. Twain) was unable “to ask” because
he was only competent in how to “give orders”.
Successful strategies are known as the “four maxims” of good communication. These maxims
include quality (say only what is supported by evidence), quantity (say no more and no less than you
think is needed), relevance (say what is relevant to the point of communication) and manner (present
your ideas clearly and unambiguously). The four maxims of successful communication can be used in
teaching how to communicate effectively.
Communication strategies can be goal-oriented (having a particular goal in mind), partner-oriented
(with the partner and his comprehension in mind, using negotiation of meaning, persuasion, selfcorrection, repetition, circumlocution, etc) and circumstances-oriented (behaving according to the
situation).
In choosing a strategy the participants in communication can prefer either an achievement strategy
(guessing, paraphrasing yet achieving the goal) or a reduction strategy (co-operation, avoidance and
sometimes giving up one’s goal partially or completely).
For successful communication learners need to know non-verbal means. They include proxemics
(physical distance and life space in the process of communication), kinetics (body language, gestures
and postures), facial expression (smiles, eye contact), haptics (the use of touch in communication),
clothing and physical appearance in the process of communication (the concept of decency in clothing
and physical appearance), paralanguage (“um-m”, “uh-huh”, etc).
Many non-verbal expressions vary from culture to culture, and it is often the cause of cultural
misinterpretation. E. g. a physical distance can be too close or somebody’s private space can be
trespassed. Gestures and postures can be inappropriate; there can be a lack of smile and eye contact.
Touching somebody’s body during conversation can be taken as offensive. The dressing habit can be
alien. Vocal confirmation following the conversation (Aha! Etc.) can be inappropriate. In some cultures
humble bows are part of etiquette while others support a proud upright posture.
Teaching the language is integral to teaching culture as a set of beliefs, values and norms shared by
community members, serving their identity with this social group. Co-teaching of language and culture
is implemented through content-based and context-based language instruction. Content-based teaching
of culture focuses on culture-related information, while context-based instruction emphasizes real-world
situations where people need to behave in a culturally appropriate way. Content-based teaching is
knowledge-oriented. Context-based instruction is skill-oriented.
Communicative techniques
A technique is a way for teacher to organize a learner activity. The purpose of communicative
techniques is to teach communication.
Communicative techniques can develop in learners productive, receptive and interactive skills that
are necessary for effective communication. Activities with listening and reading aim at developing in
learners skills of receiving information. Activities with speaking and writing develop in learners skills of
producing information. Both can be learner interactive and thus promote communication.
Some activities are more associated with reading and listening (receptive skills), while others are
more often used with speaking and writing (productive skills).
An information gap is organized to promote speaking activities. An information gap is a situation in
which a participant or a group possesses information which others do not have, while others command
information that the first party is missing. E. g. a student in a pair with another student might have the
train timetable for odd numbers, while her partner might have the train timetable for even numbers.
Their task is to use communication for finding out complete information on how the train runs. An
information gap can take the format of an opinion gap when the participants differ in their opinions. The
gap is filled in the course of active communication.
Any activity with an information gap can be turned into a communicative game if there are rules to
name the winner. The information gap is a frequent technique used in order to organize a
communicative game. E. g. you have new neighbors. They can tell you about themselves only what is
given on their role cards. Try to guess their professions. Ask any questions. Direct questions about
professions are excluded.
A popular speaking activity is reading from cues. It is organized when the participants write
information about themselves on sticky labels in the form of separate words, dates, names, etc. Other
students ask questions trying to find as much as possible about person. To achieve this goal they have to
think first what a date on the sticky label might mean and ask a questions like “Were you married in
1991?”, “Maybe you got your first job in 1991?” etc.
Reading and speaking processes can be boosted by a “matching” activity, in which the participants
are to match pictures and texts, pictures and pictures, texts and texts (both oral and written) by using
questions.
Jigsaw reading activity is organized most often with the texts that are meant for reading or listening
(“jigsaw” reading and “jigsaw” listening).A text is divided into several parts. Every participant has
access to only one part of the oral or written text. They ask each other questions and provide information
to pool the parts of the text together and to know the contents of the whole text. Another variant is
jigsaw listening when each participant or a small group listens to only some information as part of the
whole. These pieces can be brought together only in the course of active communication efforts.
Another activity for reading is sequencing (re-ordering). The task consists in asking the learners to
restore the logical order between parts of the text. This can produce an “opinion gap” and boost
communication.
Productive skills of speaking and writing are developed in simulations. A simulation means that an
episode of the real world is reproduced in the classroom environment in the form of a role-play,
discussion (problem solving), piece of writing or project work.
An important aspect of communicative teaching is classroom interaction. This form of
communication develops between the learners and the teacher. Learners’ interaction is organized in
pairs, small groups, moving circles, parallel lines of pairs, etc. Classroom interaction promotes a
communicative classroom atmosphere and successful communicative teaching.
Communicative teaching is often organized in the three-phase framework. Three-phase framework
means subdivision of the teaching process into three phases: pre-activity, while-activity and postactivity. Pre-activity is organized to arouse interest in the learners towards the main task, to motivate
performance, to activate in learners their prior knowledge and to prepare them for the language that may
be necessary to perform the main task. While-activity is organized as oral or written communication and
is based on engaging the learners in the communicative tasks. Post-activity is reflection on the ideas and
language that was produced during the main activity. This phase also includes additional language drills
and integration with other skills.
1.3 Syllabuses and Coursebooks
The FL syllabus is the main document which lays down the aims and the content of TFL in schools.
A school like any other educational institution has a curriculum which states the subjects to be studied,
the number of hours (periods) allotted to the study of each subject, the sequence in which the subjects
are introduced.
The syllabus lays down the extent of the knowledge; habits and skills pupils must acquire the
sequence topics which constitute the academic content of the subject. The syllabus is an essential
document for every teacher, and he is responsible for the fulfillment of its requirements.
In the syllabus the teacher will find all the instructions concerning the knowledge he must import to
his pupils, the habits and skills he must develop etc. The textbook for every form should correspond to
the syllabus.
Common characteristics of a syllabus
A syllabus is a document which consists, essentially, of a list. This list specifies all the things that are
to be taught in the course(s) for which the syllabus was designed (a beginner's course, for example, or a
six-year secondary-school programme): it is therefore comprehensive. The actual components of the
list may be either content items (words, structures, topics), or process ones (tasks, methods). The
former is the more common. The items are ordered, usually having components that are considered
easier or more essential earlier, and more difficult and less important ones later. This ordering may be
fairly detailed and rigid, or general and flexible
The syllabus generally has explicit objectives, usually declared at the beginning of the document, on
the basis of which the components of the list are selected and ordered.
Another characteristic of the syllabus is that it is a public document. It is available for scrutiny not only
by the teachers who are expected to implement it, but also by the consumers (the learners or their
parents or employers), by representatives of the relevant authorities (inspectors, school boards), by other
interested members of the public (researchers, teacher trainers or textbook writers). Underlying this
characteristic is the principle of accountability: the composers of the syllabus are answerable to their
target audience for the quality of their document.
There are other, optional, features, displayed by some syllabuses and not others. A time schedule is
one: some syllabuses delimit the time framework of their components, prescribing, for example, that
these items should be dealt with in the first month, those in the second; the class should have completed
this much by the end of the year. A particular preferred approach or methodology to be used may also
be defined, even in a syllabus that is essentially content-based. It may list recommended materials –
coursebooks, visual materials or supplementary materials - either in general, or where relevant to certain
items or sections.
Different types of language syllabus
A number of different kinds of syllabuses are used in foreign language teaching. A list of these is
provided below; it is not, of course, exhaustive, but includes the main types that you may come across in
practice or in your reading. Each is briefly explained; some also include references to sources of more
detailed information on content or rationale.
1. Grammatical
A list of grammatical structures, such as the present tense, comparison of adjectives, relative clauses,
usually divided into sections graded according to difficulty and/or importance.
2. Lexical
A list of lexical items (girl, boy, go away…) with associated collocations and idioms, usually divided
into graded sections.
3. Grammatical-lexical
A very common kind of syllabus: both structures and lexis are specified: either together, in sections
that correspond to the units of a course, or in two separate lists.
4. Situational
These syllabuses take the real-life contexts of language uses as their basis: sections would be headed
by names of situations or locations such as 'Eating meal' or 'In the street'.
5. Topic-based
This is rather like the situational syllabus, except that the headings are broad topic-based, including
things like 'Food' or 'The family'; these usually indicate fairly clear set of vocabulary items, which may
be specified.
6. Functional
Functions are things you can do with language, (examples are ‘identifying’, ‘denying’, ‘promising’
7. Mixed or 'multi-strand'
Increasingly, modern syllabuses are combining different aspects in order to be maximally
comprehensive and helpful to teachers and learners; in these you may find specification of topics, tasks,
functions and notions, as well as grammar and vocabulary.
8. Procedural
These syllabuses specify the learning tasks to be done rather than the language itself or even its
meanings. Examples of tasks might be: map reading, doing scientific experiments, story=writing.
9. Process
This is the only syllabus which is not pre-set. The content of the course is negotiated with the
learners at the beginning of the course and during it, and actually listed only retrospectively.
How necessary is a coursebook?
In some places coursebooks are taken for granted. In others they may not be used at all: the teacher
works according to a syllabus, or according to his or her own programme, using textbooks and
supplementary materials as the need arises. A third, 'compromise', situation is where a coursebook is
used selectively, not necessarily in sequence, and is extensively supplemented by other materials.
In favour of using a coursebook
1. Framework
A coursebook provides a clear framework: teacher and learners know where they are going and what
is coming next, so that there is a sense of structure and progress.
2. Syllabus
In many places the coursebook serves as a syllabus: if it is followed systematically, a carefully
planned and balanced selection of language content will be covered.
3. Ready-made texts and tasks
The coursebook provides texts and learning tasks which are likely to be of an appropriate level for
most of the class. This of course saves time for the teacher who would otherwise have to prepare his or
her own.
4. Economy
A book is the cheapest way of providing learning material for each learner; alternatives, such as kits,
sets of photocopied papers or computer software, are likely to be more expensive relative to the amount
of material provided.
5. Convenience
A book is a convenient package. It is bound, so that its components stick together and stay in order; it
is light and small enough to carry around easily; it is of a shape that is easily packed and stacked; it does
not depend for its use on hardware or a supply of electricity.
6. Guidance
For teachers who are inexperienced or occasionally unsure of their knowledge of the language, the
coursebook can provide useful guidance and support.
7. Autonomy
The learner can use the coursebook to learn new material, review and monitor progress with some
degree of autonomy. A learner without a coursebook is more teacher-dependent.
1.4 Educational Technology and Other Teaching Equipment
To teach a FL effectively the teacher needs teaching aids. By teaching aids we mean various devices
which can help the foreign language teacher in presenting linguistic material to his pupils and fixing it in
their memory.
Computers
Computers are seen by many as an important teaching aid. These days learners need to be 'computer
literate', and since computers use language it would seem logical to take advantage of them for language
learning. They enable individual work, since learners can progress at their own pace, and many
programs include a self-check facility. Also, younger and adolescent learners in particular find the use
of computers attractive and motivating. However, it takes time to train both teachers and students in
their use; and in practice a lot of time in a computer lesson often goes on setting up programs, getting
students into them, and then solving problems with moving from one stage, or one program, to another.
For teachers who are familiar with their use computers can be invaluable for preparing materials such
as worksheets or tests.
Books
Books are very user-friendly 'packages' of material: they are light, easily scanned, easily stacked and
do not need hardware or electricity. They are still the most convenient and popular method of packaging
large texts, and a library of them is arguably the best way for learners to acquire a wide experience of
foreign language reading.
It is very useful to have a collection of reference books, extra textbooks and teachers' handbooks
easily available to the teaching staff; and regular reading of a professional journal can inject new ideas
and update teachers on current thinking.
Overhead projectors
These are useful for presenting visual or written material to classes: they are more vivid and attentioncatching than the black- or whiteboards. They also save lesson time, since you can prepare the displays
in advance. However, this does mean added work in preparation! Another disadvantage is the need to
carry the OHP from class to class, unless each classroom has its own - which true only of the more
affluent institutions. And of course, like any other electrical equipment, OHP’s are vulnerable to
breakdowns: electricity failure.
Video equipment
Video is an excellent source of authentic spoken language material; it is also attractive and motivating.
It is flexible: you can start and stop it, run forward back, 'freeze' frames in order to talk about them. And
there are many good programmes on the market. A disadvantage is their lack of mobility: few vide sets
are portable, which means that classes need to be specially scheduled for video rooms; and of course
there is the problem of occasional breakdowns and technical problems. When planning a video lesson,
always have a 'back-up' alternative lesson ready!
Audio equipment
Cassette recorders and cassettes are relatively cheap, and easy to use; and they are the main source
(other than the teacher) of spoken language texts in most classrooms. They are more mobile and easier
to use than video recorders, but lack, of course, the visual content. Again there may be problems with
electric on the other hand, most portable cassette recorders - unlike video and most computers - also
work on batteries. When buying cassette recorders, make sure that there is a counter, and then use it to
identify the desired entry-point; otherwise, if you want to replay during the lesson, you may waste
valuable time running the tape back and forth to find it.
Posters, pictures, games
Materials of this kind are invaluable particularly for younger learners, and teachers of children find
that they constantly use them. However, if you have time, this type of material can be largely homemade: glossy magazines in particular are an excellent source of pictures.
LECTURE 2 LEARNING AND TEACHING PROCESSES
2.1 The teaching process
The process of teaching a foreign language is a complex one: as with many other subjects, it has
necessarily to be broken down into components for purposes of study. There are three such components:
(1) presenting and explaining new material; (2) providing practice; and (3) testing.
In principle, the teaching processes of presenting, practising and testing correspond to strategies used
by many good learners trying to acquire a foreign language on their own. They make sure they perceive
and understand new-language (by paying attention, by constructing meanings, by formulating rules or
hypotheses that account for it, and so on); they make conscious efforts to learn it thoroughly (by
mental rehearsal of items, for example, or by finding opportunities to practise); and they check
themselves (get feedback on performance, ask to be corrected).
In the classroom, it is the teacher's job to promote these three learning processes by the use of
appropriate teaching acts. Thus, he or she: presents and explains new material in order to make it clear,
comprehensible and available for learning; gives practice to consolidate knowledge; and tests, in order
to check what has been mastered and what still needs to be learned or reviewed. These acts may not
occur in this order, and may sometimes be combined within one activity; nevertheless good teachers are
usually aware which is their main objective at any point in a lesson.
This is not, of course, the only way people learn a language in the classroom. They may absorb new
material unconsciously, or semi-consciously, through exposure to comprehensible and personally
meaningful speech or writing, or through their own engagement with it, without any purposeful teacher
mediation as proposed here. Through such mediation, however, the teacher is to provide a framework
for organized, conscious learning, while simultaneously being aware of - and providing opportunities for
- further, more intuitive acquisition.
2.2 Presentations and explanations
It would seem fairly obvious that in order for our students to learn something new (a text, a new word,
how to perform a task) they need to be first able to perceive and understand it. One of the teacher's jobs
is to mediate such new material so that it appears in a form that is most accessible for initial learning.
This kind of mediation may be called ’presentation’; the term is applied here not only to the kind of
limited and controlled modelling of a target item that we do when we introduce a new word or
grammatical structure, but also to the initial encounter with comprehensible input in the form of spoken
or written texts, as well as various kinds of explanations, instructions and discussion of new language
items or tasks.
People may, it is true, perceive and even acquire new language without conscious presentation on the
part of a teacher. We learn our first language mostly like this, and there are some who would argue for
teaching a foreign language in the same way - by exposing learners to the language phenomena without
instructional intervention and letting them absorb it intuitively.
However, raw, unmediated new input is often incomprehensible to learners; it does not function as
'intake', and therefore does not result in learning. In an immersion situation this does not matter: learners
have plenty of time for repeated and different exposures to such input and will eventually absorb it. But
given the limited time and resources of conventional foreign language courses, as much as possible of
this input has to become also 'intake' at first encounter, hence the necessity for presenting it in such a
way that it can be perceived and understood.
Another contribution of effective teacher presentations of new material in formal courses is that they
can help to activate and harness learners' attention, effort, intelligence and conscious learning strategies
in order to enhance learning - again, something that does not necessarily happen in an immersion
situation. For instance, you might point out how a new item is linked to something they already know,
or contrast a new bit of grammar with a parallel structure in their own language.
This does not necessarily mean that every single new bit of language - every sound, word, structure,
text, and so on - needs to be consciously introduced; or that every new unit in the syllabus has to start
with a clearly directed presentation. Moreover, presentations may often not occur at the first stage of
learning: they may be given after learners have already engaged with the language in question, as when
we clarity the meaning of a word during a discussion, or read aloud a text learners have previously read
to themselves.
The ability to mediate new material or instruct effectively is an essential teaching skill; it enables the
teacher to facilitate learners' entry into and understanding of new material, and thus promotes further
learning.
What happens in an effective presentation?
Attention
The learners are alert, focusing their attention on the teacher and/or the material to be learnt, and
aware that something is coming that they need to take in. You need to make sure that learners are in fact
attending; it helps if the target material is perceived as interesting in itself.
Perception
The learners see or hear the target material clearly. This means not only making sure that the material
is clearly visible and/or audible in the first place; it also usually means repeating it in order to give
added opportunities for, or reinforce perception. Finally, it helps to get some kind of response from the
learners in order to check that they have in fact perceived the material accurately:
repetition, for example, or writing.
Understanding
The learners understand the meaning of the material being introduced, and its connection with other
things they already know (how it fits into their existing perceptions of reality, or 'schemata'). So you
may need to illustrate, make links with previously learnt material, explain. A response from the
learners, again, can give you valuable feedback on how well they have understood: a restatement of
concepts in their own words, for example.
Short-term memory
The learners need to take the material into short-term memory: to remember it that is, until later in the
lesson, when you and they have an opportunity to do further work to consolidate learning. So the more
'impact' the original presentation has - for example, if it is colourful, dramatic, unusual in any way - the
better. Note that some learners remember better if the material is seen, others if it is heard, yet others if
it is associated with physical movement (visual, aural and kinaesthetic input): these should ideally all be
utilized within a good presentation. If a lengthy explanation has taken place, it helps also to finish with a
brief restatement of the main point.
Explanations and instructions
When introducing new material we often need also to give explicit description or definitions of
concepts or processes, and whether we can or cannot explain such new ideas clearly to our students may
make a crucial difference to the success or failure of a lesson. There is, moreover, some indication in
research that learners see the ability to explain things well as one of the most important qualities of a
good teacher (The problem of how to explain new language well is perhaps most obvious in the field of
grammar).
One particular kind of explanation that is very important in teaching is instruction: the directions that
are given to introduce a learning task which entails some measure of independent student activity
Guidelines on giving effective explanations and instructions
1. Prepare
You may feel perfectly clear in your own mind about what needs clarifying, ai therefore think that you
can improvise a clear explanation. But experience shows that teachers' explanations are often not as
clear to their students as they are to themselves! It is worth preparing: thinking for a while about the
words you will use, the illustrations you will provide, and so on; possibly even writing these out.
2. Make sure you have the class's full attention
In ongoing language practice learners' attention may sometimes stray; they car usually make up what
they have lost later. But if you are explaining something essential, they must attend. This may be the
only chance they have to get some vital information; if they miss bits, they may find themselves in
difficulties later. One of the implications of this when giving instructions for a group-work task is that it
is advisable to give the instructions before you divide the class into groups or give out materials, not
after! Once they are in groups, learners' attention will be naturally directed to each other rather than to
you; and if they have written or pictorial material in their hands, the temptation will be to look at it,
which may also distract.
3. Present the information more than once
A repetition or paraphrase of the necessary information may make all the difference: learners' attention
wanders occasionally, and it is important to give them more than one chance to understand what they
have to do. Also, it helps to re-present the information in a different mode: for example, say it and also
write it up on the board.
4. Try to be brief
Learners - in fact, all of us - have only a limited attention span; they cannot listen to you for very long
at maximum concentration. Make your explanation as brief as you can, compatible with clarity. This
means thinking fairly carefully about what you can, or should, omit, as much as about what you should
include! In some situations it may also mean using the learners' mother tongue as a more accessible and
cost-effective alternative to the sometimes lengthy and difficult target-language explanation.
5. Illustrate with examples
Very often a careful theoretical explanation only 'comes together' for an audience when made real
through an example, or preferably several. You may explain, for instance, the meaning of a word,
illustrating your explanation wit examples of its use in various contexts, relating these as far as possible
to the learners' own lives and experiences. Similarly, when giving instructions for an activity, it often
helps to do a ‘dry run’: an actual demonstration of the activity yourself with the full class or with a
volunteer student before inviting learners to tackle the task on their own.
6. Get feedback
When you have finished explaining, check with your class that they have understood. It is not enough
just to ask ‘Do you understand?’; learners will sometimes say they did even if they in fact did not, out of
politeness or unwillingness to lose face, or because they think they know what they have to do, but have
in fact completely misunderstood! It is better to ask them to do something that will show their
understanding: to paraphrase in their own words, or provide further illustrations of their own.
2.3 Practice Activities
Practice can be roughly defined as the rehearsal of certain behaviours with the objective of
consolidating learning and improving performance. Language learners can benefit from being told, and
understanding, facts about the language only up to a point: ultimately, they have to acquire an intuitive,
automatized knowledge which will enable ready and fluent comprehension and self-expression. And
such knowledge is normally brought about through consolidation of learning through practice. This is
true of first language acquisition as well as of second language learning in either 'immersion' or formal
classroom situations. Language learning has much in common with the learning of other skills, and it
may be helpful at this point to think about what learning a skill entails.
Learning a skill
The process of learning a skill by means of a course of instruction has been defined as a three-stage
process: verbalization, automatization and autonomy.
At the first stage the bit of the skill to be learned may be focused on and defined in words - 'verbalized'
- as well as demonstrated. Thus in swimming the instructor will probably both describe and show
correct arm and leg movements; in language, the teacher may explain the meaning of a word or the rules
about a grammatical structure as well as using them in context. Note that the verbalization may be
elicited from learners rather than done by the teacher, and it may follow trial attempts at performance
which serve to pinpoint aspect of the skill that need learning. It roughly corresponds to ‘presentation’, as
discussed above.
The teacher then gets the learners to demonstrate the target behaviour, while monitoring their
performance. At first they may do things wrong and need correcting in the form of further telling and/or
demonstration; later they may do it right as long as they are thinking about it. At this point they start
practising: performing the skilful behaviour again and again, usually in exercises suggests by the
teacher, until they can get it right without thinking. At this point they may be said to have 'automatized'
the behaviour, and are likely to forget how it was described verbally in the first place.
Finally they take the set of behaviours they have mastered and begin to improve on their own, through
further practice activity. They start to speed up performance, to perceive or create new combinations, to
‘do their own thing’: they are ‘autonomous’. Some people have called this stage 'production', but this I
think is a misnomer for it involves reception as much as production, and is in fact simply a more
advanced form of practice, as defined at the beginning of the unit. Learners now have little need of a
teacher except perhaps as a supportive or challenging colleague and are ready, or nearly ready, to
perform as masters the skill - or as teachers themselves.
Much language practice falls within the skill-development model described above. But some of it does
not: even where information has not been » consciously verbalized or presented, learners may absorb
and acquire language skills and content through direct interaction with texts or communicative task. In
other words, their learning starts at the automatization and autonomy stage in unstructured fluency
practice. But this is still practice, and essential for successful learning.
Summary
Practice, then, is the activity through which language skills and knowledge and consolidated and
thoroughly mastered. As such, it is arguably the most important of all the stages of learning; hence the
most important classroom activity of the teacher is to initiate and manage activities that provide students
with opportunities for effective practice.
Characteristics of a good practice activity
Whether or not you think that organizing language practice is the most important thing the teacher
does in the classroom, you will, I hope, agree that it does contribute significantly to successful language
learning, and therefore it is worth devoting some thought to what factors contribute to the effectiveness
of classroom practice.
Practice is usually carried out through procedures called 'exercises' or 'activities'. The latter term
usually implies rather more learner activity and initiative than the former, but there is a large area of
overlap: many procedures could be defined by either. Exercises and activities may, of course, relate to
any aspect of language: their goal may be the consolidation of the learning of a grammatical structure,
for example, or the improvement of listening, speak reading or writing fluency, or the memorization of
vocabulary.
Characteristics of effective language practice
Validity
The activity should activate learners primarily in the skill or material it purports to practise. This is an
obvious principle that is surprisingly often violated. Many ‘speaking’ activities, for example, have
learners listening to the teacher more than talking themselves.
Note that 'validity' does not necessarily imply that the language should be used for some kind of
replication of real-life communication. Pronunciation drills and vocabulary practice, for example, may
also be valid if they in fact serve primarily to rehearse and improve the items to be practised.
Pre-learning
The learners should have a good preliminary grasp of the language they are required to practise,
though they may only be able to produce or understand it slowly and after thought. If they are required
to do a practice activity based on something they have not yet begun to learn, they will either not be able
to do it at all, or will produce unsuccessful responses. In either case the activity will have been fairly
useless in providing practice: its main function, in fact, will have been as a diagnostic test, enabling the
teacher to identify and (re-)teach language the learners do not know. If, however, they can - however
hesitantly -produce successful responses, they have a firm basis for further effective practice of the
target language material.
Volume
Roughly speaking, the more language the learners actually engage with during the activity, the more
practice in it they will get. If the lesson time available for the activity is seen as a container, then this
should be filled with as much 'volume' of language as possible. Time during which learners are not
engaging with the language being practised for whatever reason (because nothing is being demanded of
them at that moment, or because they are using their mother tongue, or because they are occupied with
classroom management or organizational processes, or because of some distraction or digression) is
time wasted as far as the practice activity is concerned.
Success-orientation
On the whole, we consolidate learning by doing things right. Continued inaccurate or unacceptable
performance results only in ‘fossilization’ of mistakes and general discouragement. It is therefore
important to select, design and administer practice activities in such a way that learners are likely to
succeed in doing the task. Repeated successful performance is likely to result in effective automatization
of whatever is being performed, as well as reinforcing the learners' self-image as successful language
learners and encouraging them to take up further challenges.
Success, incidentally, does not necessarily mean perfection! A class may engage successfully with
language practice in groups, where mistakes do occasionally occur, but most of the utterances are
acceptable and a large 'volume' of practice is achieved. This is often preferable to teacher-monitored
full-class practice, which may produce fully accurate responses - but at the expense of 'volume' and
opportunities for active participation by most of the class.
Heterogeneity
A good practice activity provides opportunities for useful practice to all, or most, of the different
levels within a class. If you give an activity whose items invite response at only one level of knowledge,
then a large proportion of your class will not benefit.
Consider the following item in an activity on can/can’t:
Jenny is a baby. Jenny (can/can't) ride a bicycle.
Learners who are not confident that they understand how to use can may not do the item at all. Those
who are more advanced, and could make far more complex and interesting statements with the same
item have no opportunity tc do so, and get no useful practice at a level appropriate to them. However,
suppose you redesign the text and task as follows:
Jenny is a baby. Jenny can hold a toy and can smile, but she can't ride a bicycle. What else can, or
can't. Jenny do?
then the activity becomes heterogeneous. You have provided weaker learners with support in the form
of sample responses, and you have given everyone the opportunity to answer at a level appropriate to
him or her, from the simple ('Jenny can drink milk', for example) to the relatively complex and original
('Jenny can't open a bank account'). Thus a much larger proportion of the class is able to participate and
benefit.
Teacher assistance
The main function of the teacher, having proposed the activity and given clear instructions, is to help
the learners do it successfully. If you give an activity, an then sit back while the learners ‘flounder’ make random uninformed guesses or are uncomfortably hesitant - you are not helping; even assessments
and corrections made later, which give useful feedback to learners on their mistake do not in themselves
give practice, in the sense of contributing to automatization. If, however, you assist them, you thereby
increase their chances of success and the effectiveness of the practice activity as a whole. Such
assistance may take the form of allowing plenty of time to think, of making the answers easier through
giving hints and guiding questions, of confirming beginnings of responses in order to encourage
continuations, or, in group work, of moving around the classroom making yourself available to answer
questions. Through such activity you also, incidentally, convey a clear message about the function and
attitude of the teacher: I want you to succeed in learning and am doing my best to see you do so.
Interest
If there is little challenge in the language work itself because of its 'success-orientation' and if there is
a lot of repetition of target forms (‘volume’), then there is certainly a danger that the practice might be
boring. And boredom is not only an unpleasant feeling in itself; it also leads to learner inattention, low
motivation and ultimately less learning.
However, if interest is not derived from the challenge of getting-the-answers right, it has to be rooted
in other aspects of the activity: an interesting topic, the need to convey meaningful information, a gamelike 'fun' task, attention-catching materials, appeal to learners' feelings or a challenge to their intellect.
simple example: an activity whose aim is to get learners to practise asking 'yes no' questions may simply
demand that learners build such questions from short cues (by transforming statements into questions,
for example); but such an activity will get far more attentive and interested participation if participants
produce their questions as contributions to some kind of purposeful transfer of information (such as
guessing what the teacher has in a bag or what someone’s profession is).
2.4 Class Organization
There are different ways of class organization such as, whole-class teaching individualized learning,
pair work and group work. The choice depends on the lesson objectives and the desired pattern of
interaction between the teacher and the students.
The teacher will continually have to decide whether he will teach the whole class together or he will
divide the students into pairs or groups.
Firstly, you must decide whether you want – or need – to control that the learners are doing. If you teach
the whole class together, it is easily to control everything. But if you divide the students into pairs or
groups, you can’t expect to control the students to the same extent.
Secondly, what is your main goal? If you want to make sure that the students get enough practice in a
particular point of grammar or vocabulary or pronunciation, you choose the kind of work that is called
accuracy activities because their purpose is to make sure the students get something right. These
activities usually form the training stage of the lesson. If this is your aim you will often want to work
with the whole class, but you can use pair work for this purpose (even group work).
On the other hand, you may want to give your students opportunities to use the
language they
have learnt: to use it freely, even if they make mistakes. This kind of
work is called fluency
activities. They form what is often called the production stage of the lesson. If this is your goal, you will
usually want the students to work in groups. But because of the contribution you as the teacher can
make you may also want to do some fluency activities with the whole class.
Interaction Patterns
1. Closed-ended teacher questioning (‘IRF’)
Only one 'right' response gets approved. Sometimes cynically called the 'Guess what the teacher
wants you to say' game.
2. Open-ended teacher questioning
There are a number of possible 'right' answers, so that more students answer each cue.
3. Full-class interaction
The students debate a topic or do a language task as a class; the teacher may intervene occasionally,
to stimulate participation or to monitor.
4. Choral responses
The teacher gives a model which is repeated by all the class in the chorus, or gives a cue which is
responded to in chorus.
5. Student initiates, teacher answers
For example, in a guessing game: the students think of questions and the teacher responds; but the
teacher decides who asks.
6. Group work
Students work in small groups on tasks that entail interaction: conveying information, for example,
or group decision-making. The teacher walks around listening, intervenes little if at all.
7. Individual work
The teacher gives a task or set of tasks, and students work on them independently; the teacher walks
around monitoring and assisting where necessary.
8. Collaboration
Students do the same sort of tasks as in 'Individual work', but work together, usually in pairs, to try
to achieve the best results they can The teacher may or may not intervene (Note that this is different
from 'Group work', where the task itself necessitates interaction)
9. Teacher talk
This may involve some kind of silent student response, such as writing from dictation, but there is no
initiative on the part of the student.
Questioning
Questioning is a universally used activation technique in teaching, mainly within the InitiationResponse-Feedback pattern. Note that teacher questions are not always realized by interrogatives.
As language teachers, our motive in questioning is usually to get our students to engage with the
language material actively through speech; so an effective questioning technique is one that elicits fairly
prompt, motivated, relevant and full responses. If, on the other hand, our questions result in long
silences, or are answered by only the strongest students, or obviously bore the class, or consistently
elicit only very brief or unsuccessful answers, then there is probably something wrong.
Some useful criteria for effective questioning for language teachers are suggested below.
Criteria for effective questioning
1. Clarity: do the learners immediately grasp not only what the question means, but also what kind of
an answer is required?
2. Learning value: does the question stimulate thinking and responses that will contribute to further
learning of the target material? Or is it irrelevant, unhelpful or merely time-filling?
3. Interest: do learners find the question interesting, challenging, stimulating?
4. Availability: can most of the members of the class try to answer it? Or only the more advanced,
confident, knowledgeable? (Note that the mere addition of a few seconds' wait-time before accepting a
response can make the question available to a significantly larger number of learners.)
5. Extension: does the question invite and encourage extended and/or varied answers?
6. Teacher reaction: are the learners sure that their responses will be related to with respect, that they
will not be put down or ridiculed if they say something inappropriate?
Group work
In group work, learners perform a learning task through small-group interaction. It is a form of learner
activation that is of particular value in the practice of oral fluency: learners in a class that is divided into
five groups get five times as many opportunities to talk as in full-class organization. It also has other
advantages: it fosters learner responsibility and independence, can improve motivation and contribute to
a feeling of cooperation and warmth in the class. There is some research that indicates that the use of
group work improves learning outcomes.
These potential advantages are not, however, always realized. Teachers fear they may lose control,
that there may be too much noise, that their students may over-use their mother tongue, do the task
badly or not at all: and their fears are often well founded. Some people - both learners and teachers dislike a situation where the teacher cannot constantly monitor learner language.
The success of group work depends to some extent on the surrounding social climate, and on how
habituated the class is to using it; and also, or course, on the selection of an interesting and stimulating
task whose performance is we within the ability of the group. But it also depends, more immediately, on
effective and careful organization. Some guidelines on organizing group work are given below, divided
into four sections: presentation, process, ending, feedback.
Note also that a class may not readily take to group work if it is used to b constantly teacher-directed.
But this is something that can be learned through practice; do not give up if your first attempts at group
work with a class are unsatisfactory.
Group-work organization
1. Presentation
The instructions that are given at the beginning are crucial if the students do not understand exactly
what they have to do there will be time-wasting, confusion, lack of effective practice possible loss of
control. Select tasks that are simple enough to describe easily; and in monolingual classes you may find
it cost-effective to explain some or all in the students’ mother tongue. It is advisable to give the
instructions before giving out materials or dividing the class into groups, and a preliminary rehearsal or
'dry run' of a sample of the activity with the full class can help to clarify things. Note, however that if
your students have already done similar activities you will be able to shorten the process, giving only
brief guidelines, it is mainly the first time of doing something with a class that such care needs to be
invested in instructing.
Try to foresee what language will be needed, and have a preliminary quick review of appropriate
grammar or vocabulary. Finally before giving the sign to start tell the class what the arrangements are
for stopping: if there is a time limit, or a set signal for stopping, say what it is; if the groups simply stop
when they have finished, then tell them what they will have to do next. It is wise to have a 'reserve' task
planned to occupy members of groups who finish earlier than expected.
2. Process
Your job during the activity is to go from group to group, monitor, and either contribute or keep out
of the way - whichever is likely to be more helpful. If you do decide to intervene, your contribution may
take the form of:
- providing general approval and support;
- helping students who are having difficulty;
- keeping the students using the target language (in many cases your mere presence will ensure this!);
- tactfully regulating participation in a discussion where you find some students are over-dominant and
others silent.
3. Ending
If you have set a time limit, then this will help you draw the activity to a close at a certain point. In
principle, try to finish the activity while the students are still enjoying it and interested, or only just
beginning to flag.
4. Feedback
A feedback session usually takes place in the context of full-class interaction after the end of the
group work. Feedback on the task may take many forms: giving the right solution, if there is one;
listening to and evaluating suggestions; pooling ideas on the board; displaying materials the groups have
produced; and so on. Your main objective here is to express appreciation of the effort that has been
invested and its results. Feedback on language may be integrated into this discussion of the task, or
provide the focus of a separate class session later.
Individualization
The concept of ‘individualization’ in education is sometimes identified with provision of a self-access
centre, or even a full self-access learning programme Materials of various kinds are made available, and
the learners choose which to work on: the organization of these choices may be in the hands of either
teacher or learner, and learners may be working on their own or in groups or pairs.
I would, however, define the term more modestly, as a situation where learners are given a measure of
freedom to choose how and what they learn any particular time (implying less direct teacher supervision
and more learn' autonomy and responsibility for learning), and there is some attempt to adapt or select
tasks and materials to suit the individual. The opposite is ‘lockstep’ learning, where everyone in the
class, in principle, is expected to do the same thing at the same time in the same way.
Individualized learning thus defined does not necessarily imply a programme based entirely on selfinstruction, nor the existence of self-access centres (which are expensive to equip and maintain and
therefore not available to most foreign-language learners). It does imply a serious attempt to provide for
differing learner needs within a class and to place a higher proportion of responsibility for learning on
the shoulders of the learners themselves. For some of us, it is perhaps more useful to devote thought to
how we can achieve at some degree of this kind of individualization within a conventional classroom
than it is to give up on the attempt because we do not have the time or resources to organize full selfaccess facilities.
LECTURE 3 TEACHING THE LANGUAGE
3.1 Teaching pronunciation
Teaching pronunciation is of great importance in the developing of pupils’ listening and speaking
habits and skills. It is of no less importance in the development of reading and writing habits and skills
since writing is the graphic representation of sound sequences. In reading the visual images become
acoustic images. These are combined with kinesthetic images, resulting in inner speech.
The content of teaching pronunciation
Proceeding from the aims and objectives the FL syllabus sets out, pupils must assimilate.
1. The sounds of the English language, its vowels and consonants. They should be able to articulate
these sounds both separately and in different phonetic contexts.
2. Some peculiarities of the English language in comparison with those of the Russian language
(length of vowels, palatalization (dark L, light L).
3. Stress in a word and in a sentence, and melody (fall and rise). Pupils must be able to divide a
sentence into groups and intone it properly.
The teacher faces the following problems in teaching pupils pronunciation.
1. The problem of discrimination identifying the differences between phonemes which are not
distinguished or used in the Russian language and between falling, rising and level tones.
2. The problem of articulation, i.e. learning to make the motor movements adequate to proper
production of English sounds.
3. The problem of intonation, i.e. learning to make right stresses, pauses and use appropriate
patterns.
4. The problem of integration, i.e. learning to assemble the phonemes and a connected discourse
with the proper allophonic variations (members of a phoneme) in the, months, hard times.
5. The problem of automaticy, i.e. making correct production so habitual that it does not need to be
attended to in the process of speaking.
Consequently, discrimination, articulation, intonation, integration, automaticy are the items that
should constitute the content of the teaching of pronunciation.
Absolute correctness is impossible. We cannot expect more than approximate correctness, the
correctness that ensures communication.
How to teach pronunciation
Pupils assimilate English pronunciation through 1) the acquisition of new sounds, stress, tonepatterns 2) drill in recognition and reproduction new material to acquire pronunciation habits and 3)
making use of the pronunciation habits in language skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing).
In teaching pronunciation there are at least two methodological problems the teacher faces:
1. To determine the cases where conscious manipulation of the speech organs is required and the
cases where simple imitation can or must be used.
2. To decide on types of exercises and the techniques of using them.
Since imitation can and must take place in FL teaching the teacher’s pronunciation should set the
standard for the class and the use of native speakers whose voices are recorded on cassettes is quite
indispensable.
Teaching a FL in schools begins with teaching pupils to listen to it and speak it that is with the oral
introductory course, or the oral approach. The teacher’s task is to determine which sound the pupils will
find hard to pronounce, which sounds they can assimilate through imitation and which sounds require
explanations of the position of the organs of speech while producing them.
Exercises used for developing pronunciation habits may be of two groups: recognition exercises and
reproduction exercises. Recognition exercises are designed for developing pupil’s ability to discriminate
sounds and sound sequences.
Pupils should have ample practice in listening to be able to acquire the phonic aspect of the
language. It can be done:
1. By listening to the teacher pronouncing a sound, a sound combination and sensible sound
sequences.
2. By listening to the speaker on the recording. This exercise is more difficult for pupils as their
auding is not reinforced by visual perception.
Reproduction exercises are designed for developing pupils’ pronunciation habits, i.e. their ability to
articulate English sounds correctly and to combine sounds into words, phrases and sentences easily
enough to be able to speak English and to read aloud in this language. A few minutes at each lesson
must be devoted to drilling the sounds which are most difficult for Russian-speaking pupils.
The material used for pronunciation drills should be connected with the lesson pupils study. These
may be sounds, words, word combinations, phrases, sentences, rhymes, poems, and dialogues. Proverbs
and some useful expressions can be used as material for pronunciation drills. It is impossible to
overestimate the role that can be played by recording. They:
1. Allow speech to be reproduced with correct pronunciation and intonation in particular.
2. Permit the same text to be repeated several times for pupils to have an opportunity to listen to it
again and again.
3. Makes it possible for the teacher to develop his pupils’ abilities to understand English spoken at
various speeds.
4. Helps the teacher in developing his pupils’ ability to speak.
5. Give pupils an opportunity to listen to texts read by native speakers.
Conclusion
Pronunciation is a skill that should be developed and perfected throughout the whole course of
learning the language that is why the teacher should use pronunciation drill during the lesson,
irrespective of the stage of instruction.
3.2 Teaching vocabulary
The importance of teaching vocabulary
Vocabulary is one of the aspects of the language to be taught in school. It is evident that the number
of words should be limited because pupils have only two-four periods a week. It depends wholly on the
syllabus requirements. The latter is determined by the conditions and methods used. The vocabulary,
therefore, must be carefully selected in accordance with the principles of selecting linguistic material,
the conditions of teaching and learning a FL in school.
Principles of selecting vocabulary have been worked out. The words selected should be:
1. Frequently used in the language.
2. Easily combined
3. Unlimited from the point of view of style
4. Included in the topics the syllabus sets
5. Valuable from the point of view of word-building.
The number of words and phraseological units the syllabus sets for a pupil to assimilate is 800 words.
The analysis of the words within the foreign language allows us to distinguish the following groups of
words: concrete, abstract and structural.
Words denoting concrete things, actions and qualities are easier to learn than words denoting abstract
notions. Structural words are the most difficult for Russian-speaking pupils. The teacher should bear this
in mind when preparing for the vocabulary work during the lesson.
Rules:
1. Introduce words in sentence patterns in different situations of intercourse.
2. Present the word as an element, i.e. in a sentence pattern first. Then fix it in the pupils’ memory
through different exercises in sentence patterns and phrase patterns. In teaching pupils
vocabulary to the ear and the organs of speech should take an active part in the assimilation of
words. Pupils should have ample practice in hearing words and pronouncing them not only as
isolated units but in various sentences in which they occur.
3. While introducing a word pronounce it yourself in content, ask pupils to pronounce it both
individually and in unison in a context, too.
4. In teaching words it is necessary to establish a memory bond between a new word and those
already covered.
Vocabulary: what should be taught
1. Form: pronunciation and spelling
The learner has to know what a word sounds like (its pronunciation) and what it looks like (its spelling).
These are fairly obvious characteristics, and one or the other will be perceived by the learner when
encountering the item for the first time. In teaching, we need to make sure that both these aspects are
accurately presented and learned.
2. Grammar
The grammar of a new item will need to be taught if this is not obviously covered by general
grammatical rules. An item may have an unpredictable change of form in certain grammatical contexts
or may have some idiosyncratic way of connecting with other words in sentences; it is important to
provide learners with this information at the same time as we teach the base form. When teaching a new
verb, for example, we might give also its past form, if this is irregular (think, thought), and we might
note if it is transitive or intransitive. Similarly, when teaching a noun, we may wish to present its plural
form, if irregular (mouse, mice], or draw learners' attention to the fact that it has no plural at all (advice,
information]. We may present verbs such as want and enjoy together with the verb form that follows
them (want to, enjoy -ing), or adjectives or verbs together with their following prepositions (responsible
for, remind someone of).
3. Collocation
The collocations typical of particular items are another factor that makes a particular combination
sound 'right' or 'wrong' in a given context. So this is another piece of information about a new item
which it may be worth teaching. When introducing words like decision and conclusion, for example, we
may note that you take or make the one, but usually come to the other; similarly, you throw a ball but
toss a coin; you may talk about someone being dead tired but it sounds odd to say *dead fatigued.
Collocations are also often noted in dictionaries, either by providing the whole collocation under one
of the head-words, or by a note in parenthesis.
4. Aspects of meaning (1): denotation, connotation, appropriateness
The meaning of a word is primarily what it refers to in the real world, its denotation; this is often the
sort of definition that is given in a dictionary. For example, dog denotes a kind of animal; more
specifically, a common, domestic carnivorous mammal; and both dank and moist mean slightly wet.
A less obvious component of the meaning of an item is its connotation: the associations, or positive
or negative feelings it evokes, which may or may not be indicated in a dictionary definition. The word
dog, for example, as understood by most British people, has positive connotations of friendship and
loyalty; whereas the equivalent in Arabic, as understood by most people in Arab countries has negative
associations of dirt and inferiority. Within the English language, moist has favourable connotations
while dank has unfavourable; so that you could describe something as 'pleasantly moist' where
'pleasantly dank' would sound absurd.
A more subtle aspect of meaning that often needs to be taught is whether a particular item is the
appropriate one to use in a certain context or not. Thus it is useful for a learner to know that a certain
word is very common, or relatively rare, or 'taboo' in polite conversation, or tends to be used in writing
but not in speech, or is more suitable for formal than informal discourse, or belongs to a certain dialect.
For example, you may know that weep is virtually synonymous in denotation with cry, but it is more
formal, tends to be used in writing more than in speech, and is in general much less common.
5. Aspects of meaning (2): meaning relationships
How the meaning of one item relates to the meaning of others can also be useful in teaching. There
are various such relationships: here are some of the main ones.
- Synonyms: items that mean the same, or nearly the same; for example, bright, clever, smart may
serve as synonyms of intelligent.
- Antonyms: items that mean the opposite; rich is an antonym of poor.
- Hyponyms: items that serve as specific examples of a general concept; dog, lion, mouse are
hyponyms of animal.
- Co-hyponyms or co-ordinates: other items that are the 'same kind of thing'; red, blue, green and
brown are co-ordinates.
- Superordinates: general concepts that 'cover' specific items; animal is the superordinate of dog,
lion, mouse.
- Translation: words or expressions in the learners' mother tongue that are (more or less) equivalent
in meaning to the item being taught.
Besides these, there are other, perhaps looser, ways of associating meaning that are useful in
teaching. You can, for instance, relate parts to a whole (the relationship between arm and body); or
associate items that are part of the same real-world context (tractor, farmer, milking and irrigate are all
associated with agriculture].
All these can be exploited in teaching to clarify the meaning of a new item, or for practice or test
materials.
6. Word formation
Vocabulary items, whether one-word or multi-word, can often be broken down into their component
'bits'. Exactly how these bits are put together is another piece of useful information - perhaps mainly for
more advanced learners.
You may wish to teach the common prefixes and suffixes: for example, if learners know the
meaning of sub-, un- and -able, this will help them guess the meanings of words like substandard,
ungrateful and untranslatable. They should, however, be warned that in many common words the
affixes no longer have any obvious connection with their root meaning (for example, subject,
comfortable]. New combinations using prefixes are not unusual, and the reader or hearer would be
expected to gather their meaning from an understanding of their components (ultra-modern, superhero).
Another way vocabulary items are built is by combining two words (two nouns, or a gerund and a
noun, or a noun and a verb) to make one item: a single compound word, or two separate, sometimes
hyphenated words (bookcase, follow-up, swimming pool). Again, new coinages using this kind of
combination are very common.
A good modern dictionary should supply much of the information listed in this unit when you look
up a specific item.
Stages in teaching vocabulary
There are two stages in teaching vocabulary: presentation or explanation, retention or consolidation.
The process of learning a word means to the pupils:
1. Identification of concepts, i.e. learning what the word means.
2. Pupil’s activity for the purpose of retaining the word.
3. Pupil’s activity in using this word in the process of communication in different situations.
Accordingly, the teacher’s role in this process is:
1. To furnish explanation, i.e. to present the word, to get his pupils to identify the concept correctly.
2. To get them to recall or recognize the word by means of different exercises.
3. To stimulate pupils to use the words in speech.
Presenting new vocabulary
There are two ways of conveying the meaning of words: direct way and translation. The direct way,
is usually used when the words denote things, objects, their qualities, sometimes gestures and
movements. It is possible to group them into: visual and verbal (context, synonyms, antonyms,
definitions, word-building elements etc.)
The use of the direct way, however, is restricted whenever the teacher is to present words denoting
abstract notions he must resort to translation. Pupils are recommended to get to know new words
independently; they look them up in the word list at the back of the book or the dictionary.
Retention of words
To attain the desired end pupils must first of all perform various exercises to fix the words in their
memory. For this purpose it is necessary to organize pupils work in a way permitting them to approach
the new words from many different sides, in many different ways, by means of many different forms of
work. Two groups of exercises may be recommended for vocabulary assimilation.
Group 1
Exercises designed for developing pupils’ skills in choosing the proper word.
Group 2
Exercises designed to form pupils’ skills using the word in sentences.
The desirable relationship between these two groups of exercises should be in the ratio 1:2 that is
most of the exercises must be connected with developing pupils’ skills in using the words in sentences
and in connection with the situations offered.
3.3 Teaching grammar
The importance of grammar in learning a FL
Grammar is a reality. A command of the structure of the language of the pupil ensures listening
comprehension, speaking, reading, and writing. In order to understand a language and to express oneself
correctly one must assimilate the grammar mechanism of the language studies.
The chief difficulty in learning a new language is that of changing from the grammatical mechanism
of the native language to that of the new language.
For example, Russian pupils often violate the word order which results in bad mistakes in expressing
their thoughts. The English tense system also presents a lot of trouble t Russian-speaking pupils because
of the difference which exists in these languages with regard to time and tense relations. The sequence
of tenses is another difficult point in English grammar for Russian-speaking pupils. There can be given
some other examples. The most difficult point of English grammar is the article.
The grammar material may be classified into the following 3 groups:
1. The grammar phenomena which do not require any explanation since there are similar
phenomena in the mother tongue of the pupil.
2. The grammar phenomena which require corrections (money – is).
3. The grammar phenomena which are strange for Russian-speaking pupils (article, tense, modal
verbs).
In teaching grammar, therefore, the teacher should approach to the material differently depending on
the difficulties pupils encounter in the assimilating of grammar phenomenon.
The content of teaching grammar since school-leavers are expected to acquire language proficiency
in aural comprehension, speaking and reading grammar material should be selected for the purpose.
There exist principles of selecting grammar material both for teaching speaking knowledge (active
minimum) and for teaching reading knowledge (passive minimum), the main one is the principle of
frequency, i.e. how frequently this or that grammar item occurs.
The syllabus and the textbooks present grammar differently. The syllabus emphasizes what to teach
and gives it in terms of traditional grammar. The textbook emphasize how to teach and present grammar
in sentence patterns, structures.
The amount of grammar material pupils should assimilate in school, and the way it is distributed
throughout the course of study, may be found in the syllabus. In teaching grammar the teacher follows
the recommendations given in Teacher’s Books.
How to teach grammar
Teaching grammar should be based upon the following principles:
1. Conscious approach to the teaching of grammar. It implies some rules for the teacher:
- Realize the difficulties the sentence pattern presents for your pupils. Comparative analysis
of the grammar item in English and in Russian or within the English language may be
helpful.
- Think of the shortest and simplest way for presentation of the new grammar item.
Remember the more you speak about the language, the less time is left for practice.
2. Practical approach to the assimilation of grammar. It means that pupils learn those grammar
items which they need for immediate use either in oral or written language. The learner masters
grammar through performing various exercises in using a given grammar item. Rule for the
teacher:
- Teach pupils correct grammar usage and not grammar knowledge.
3. Structural approach. Grammar items are introduced and drilled in structures or sentence patterns.
Structural approach allows the pupil to make up sentences by analogy, to use the same pattern
for various situations. Pupils learn sentence patterns and how to use them in oral and written
speech. Rule for the teacher:
- Furnish pupils with words to change the lexical meaning of the sentence pattern so that
pupils will be able to use it in different situations.
4. Situational approach. Pupils learn a grammar item used in situations. Rule for the teacher:
- Select the situations for the particular grammar item you are going to present. Look through
the textbook and other teaching materials and find those situations which can ensure
comprehension and provide the usage of the item.
5. Different approach to the teaching of active grammar (for conversation) and passive grammar
(for reading). Rule for the teacher:
- If the grammar item belongs to those pupils need for conversation, select the oral approach
method for teaching. If pupils need the grammar item for reading, start with reading and
writing sentences in which the grammar item occurs.
Types of exercises for the assimilation of grammar
1. Recognition exercises. Since pupils only observe the new grammar item the situations should be
natural and communicative. Recognition exercises are indispensable as pupils retain the
grammar material through auditory and visual perception. Auditory and visual memory is at
work.
2. Drill exercises.
- Repetitive drill. Pupils pronounce the sentence pattern after the teacher, both individually
and in unison. Attention should be drawn to the correct pronunciation of the sentence pattern
as a sense unit, as a statement (sounds, stress, and tune).
- Substitution. Pupils substitute the words or phrases in a sentence pattern. Pupils consolidate
the grammar item without thinking about it. They think of the words, phrases, but not of the
form itself, therefore involuntary memory is at work.
- Completion. Pupils complete the sentences the teacher utters looking at the pictures he
shows (Mike is…).
- Answering the teacher’s questions. Drill exercises may be done both orally and in written
form. Pupils perform oral exercises during the lesson and written ones at home.
3. Creative exercises (speech exercise). This type of exercises requires creative work on the part of
the learners. These may be :
- Making statements either on the picture the teacher shows, or on objects.
- Asking questions with a given grammar item.
- Speaking about the situation offered by the teacher. (He is opening/has opened the door)
- Speaking o a suggested topic. For example, a pupil tells the class what he did yesterday.
- Making dialogues using the grammar item covered.
- Dramatizing the text read. For example, pupils read the text in persons.
- Telling the story.
- Translating into English.
- Participating in free conversation in which pupils are to use the grammar item.
As to the grammar items pupils need only for reading pupils assimilate them while performing drill
exercises and reading texts. This is usually done only in senior grades where the grammar material is not
necessarily used in oral language.
All the exercises mentioned above are designed:
1) To develop pupil’s skills in recognizing grammar forms while auding and reading English texts.
2) To accumulate correct sentence patterns in the pupil’s memory which they can reproduce
whenever they need these patterns for speaking or writing.
3) To help the pupils to produce sentences of their own using grammar items necessary for
speaking about a situation or a topic offered, or writing an essay on the text heard or an
annotation on the text read.
LECTURE 4 TEACHING LANGUAGE SKILLS
4.1 Teaching listening
The previous chapters dealt with the teaching of various aspects of the language, namely,
pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar. The knowledge of each of the aspects is of great importance to
learners. However, when we say a person knows the language we first of all mean he understands the
language spoken and can speak it himself. When we speak about teaching a FL we first of all have in
mind teaching it as a means of communication.
Listening
Dialogue
Oral language <
<
Speaking
Monologue
The syllabus requirements for oral language are as follows:
1. To understand the language spoken
2. To carry on a conversation and to speak a FL within the topics and linguistic material the
syllabus sets.
This is the practical aim of teaching oral language. But oral language is not
only an aim in itself;
it is also a mighty means of FL instruction.
Difficulties in listening
When auding a FL pupils should be very attentive and think hard. They should strain their memory
and will power to keep the sequence of sounds they hear and to decode it. Not all the pupils can cope
with the difficulties entailed. The teacher should help them by making this work easier and more
interesting. This is possible on condition that he will take into consideration the following three main
factors which can ensure success in developing listening skills.
1. Linguistic material
2. The content of the material suggested for listening
3. Conditions in which the material is presented.
Listening comprehension can be ensured when the teacher uses the material which has already been
assimilated by pupils. However this does not completely eliminate the difficulties in auding. Three kinds
of difficulties should be overcome: phonetic, lexical, and grammatical: the horse is slipping (sleeping);
they worked (walked) till night; phrasal verbs put on, put off, put down; grammatical homonyms Past
Indefinite, Past Participle.
The content of the material also influences comprehension. The topic of communication should be
within the ability of the pupils to understand. Difficulties should be explained (proper names,
geographical names, terminology etc.)
Description is more difficult than narration. The pupils’ readiness to listen and comprehend is very
important. The title of the story may be helpful in comprehending the main idea of the text. Monologic
speech is easier.
Conditions of the presenting are of great importance: the speed of the speech, the number of times of
presenting the material. Pupils should be taught to listen to the text once. However they sometimes can
grasp only 50% of the information and even less, so a second presentation may be helpful. The presence
or the absence of the speaker is also an important factor.
Techniques the teacher uses to develop listening skills.
1. Conducting a lesson in a FL gives the teacher an opportunity to develop pupils’ abilities in
listening, to demonstrate the language as a means of communication, to provide favorable conditions for
the assimilation of the language.
2 The teacher uses drill and speech exercises to develop listening comprehension.
3 The teacher organizes activities in listening to texts
Guidelines for organizing listening activities
1. Listening texts
Informal talk. Most listening texts should be based on discourse that is either genuine improvised,
spontaneous speech, or at least a fair imitation of it. A typical written text that is read aloud as a basis
for classroom listening activity is unlikely to incorporate the characteristics of informal speech and will
thus provide the learners with no practice in understanding the most common form of spoken discourse.
Speaker visibility; direct speaker-listener interaction. The fact that in most listening situations the
speaker is visible and directly interacting with the listener should make us think twice about the
conventional use of audio recordings for listening comprehension exercises. It is useful to the learners if
you improvise at least some of the listening texts yourself in their presence (or, if feasible, get another
competent speaker of the language to do so). Video also makes a positive contribution to the
effectiveness of listening practice, in that it supplies the aspect of speaker visibility and the general
visual environment of the text.
Single exposure. If real-life discourse is rarely 'replayed' then learners should be encouraged to
develop the ability to extract the information they need from a single hearing. The discourse, therefore,
must be redundant enough to provide this information more than once within the original text; and
where possible hearers should be able to stop the speaker to request a repeat or explanation.
2. Listening tasks
Expectations. Learners should have in advance some idea about the kind of text they are going to
hear. Thus the mere instruction 'Listen to the passage ...' is less useful than something like: 'You are
going to hear a husband and wife discussing their plans for the summer ...'. The latter instruction
activates learners' relevant schemata (their own previous knowledge and concepts of facts, scenes,
events, etc.) and enables them to use this previous knowledge to build anticipatory 'scaffolding' that will
help them understand.
Purpose. Similarly, a listening purpose should be provided by the definition of a pre-set task, which
should involve some kind of clear visible or audible response. Thus, rather than say simply: 'Listen and
understand ...' we should give a specific instruction such as: 'Listen and find out where the family are
going for their summer holidays. Mark the places on your map.' The definition of a purpose enables the
listener to listen selectively for significant information - easier, as well as more natural, than trying to
understand everything.
Ongoing listener response. Finally, the task should usually involve intermittent responses during the
listening; learners should be encouraged to respond to the information they are looking for as they hear
it, not to wait to the end.
Listening to texts
Before pupils are invited to listen to the text the teacher should ensure that all the words and
grammar are familiar to the pupils. If there are some important words the teacher introduces them
beforehand (the words on the board in the sequence they appear in the text). Then the teacher should
direct his pupils’ attention to what they are going to listen to. This stimulates their thinking and
facilitates their comprehension of the text.
Pre-listening tasks stimulate the pupil’s attention:
- Try to grasp the main idea
- Make a plan of the story
- Try to finish the story
Pictures can facilitate comprehension. After they have listened, the teacher may ask questions; make
statements on the text for pupils to agree or reject them.
Extensive and intensive listening
Listening of both kinds is especially important since it provides the perfect opportunity to hear voices
other than the teacher’s, enables students to acquire good speaking habits as a result of the spoken
language they absorb and helps to improve their own pronunciation.
Extensive listening (the teacher encourages students to choose for themselves what they listen to and
to do so for pleasure and general language improvement).
Extensive listening will usually take place outside the classroom, material for extensive listening can be
found from a number of sources (tapes that accompany different books, songs, video-films).
Intensive listening are taped materials and material on disk. Most coursebooks include tapes and
many teachers rely on tapes to provide significant source of language input. The teacher uses taped
material at various stages in a sequence of lessons.
Types of listening activities
1. No overt response
The learners do not have to do anything in response to the listening; however, facial expression and
body language often show if they are following or not.
Stories. Tell a joke or real-life anecdote, retell a well-known story, read a story from a book; or play a
recording of a story. If the story is well-chosen, learners are likely to be motivated to attend and
understand in order to enjoy it.
Songs. Sing a song yourself, or play a recording of one. Note, however, that if no response is
required learners may simply enjoy the music without understanding the words.
Entertainment: films, theatre, video. As with stories, if the content is really entertaining
(interesting, stimulating, humorous, dramatic) learners will be motivated to make the effort to
understand without the need for any further task.
2. Short responses
Obeying instructions. Learners perform actions, or draw shapes or pictures, in response to
instructions.
Ticking off items. A list, text or picture is provided: listeners mark or tick off words/components as
they hear them within a spoken description, story or simple list of items.
True/false. The listening passage consists of a number of statements, some of which are true and
some false (possibly based on material the class has just learnt). Learners write ticks or crosses to
indicate whether the statements are right or wrong; or make brief responses ('True!' or 'False!' for
example); or they may stay silent if the statements are right, say 'No!' if they are wrong.
Detecting mistakes. The teacher tells a story or describes something the class knows, but with a
number of deliberate mistakes or inconsistencies. Listeners raise their hands or call out when they hear
something wrong.
Cloze. The listening text has occasional brief gaps, represented by silence or some kind of buzz.
Learners write down what they think might be the missing word. Note that if the text is recorded, the
gaps have to be much more widely spaced than in a reading one; otherwise there is not enough time to
listen, understand, think of the answer, and write. If you are speaking the text yourself, then you can
more easily adapt the pace of your speech to the speed of learner responses.
Guessing definitions. The teacher provides brief oral definitions of a person, place, thing, action or
whatever; learners write down what they think it is.
Skimming and scanning. A not-too-long listening text is given, improvised or recorded; learners are
asked to identify some general topic or information (skimming), or certain limited information
(scanning) and note the answer(s). Written questions inviting brief answers may be provided in advance;
or a grid, with certain entries missing; or a picture or diagram to be altered or completed.
3. Longer responses
Answering questions. One or more questions demanding fairly full responses are given in advance,
to which the listening text provides the answer(s). Because of the relative length of the answers
demanded, they are most conveniently given in writing.
Note-taking. Learners take brief notes from a short lecture or talk. Paraphrasing and translating.
Learners rewrite the listening text in different words: either in the same language (paraphrase) or in
another (translation).
Summarizing. Learners write a brief summary of the content of the listening passage. Long gapfilling. A long gap is left, at the beginning, middle or end of a text; learners guess and write down, or
say, what they think might be missing.
4. Extended responses
Here, the listening is only a 'jump-off point' for extended reading, writing or speaking: in other words,
these are 'combined skills' activities.
Problem-solving. A problem is described orally; learners discuss how to deal with it, and/or write
down a suggested solution.
Interpretation. An extract from a piece of dialogue or monologue is provided, with no previous
information; the listeners try to guess from the words, kinds of voices, tone and any other evidence what
is going on. At a more sophisticated level, a piece of literature that is suitable for reading aloud (some
poetry, for example) can be discussed and analyzed.
4.2 Teaching speaking
Speaking a FL is the most difficult part in language learning because pupils need ample practice in
speaking to be able to say a few words of their own in connection with a situation. This work is timeconsuming.
The stimuli the teacher can use for developing speaking habits are often feeble and artificial. There
must be occasions when the pupils feel the necessity to inform someone of something, to explain
something and to prove something to someone (situational and communicative approach).
Of all the four skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing), speaking seems intuitively the most
important: people who know a language are referred to as 'speakers' of that language, as if speaking
included all other kinds of knowing; and many if not most foreign language learners are primarily
interested in learning to speak.
Classroom activities that develop learners' ability to express themselves through speech would
therefore seem an important component of a language course. Yet it is difficult to design and administer
such activities; more so, in many ways, than to do so for listening, reading or writing. We shall come on
to what the problems are presently, but first let us try to define what is meant by 'an effective speaking
activity'.
Characteristics of a successful speaking activity
1. Learners talk a lot. As much as possible of the period of time allotted to the activity is in fact
occupied by learner talk. This may seem obvious, but often most time is taken up with teacher talk or
pauses
2. Participation is even. Classroom discussion is not dominated by a minority of talkative participants
all get a chance to speak, and contributions are fairly evenly distributed
3. Motivation is high. Learners are eager to speak because they are interested in the topic and have
something new to say about it, or because they want to contribute to achieving a task objective
4. Language is of an acceptable level. Learners express themselves in utterances that are relevant,
easily comprehensible to each other, and of an acceptable level of language accuracy
In practice, however, few classroom activities succeed in satisfying all the criteria described above.
Problems with speaking activities
1. Inhibition. Unlike reading, writing and listening activities, speaking requires some degree of realtime exposure to an audience Learners are often inhibited about trying to say things in a foreign
language in the classroom worried about making mistakes, fearful of criticism or losing face, or simply
shy of the attention that their speech attracts
2. Nothing to say. Even if they are not inhibited, you often hear learners complain that they cannot
think of anything to say they have no motive to express themselves beyond the guilty feeling that they
should be speaking
3. Low or uneven participation. Only one participant can talk at a time if he or she is to be heard, and
in a large group this means that each one will have only very little talking time This problem is
compounded by the tendency of some learners to dominate, while others speak very little or not at all
4. Mother-tongue use. In classes where all, or a number of, the learners share the same mother
tongue, they may tend to use it because it is easier, because it feels unnatural to speak to one another in a
foreign language, and because they feel less 'exposed' if they are speaking their mother tongue If they
are talking in small groups it can be quite difficult to get some classes - particularly the less disciplined
or motivated ones - to keep to the target language.
The other factor is the fact that the pupil needs words, phrases, sentence patterns and structures stored
up in his memory ready to be used for expressing any thought he wants to. In teaching speaking the
teacher should stimulate his pupils’ speech by supplying them with the subject and grammar they need
to speak about the suggested topic or situation. The teacher should lead his pupil to unprepared speaking
through prepared speaking.
What the teacher can do to help to solve some of the problems
1. Use group work
This increases the sheer amount of learner talk going on in a limited period of time and also lowers
the inhibitions of learners who are unwilling to speak in front of the full class. It is true that group work
means the teacher cannot supervise all learner speech, so that not all utterances will be correct, and
learners may occasionally slip into their native language; nevertheless, even taking into consideration
occasional mistakes and mother-tongue use, the amount of time remaining for positive, useful oral
practice is still likely to be far more than in the full-class set-up.
2. Base the activity on easy language
In general, the level of language needed for a discussion should be lower than that used in intensive
language-learning activities in the same class: it should be easily recalled and produced by the
participants, so that they can speak fluently with the minimum of hesitation. It is a good idea to teach or
review essential vocabulary before the activity starts.
3. Make a careful choice of topic and task to stimulate interest
On the whole, the clearer the purpose of the discussion the more motivated participants will be.
4. Give some instruction or training in discussion skills
If the task is based on group discussion then include instructions about participation when introducing
it. For example, tell learners to make sure that everyone in the group contributes to the discussion;
appoint a chairperson to each group who will regulate participation.
5. Keep students speaking the target language
You might appoint one of the group as monitor, whose job it is to remind participants to use the
target language, and perhaps report later to the teacher how well the group managed to keep to it. Even
if there is no actual penalty attached, the very awareness that someone is monitoring such lapses helps
participants to be more careful.
However, when all is said and done, the best way to keep students speaking the target language is
simply to be there yourself as much as possible, reminding them and modelling the language use
yourself: there is no substitute for nagging!
Rules for the teacher (principles):
1. Speech must be motivated. It is necessary to think over the motives which make pupils speak.
They should have a necessity to speak and not only a desire to get a good mark. Rule: ensure
conditions in which a pupil will have a desire to say something, to express his thoughts, his
feelings.
2. Speech is always addressed to an interlocutor. Rule: organize the teaching process in a way
which allows your pupils to speak to someone, to their classmates in particular. When speaking a
pupil should address the class and not the teacher or the ceiling as is often the case. When he
retells a text nobody listens to him. The speaker will hold his audience when he says something
new. Try to supply pupils with assignments which require individual approach on their part.
3. Speech is always emotionally coloured for a speaker expresses his thought, feelings, and his
attitude to what he says. Rule: teach pupils to use intonational means to express their attitude,
their feelings about what they say (prove, give your opinion).
4. Speech is always situational for it takes place in a certain situation. Rule: real and close-to-real
situations should be created to stimulate pupils’ speech.
Speech and oral exercises
Speech is a process of communication by means of language examples. Oral exercises are used for
the pupils to assimilate phonetics, grammar, and vocabulary (making up sentences following the model).
Oral exercises are quite indispensable to developing speech. However, they only prepare pupils for
speaking and cannot be considered to be speech.
There are two forms of speaking: monologue and dialogue. In teaching monologue we can easily
distinguish three stages:
1. Statements level
2. Utterance level
3. Discourse level
Accordingly, we can differentiate the following types of exercises:
1. Drill exercises with the sentence pattern (substitution, extension, transformation, completion).
When pupils are able to make statements in the FL they may learn to combine statements of
various sentence patterns in a logical sequence.
2. Pupils are taught how to use different sentence patterns in an utterance about an object, a subject
offered. The pupil’s utterance may involve 2-4 sentences which logically follow one another. At
this stage pupils learn to express their thoughts, their attitude to what they say using various
sentence patterns. Thus, they learn how to put several sentences together in one utterance.
3. After pupils have learned how to say a few sentences in connection with a situation, they are
prepared for speaking at discourse level. Free speech is possible provided pupils have acquired
habits and skills in making statements and in combining them in a logical sequence. At this
level pupils are asked to speak on a picture, a set of pictures, comment on a text, and make up a
story of their own.
To develop pupils’ skill in dialogue pupils are taught:
1. How to make responses:
1) question-response,
2) statement-statement,
3) statement-question,
4) question-question.
2. How to begin a dialogue, i.e. to ask questions, to make statements etc.
3. How to carry on a conversation, i.e. to start it, to join a conversation, to confirm, to
comment using the following words and expressions: well, look here, I say, you see, do you mean to
say, and what about,…to tell the truth, I mean to say….
In acquiring necessary habits in carrying on a conversation pattern-dialogues may be helpful. When a
pattern-dialogue is used as a unit of teaching there are three stages in learning a dialogue:
1. Receptive: They listen to the dialogue, then read it silently for better understanding
2. Reproductive: Pupils enact the dialogue. Three kinds of reproduction:
a) Immediate. Pupils reproduce the dialogue in imitation of the speech just after they have heard it.
The pupils are asked to learn the dialogue by heart for their homework
b) Delayed. They enact the dialogue on persons. Before calling on pupils it is recommended that
they should listen to the dialogue recorded again to remind them of how it sounds.
c) Modified. Pupils enact the dialogue with some modifications in its contents. They change some
elements in it. Pupils use their own experience while selecting the words for substitutions.
3. Creative: Pupils make up dialogues of their own. They are given a picture or a verbal situation to
talk about.
To make the act of communication easier for the pupils the teacher helps them with “props”. The
pupil needs props of two kinds: props in content or what to speak about, what to say, and props in form
or how to say.
Pupils’ speech may be of two kinds prepared and unprepared. It is considered prepared when the
pupil has been given time enough to think over its content and form. He can speak on the subject
following the plan made either independently at home or in class under the teacher’s supervision. His
speech will be more or less correct and sufficiently fluent since plenty of preliminary exercises had been
done before.
The main objective of the learner, however, is to be able to use the linguistic material in unprepared
speech.
1) Speak on the text heard
2) Discuss a problem or problems touched upon in the text read or heard (to
compare the system of education)
3) Have an interview with a foreigner (one of the pupils is a Londoner, the
classmates ask him various questions and express their opinions on the subjects
under discussion)
4) Help a foreigner, e.g. to find the way to the main street, or instruct him as to
the places of interest in the town.
There are of course other techniques for stimulating pupil’s unprepared speech. In conclusion it
should be said that prepared and unprepared speech must be developed simultaneously from the very
beginning. The relationship between prepared and unprepared speech should vary depending on the
stage of learning the language.
4.3 Teaching reading
Reading is one of the main skills a pupil must acquire in the process of mastering a FL in school.
Reading is one of the practical aims of teaching a FL. Reading is of great educational importance.
Through reading in a FL the pupil enriches his knowledge of the world around him. He gets acquainted
with the countries where the target language is spoken.
Reading develops pupils’ intelligence. It helps to develop their memory, will, imagination. Reading
is not only an aim in itself; it is also a means of learning a FL. When reading a text, the pupil reviews
sounds and letters, vocabulary and grammar, memorizes the spelling of words, the meaning of words
and word combinations and in this way he perfects his command of the target language. If the teacher
instructs his pupils in good reading and they can read with sufficient fluency and complete
comprehension he helps them to acquire speaking and writing skills as well.
There are two ways of reading: aloud and silently. People usually start learning to read orally. In
teaching a FL in school both ways should be developed.
When one says that one can read, it means that one can focus one’s attention on the meaning and not
on the form. A good reader does not look at letters, nor even at words, one by one, however quickly; he
takes in the meaning of two, three or four words at a time, in a single moment such reading is the end to
be attained.
As a means of teaching reading a system of exercises is widely used in school which includes:
1. Graphemic-phonemic exercises which help pupils to assimilate graphemic-phonemic
correspondence in the English language.
2. Structural-information exercises which help pupils to carry out lexical and grammar analysis
to find the logical subject and predicate in the sentences following the structural signals.
3. Semantic-communicative exercises which help pupils to get information from the text.
Reading in the English language is one of the most difficult things because there are 26 letters and
146 graphemes which represent 46 phonemes. It is not sufficient to know English letters. It is necessary
that pupils should know how this or that vowel, vowel combination, consonant, or consonant
combination is read in different positions in the words. The teacher cannot teach pupils all the existing
rules and exceptions for reading English words.
The most difficult thing in learning to read is to get information from a sentence or a paragraph on
the basis of the knowledge of structural signals and not only the meaning of words. Pupils often ignore
grammar and try to understand what they read relying on the knowledge of autonomous words.
Pupils sometimes find it difficult to pick out topical sentences in the text which express the main
ideas.
To make the process of reading easier, new words phrases, and sentence patterns should be learnt
orally before pupils are asked to read them.
Consequently in order to find the most effective ways of teaching the teacher should know the
difficulties pupils may have.
Exercises
1. The first group of exercises is designed to develop pupil’s ability to associate the graphic
symbols with the phonic ones.
Teaching begins with presenting a letter to pupils, or a combination of letters. The use of flash cards
and the blackboard is indispensable. The same devices are applied for teaching pupils to read words. In
teaching to read transcription is also utilized. It helps the learner to read a word in the cases where the
same grapheme stands for different sounds (build, suit).
2. The second group includes structural-information exercises. They are done both in reading
aloud and in silent reading. Pupils are taught how to read sentences, paragraphs, texts
correctly. Special attention is given to intonation since it is of great importance to the actual
division of sentences, to stressing the logical predicate in them. Marking the text
occasionally may be helpful. At an early stage of teaching reading the teacher should read a
sentence or a passage to the class himself. When he is sure the pupils understand the passage
he can set individual and the class to repeat the sentences after him.
This kind of elementary reading practice should be carried on for a limited number of lessons only.
When a class has advanced far enough to be ready for more independent reading, reading in chorus
might be decreased, but not eliminated.
Reading aloud as a method of teaching and learning the language should take place in all the forms.
This is done with the aim of improving pupils’ reading skills.
In reading aloud the teacher uses:
1) Diagnostic reading (pupils read and he can see their weak points in reading).
2) Instructive reading (pupils follow the pattern read by the teacher or the speaker).
3) Control (test) reading (pupils read the text trying to keep as close to the pattern as possible).
Silent reading
Special exercises may be suggested to develop pupils’ skills in silent reading.
Teaching silent reading is closely connected with two problems:
1. Instructing pupils to comprehend what they read following some structural signals, the latter is
possible provided pupils have certain knowledge of grammar and vocabulary and they can perform
lexical and grammatical analysis.
2. Developing pupils’ ability in guessing.
Grammar and lexical analysis helps pupils to assimilate structural words, to determine the meaning
of a word proceeding from its position in the sentence, to find the meanings of unfamiliar words, and
those which seem to be familiar but do not correspond to the structure of the sentence (I saw him book a
ticket). Pupils’ poor comprehension often results from their poor knowledge of grammar (syntax in
particular).
Some examples of tasks:
- Read the following sentences and guess the meaning of the words you don’t know.
- These sentences are too complicated. Break them into shorter sentences.
- What is the significance of the tense difference?
The third group of exercises help pupils to get information from the text. To read a text the pupil
must possess the ability to grasp the contents of the text. The pupil is to be taught to compare, to
contrast, to guess and to foresee events.
Before-questions may be very helpful for reading comprehension. They direct the pupil’s thought
when he reads the text. The teacher instructs pupils how to get information from the text.
Communicative exercises are recommended. They are all connected with silent reading. These may be:
- Read and say why…
- Read and find answers to the following questions
- Read the text. Find the words which describe.
- Read the text and say what made somebody do something.
- Read the text and prove that.
Comprehension may also be checked using the following tasks:
- Read and draw.
- Find the following information
- Correct the following statements
- Find the most important sentences in the text.
Some of the assignments may be done in writing.
If the text is easy enough the text uses those techniques which are connected with speaking, with the
active use of vocabulary and sentence patterns (asking questions, making up questions, summarizing,
discussing).
The work must be carried out in a way which will be of interest to pupils and develop not only their
reading ability but their aural comprehension and speaking abilities as well.
If the text is difficult, i.e. if it contains unfamiliar words and grammar items the techniques the teacher
uses should be different as intensive work is needed on their part.
The intensive work may be connected with:
1) Lexical work which helps pupils to deepen and enrich their vocabulary knowledge.
2) Grammar work which helps pupils to review and systematize their grammar knowledge and
enrich it through grammar analysis.
3) Content analysis.
The exercises are mostly connected with recognition on the part of the learners (find and read, find
and analyze, find and translate, answer the questions, read those sentences which you think contain the
main information).
Unfortunately, some teachers have a tendency to test instead of teach and they often confine
themselves to reading and translating the text. This is a bad practice. The procedure becomes
monotonous and the work is ineffective.
Reading texts should meet the following requirements:
- Interesting and have something new for the learners.
- Deal mostly with the life of people whose language pupils study to achieve the cultural aim.
- Be of educational value.
- Easy enough for pupils’ comprehension to get pleasure from reading.
- Should help pupils in enriching their knowledge of the language, in extending so-called potential
vocabulary.
While reading pupils are taught to perform the following “acts”:
- To anticipate the subject of the text. This may be done through the title and skimming are
“selective reading”
- To search for facts in the text. This is done through before – questions and other assignments
phrases and sentences by his own for the purpose. All this results in better comprehension. In this
way they are trained to give a summary of the text read.
- To interpret the text. Pupils have to acquire necessary habits in interpreting the text (evaluating,
giving their opinion).
4.4 Teaching writing
Writing as a skill is very important in teaching and learning a foreign language; it helps pupils to
assimilate letters and sounds of the English language, its vocabulary and grammar, and to develop habits
and skills in pronunciation, speaking, and reading.
The practical value of writing is great because it can fix patterns of all kinds (graphemes, words,
phrases and sentences) in pupils’ memory, thus producing a powerful effect on their mind. That is why
the school syllabus reads: “Writing is a means of teaching a foreign language.” Writing includes
penmanship, spelling, and composition. The latter is the aim of learning to write.
Since writing is a complicated skill it should be developed through the formation of habits such as:
(1) the habit of writing letters of the English alphabet;
(2) the habit of converting speech sounds into their symbols — letters and letter combinations;
(3) the habit of correct spelling of words, phrases, and sentences;
(4) the habit of writing various exercises which lead pupils to expressing their thoughts in connection
with the task set .
In forming writing habits the following factors are of great importance:
1 Auditory perception of a sound, a word, a phrase, or a sentence, i.e., proper hearing of a sound, a
word, a phrase, or a sentence.
2 Articulation of a sound and pronunciation of a word, a phrase, and a sentence by the pupil who
writes.
3 Visual perception of letters or letter combinations which stand for sounds.
4 The movements of the muscles of the hand in writing.
The ear, the eye, the muscles and nerves of the throat and tongue, the movements of the muscles of
the hand participate in writing. And the last, but not the least, factor which determines progress in
formation and development of lasting writing habits is pupils’ comprehension of some rules which
govern writing in the English language.
Since pupils should be taught penmanship, spelling, and composition it is necessary to know the
difficulties Russian pupils find in learning to write English.
The writing of the English letters does not present much trouble because there are a lot of similar
letters in both languages. They are a, o, e, n, m, p, c, k, g, x, M, T, H. Only a few letters, such as s, r, i, h,
1, f, b, t, j, I, G, Q, N, etc., may be strange to Russian pupils. Training in penmanship is made easier
because our school has adopted the script writing suggested by Marion Richardson in which the capital
letters in script have the same form as the printed capital letters. The small letters such as h, b, d, i, k, f,
are made without a loop.
Pupils find it difficult to make each stroke continuous when the body of the letter occupies one space,
the stem one more space above, the tail one more space below.
The most difficult thing for Russian pupils in learning to write is English spelling. The spelling
system of a language may be based upon the following principles:
1. Historical or conservative principle when spelling reflects the pronunciation of earlier periods in
the history of the language. For example, Russian: кого, жил; English: busy, brought, daughter.
2. Morphological principle. In writing a word the morphemic composition of the word is taken into
account. For example, in Russian: рыба, рыбка; the root morpheme is рыб; in English:
answered, asked; the affixal morpheme is ed.
3. Phonetic principle. Spelling reflects the pronunciation. For example, in Russian: бесконечный безграничный; in English: leg, pot.
One or another of these principles may prevail in any given language. In Russian and German the
morphological principle prevails. In French and English the historical or conservative principle
dominates (as far as the first 1000 words are concerned). The modern English spelling originated as
early as the 15th century and has not been changed since then. The pronunciation has changed greatly
during that time. Significant difference in pronunciation and spelling is the result. The same letters in
different words are read differently. For example, fat, fate, far, fare.
Different letters or letter combinations in different words are read in the same way: I - eye; rode road; write - right; tale - tail.
Many letters are pronounced in some words and are mute in other words: build [bild] - suit [sju:t];
laugh [la:f] - brought [bro:t]; help [help] - hour [auə].
The discrepancy that exists in the English language between pronunciation and spelling may be
explained by the fact that there are more sounds in the language than there are letters to stand for these
sounds. Thus, there are 23 vowel sounds in English and 6 letters to convey them.
In teaching English spelling special attention should be given to the words which present much
trouble in this respect. The spelling of the words, for example, busy, daughter, language, beautiful,
foreign, and others, must be assimilated through manifold repetition in their writing and spelling. In
conclusion it should be said that it is impossible to master accurate spelling without understanding some
laws governing it. Pupils should know:
(1) how to add:
1) -s to words ending in y: day - days, stay - he stays, but city - cities, study - he studies;
2) -ed to verbs: play - played; carry - carried;
3) -ing to verbs: write - writing; play - playing; stand - standing;
4) -er, -est to adjectives in the comparative and the superlative degrees: clean – cleaner - cleanest;
large – larger - largest;
(2) when the consonant should be doubled: sit - sitting; thin - thinner; swim - swimming;
(3) the main word-building suffixes:
-ful: use - useful; -less: use - useless; and others.
Writing a composition or a letter, which is a kind of a composition where the pupil has to write down
his own thoughts, is another problem to be solved. The pupil comes across a lot of difficulties in finding
the right words, grammar forms and structures among the limited material stored up in his memory. The
pupil often does not know what to write; he wants good and plentiful ideas which will be within his
vocabulary and grammar.
How to teach writing
Teaching writing should be based on such methodological principles as a conscious approach to
forming and developing this skill, visualization and activity of pupils. Pupils learn to write letters,
words, and sentences in the target language more successfully if they understand what they write, have
good patterns to follow, and make several attempts in writing a letter (a word, a sentence) until they are
satisfied that the work is well done.
Training in penmanship should proceed by steps.
1. The teacher shows the learners a letter or both a capital and a small letter, for example, B b.
Special cards may be used for the purpose. On one side of the card the letters are written. On the other
side there is a word in which this letter occurs.
2. The teacher shows his pupils how to write the letter. He can use the blackboard. For example, V
and W are made with one continuous zigzag movement. Q is made without lifting the pen except for the
tail, which is an added stroke. L is also made without lifting the pen. The first stroke in N is a downstroke; the pen is not lifted in making the rest of the letter. Care should be taken that r is not made to
look like a v: the branching should occur about two-thirds (r) from the bottom of the letter. The same
applies to the letters d and b; g and q; q and p which are often confused by pupils. Then the teacher
writes a word in which the new letter occurs. For example, B b, bed.
Whenever the teacher writes on the blackboard he gives some explanations as to how the letter is
made, and then how the word is written. His pupils follow the movements of his hand trying to imitate
them; they make similar movements with their pens in the air, looking at the blackboard.
Much care should be given to the words whose spelling does not follow the rules, for example,
daughter, busy, sure, usual, colonel, clerk, soldier, etc. Pupils master the spelling of such words by
means of repetitions in writing them.
The teacher shows his pupils how to rely on grammar in spelling the words. The more the pupils get
acquainted with grammar, the more will they rely on it in their spelling.
For example, the pupils have learned the plural of nouns in the English language. Now they know that
the ending s is added, though it sounds either [s] as in maps or [z] as in pens; in both cases they must
write s.
In the words famous, continuous it is necessary to write ous, as it is an adjective-forming suffix. In
the words dislike, disadvantage it is necessary to write i and not e as the negative prefix is dis.
Copying applies equally well to the phrase pattern and the sentence pattern with the same purpose to
help the memory, for pupils should not be asked to write, at least in the first two years, anything that
they do not already know thoroughly through speech and reading. Every new word, phrase or sentence
pattern, after it has been thoroughly learnt, should be practised by copying.
Copying may be carried out both in class and at home.
In copying at home the pupils must be given some additional task preventing them from performing the
work mechanically. The following tasks may be suggested:
(a) underline a given letter or letter combination for a certain sound;
(b) underline a certain grammar item;
(c) underline certain words depicting, for example, the names of school things.
The additional work the pupil must perform in copying a text or an exercise makes him pay attention
to the sound and meaning of the words. This kind of copying is a good way of ensuring the retention of
the material. It must be extensively applied in the junior and in the intermediate stages.
Writing exercises
Dictation. This kind of writing exercise is much more difficult than copying.
Some
methodologists think that it should never be given as a test to young beginners. “It is a means of fixing
of what is already known, not a puzzle in which the teacher tries to defeat the pupil” (F. French).
Dictation is a valuable exercise because it trains the ear and the hand as well as the eye: it fixes in the
pupil’s mind the division of each sentence pattern, because the teacher dictates division by division. For
example, Tom and I / go to school / together.
Dictations can vary in forms and in the way they are conducted:
(a) Visual dictation as a type of written work is intermediate between copying and dictation. The
teacher writes a word, or a word combination, or a sentence on the blackboard. The pupils are told to
read it and memorize its spelling. Then it is rubbed out and the pupils write it from memory.
(b) Dictation drill aims at consolidating linguistic material and preparing pupils for spelling tests.
The teacher dictates a sentence. A word with a difficult spelling either is written on the blackboard, or is
spelt by one of the pupils. Then the pupils are told to write the sentence. The teacher walks about the
class and watches them writing. He asks one of the pupils who has written correctly to go to the
blackboard and write the sentence for the other pupils to correct their mistakes if they have any. The
dictation drill may be given for 10—12 minutes depending on the grade and the language material.
(c) Self-dictation. Pupils are given a text (a rhyme) to learn by heart. After they have learned the text
at home the teacher asks them to recite it. Then they are told to write it in their exercise-books from
memory. So they dictate it to themselves. This type of written work may be given at junior and
intermediate stages.
Writing sentences on a given pattern. This kind of writing exercise is more difficult because
pupils choose words they are to use themselves. The following exercises may be suggested:
(a) Substitution: Nick has a sister. The pupils should use other words instead of a sister.
(b) Completion: How many … are there in the room? He came late because ... .
(c) Extension: Ann brought some flowers. (The pupils are expected to use an adjective before flowers.)
Practice of this kind can lead pupils to long sentences.
Writing answers to given questions. The question helps the pupil both with the words and with
the pattern required for the answer.
The object of every kind of written exercise mentioned above is to develop pupils’ spelling in the
target language and to fix the linguistic material in their memory and in this way to provide favourable
conditions for developing their skills in writing compositions. By composition in this case we mean
pupils’ expression of their own thoughts in a foreign language in connection with a suggested situation
or a topic within the linguistic material previously assimilated in speech and reading. Progress in writing
a foreign language is possible on condition that pupils have adequate preparation for writing. This
preparation should nearly always be carried out orally, except late at the senior stage when it can be
done from books independently as at this stage oral questioning need not precede writing. Writing
compositions will not help much in the learning of a new language without careful preparation. If pupils
have to rack their brains for something to say, or if they try to express something beyond their powers,
the writing may be more harmful than helpful. Preparation may include:
(a) oral questioning with the aim of giving the pupils practice in presenting facts and ideas in the
target language;
(b) the use of pictures and other visual aids to provide information for written work;
(c) auding an extract or a story which can stimulate pupils’ thought; after auding there should always
be some questions on the content;
(d) silent reading which can be used as a source of information for pupils, first, to speak about, and
then for writing.
In teaching compositions the following exercises may be suggested:
1. A written reproduction of a story either heard or read. With backward classes most of the words
that are habitually misspelt must be written on the blackboard.
2. A description of a picture, an object or a situation. For example:
— Write not less than three sentences about (the object).
— Write five sentences about what you usually do after classes.
— Write four sentences about what you can see in the picture of the room.
3. A descriptive paragraph about a text, or a number of texts on a certain subject. Pupils may be
given concrete assignments. For instance:
— Describe the place where the action takes place.
- Write what you have learned about ...
-Write what new and useful information you have found for yourself in this text (these texts).
— Write what the author says about ... using the sentences from the text to prove it.
4. An annotation on the text read. The following assignments may help pupils in this.
— Pick out sentences which express the main idea (ideas) in the text and then cross out those words
which are only explanatory in relation to the main idea.
— Abridge text by writing out only topical sentences.
— Write the contents of the text in 3—5 sentences.
5. A composition on a suggested topic. For example, “My family” or “Our town” or “The sports I
like best”. Pupils should be taught to write a plan first and then to write the story to following the
plan.
6. Letter writing. Pupils are usually given a pattern letter in English, which shows the way the
English start their letters and end them.
The following assignments may be suggested:
— Write a letter to your friend who lives in another town.
— Write a letter to your parents when you are away from home.
— Write a letter to a boy (a girl) you do not know but you want to be your pen-friend.
In testing pupils’ skills in writing the teacher should use those kinds of work pupils get used to and
which they can do because they must be well prepared before they are given a test. Every pupil should
feel some pride in completing a test and be satisfied with the work done. Tests which result in mistakes
are very dangerous. They do no good at all. They do a very great deal of harm because pupils lose
interest in the subject and stop working at their English. Indeed, if the results of the test are poor, for
example, 50% of the pupils have received low marks, they testify not only to the poor assimilation of
the material by the pupils, but to the poor work of the teacher as well. He has given an untimely test. He
has not prepared the pupils for the test yet. This is true of all kinds of tests in teaching a foreign
language.
In teaching writing the following tests may be recommended to measure pupils’ achievements in
penmanship, spelling, and composition.
1. The teacher measures his pupils’ achievement in making English letters in
the right way by
asking individuals to write some letters on the blackboard. Or else he may ask the pupils to write some
letters which he names in their exercise-books. Then he takes the exercise-books for correction.
2. The teacher measures his pupils’ achievement
in penmanship and spelling by
administering dictation tests or spelling test. The teacher dictates a word, a phrase, or a sentence
standing in front of the class for the pupils to hear him well. If the teacher dictates a sentence, it
is not recommended to repeat it more than twice. Constant repetition of the sentence prevents
pupils from keeping it in memory. If the dictation is based on a text whose sentences are
logically connected it is necessary to read the whole text first and then dictate it sentence by
sentence. When the pupils are ready with writing, the teacher reads the text once more for them
to check it.
The amount of material that might be included in a dictation depends on the form, the stage of
teaching, and the character of the material itself.
A spelling test may be given either at the beginning of the lesson, or in the second half of it. Thus, if
the teacher handles the class well, it makes no difference when he gives it. If he does not handle the
class well enough to hold his pupils’ attention, it is better to administer a test in the second half of the
class-period, the first half of the class-period being devoted to some other work. Otherwise he will not
succeed in making his pupils work well. They will be excited because of the test.
3. The teacher measures his pupils’ achievement in composition by:
— asking them to write a few questions on the text;
— answering questions (the questions are given);
— making a few statements on the object-picture or a set of pictures given;
— describing a picture illustrating a situation or topic in written form;
— writing a few sentences on a suggested topic;
— giving a written annotation on the text read;
— writing a descriptive paragraph;
— writing a letter.
In conclusion, it should be said that everything a pupil writes as a test must be easy for him because
he is asked to write only those things which he already knows thoroughly.
It cannot be stressed strongly enough that none of the above types of tasks can be used as tests if the
pupils were not taught to do them in the process of learning the target language.
There is one more problem which deals with writing that is the correction of mistakes in pupils’
exercise-books.
Modern methodologists believe that the essence of correction lies in the fact that a pupil must realize
what mistake he had made and how he must correct it. That is why many teachers and methodologists,
both in this country and abroad, consider that the teacher should just mark (underline) a wrong letter, or
a form, or a word, etc.
In this way he will make the pupil find the mistake and correct it. Learners must acquire the habit of
noticing mistakes in their own writing. This habit can be acquired if pupils are properly trained, if
teachers will develop these habits in their pupils. The training that will help pupils to become aware of
their mistakes has to be gradual and continuous. When a pupil is made to find his mistakes and correct
them he has to apply his knowledge in spelling, vocabulary, and grammar of the target language and this
is far more useful for him than the corrections made by the teacher. The effect of the teacher's
corrections on the pupils is usually very small. Therefore pupils should be trained to correct mistakes
that have been made. The better the teacher trains his pupils, the less work he will have to do in the
marking.
In carrying out the training the following techniques may be recommended.
1. Pupils should read through their own written work before handing it in, and correct any mistakes
they can find. The habit of revising written work is a useful one, and every pupil has to acquire it.
2. Pupils can correct the sentences themselves looking at the blackboard where the correct answers to
exercises are written.
3. Whenever pupils are writing, the teacher can walk round looking through the work they have done
and putting a dot at the end of those lines which contain a mistake. The pupil has to find the mistake and
correct it. When the teacher comes round again, he crosses out the dot if the mistake has been corrected,
if not, he leaves the dot. This takes very little time, because teachers are usually quick in finding
mistakes. With small classes (he teacher can get an exercise almost completely corrected.
4. When written work has to be handed in, the teacher asks his pupils to read through their work and
count up the mistakes. They should put down the number at the bottom of the page. Then they correct
the mistakes. The teacher might give the class three to five minutes for this work. The exercise-books
are then collected and the teacher corrects the mistakes. He puts the number of mistakes he finds at the
bottom of the page.
5. The teacher can ask his pupils to change exercise-books with their neighbors. The latter look
through the work and try to find the mistakes which have been missed by their friends. They put the new
number at the bottom of the page.
Thus the teacher varies the procedure keeping the class guessing about what he will want them to do.
With the techniques described above the teacher stimulates his pupils to keep a sharp eye for mistakes
and, in this way, develops their ability to notice their mistakes and correct them.
Since writing is a mighty means in learning a foreign language pupils should write both in class and
at home. For this they need (1) two exercise-books for class and homework (the teacher collects the
exercise-books regularly for correcting mistakes and assigns marks for pupils' work in the exercisebooks); (2) a notebook for tests (the teacher keeps the notebooks in class and gives them to the pupils
for a test and corrections).
The exercise-books must meet the general school requirements established by unified spelling
standards.
LECTURE 5 EVALUATION AND TESTING
5.1 Correction and Feedback
Preliminary definition: What is feedback?
In the context of teaching in general, feedback is information that is given to the learner about his or
her performance of a learning task, usually with the objective of improving this performance. Some
examples in language teaching:
the words 'Yes, right!', said to a learner who has answered a question; a grade of 70% on an exam; a
raised eyebrow in response to a mistake in grammar; comments written in the margin of an essay.
Feedback has two main distinguishable components: assessment and correction. In assessment, the
learner is simply informed how well or badly he or she has performed. A percentage grade on an exam
would be one example; or the response 'No' to an attempted answer to a question in class; or a comment
such as 'Fair' at the end of a written assignment. In correction, some specific information is provided on
aspects of the learner's performance: through explanation, or provision of better or other alternatives, or
through elicitation of these from the learner. Note that in principle correction can and should include
information on what the learner did right, as well as wrong, and why! - but teachers and learners
generally understand the term as referring to the correction of mistakes, so that is (usually) how it is
used here.
The relationship between assessment and correction
It is, of course, perfectly possible to give assessment without correcting, as when a final percentage
mark on an exam is made known to a learner without the exam itself being returned or commented on.
The other way round is very much less feasible: it is virtually impossible to comment on what is right or
wrong in what a learner has done without conveying some kind of assessment. If a correction is
supplied, the learner is very aware that this means the teacher thinks something was wrong; if comment
is given on why something was appropriate, there is necessarily an underlying message of
commendation.
Teachers are sometimes urged to be ‘non-judgemental’ when giving feedback. Although any
meaningful feedback is going to involve some kind of judgement It is more useful, perhaps, to accept
that there is judgement involved, but to try to make the attitude to this more positive: that mistakes are a
natural and useful part of language learning; that when the teacher gives feedback on them, the purpose
is to help and promote learning; and that 'getting it wrong' is not ‘bad’, but rather a way into 'getting it
‘right’.
Approaches to the giving of feedback
Below you will find expressions of selected opinions on the nature and functions of assessment and
mistake correction; these are based on different theories of language learning or methodologies
Assessment: different opinions
Audio-lingualism
Negative assessment is to be avoided as far as possible since it functions as 'punishment' and may
inhibit or discourage learning. Positive assessment provides reinforcement of correct responses, and
promotes learning.
Humanistic methodologies
A crucial function of the giving of assessment is to preserve and promote a positive self-image of the
learner as a person and language learner. Assessment therefore should be positive or non-judgemental.
Skill theory
For successful acquisition of a skill, the learner needs feedback on how well he or she is doing; hence
the importance of the provision of constant and honest assessment
The correction of mistakes: different opinions
Audio-lingualism
Learner mistakes are, in principle, avoided by the limiting of progress to very small, controlled steps:
hence there should be little need for correction. The latter is, in any case, not useful for learning; people
learn by getting things right in the first place and having their performance reinforced.
Cognitive code-learning
Mistakes are regrettable, but an unavoidable part of learning; they should be corrected whenever they
occur to prevent them occurring again.
Intel-language
Mistakes are not regrettable, but an integral and important part of language learning;
correcting them is a way of bringing the learner's ‘intwerlanguage’ closer to the target language.
Communicative approach
Not all mistakes need to be corrected; the main aim of language learning is to receive and convey
meaningful messages, and correction should be focused on mistakes that interfere with this aim, not on
inaccuracies of usage.
Monitor theory
Correction does not contribute to real acquisition of the language, but only to the learner's conscious
'monitoring' of speech or writing. Hence the main activity of the teacher should be to provide
comprehensible input from which the learner can acquire language, not to correct.
Assessment
Most of the feedback we give our learners is ongoing correction and assessment directed at specific
bits of learner-produced language with the aim of bringing about improvement; the type of evaluation
involved here is sometimes called 'formative', since its main purpose is to ‘form’: to enhance, not
conclude, a process. Distinct from this is the evaluation usually termed ‘summative’, when the teacher
evaluates an overall aspect of the learner's knowledge in order to summarize the situation: how
proficient he or she is at a certain point in time, for example, or how much he or she has progressed
during a particular course. Summative evaluation may contribute little or nothing to the ongoing
teaching/learning process; but it is a part of the teacher's job, something we need to know how to do
effectively.
Below are descriptions of various ways of gathering the information which will serve as a basis for
assessment, and of some common criteria used for assessing it.
Gathering information (1): Tests
The most common way of gathering information for assessment is through tests; the usual criterion is
an arbitrary level which the learner is expected to have reached; and the result is generally expressed
through percentages.
Gathering information (2): Other sources
There, are, however, various problems with tests as a basis for summative evaluation: they are a oneoff event which may not necessarily give a fair sample of the learner's overall proficiency; they are not
always valid (actually testing what they say they are) or reliable (giving consistent results); and if they
are seen as the sole basis for a crucial evaluation in the learner's career, they can be extremely stressful.
Other options do, however, exist. These are summarized below.
1. Teacher's assessment. The teacher gives a subjective estimate of the learner's overall performance.
2. Continuous assessment. The final grade is some kind of combination of the grades the learner
received for various assignments during the course.
3. Self-assessment. The learners themselves evaluate their own performance, using clear criteria and
weighting systems agreed on beforehand.
4. Portfolio. The learner gathers a collection of assignments and projects done over a long period into a
file; and this portfolio provides the basis for evaluation.
Criteria
Having collected the 'evidence' of the learners' proficiency in one or more of the ways described
above, the teacher has to decide how good it is? The following are some of the possibilities.
1. Criterion-referenced: how well the learner is performing relative to a fixed criterion, where this is
based on an estimation of what it is reasonable or desirable to demand from learners at the relevant point
in their development (age, career, level, stage of a course).
2. Norm-referenced: how well the learner is performing relative to the group. In this case, a group of
slow learners would be assessed according to different, easier, norms than a group of faster ones.
3. Individual-referenced: how well the learner is performing relative to his or her own previous
performance, or relative to an estimate of his or her individual ability.
What criteria do/would you yourself use in assessing learners' performance? Would you combine
different criteria? Would you take into account learners' effort, motivation and progress in deciding on a
final grade?
Correcting mistakes in oral work
There are some situations where we might prefer not to correct a learner's mistake: in fluency work,
for example, when the learner is in mid-speech, and to correct would disturb and discourage more than
help. But there are other situations when correction is likely to be helpful.
The recommendation not to correct a learner during fluent speech is in principle a valid one, but
perhaps an over-simplification. There can be places where to refrain from providing an acceptable form
where the speaker is obviously uneasy or 'floundering' can actually be demoralizing, and gentle,
supportive intervention can help. Conversely, even where the emphasis is on getting the language right,
we may not always correct: in a grammar exercise, for example, if the learner has contributed an
interesting or personal piece of information that does not happen to use the target form; also, when they
have got most of an item right we may prefer not to draw attention to a relatively trivial mistake.
Oral corrections are usually provided directly by the teacher; but they may also be elicited from the
learner who made the mistake in the first place, or by another member of the class. Corrections may or
may not include a clarification of why the mistake was made, and may or may not require re-production
of the acceptable form by the learner.
As important as what the correction consists of is how it is expressed: gently or assertively,
supportively or as a condemnation, tactfully or rudely. On the whole, of course, we should go for
encouraging, tactful correction; but it is less easy to generalize about gently/assertively: some learner
populations respond better to the one, some to the other. In general, in fact, learner responses to different
expressions of feedback are often surprising: a teacher correction that seems to an observer a
humiliating ‘put-down’ may not be perceived as such by the learner to whom it was addressed; or an
apparently gentle, tactful one may give offence. A good deal of teacher sensitivity is needed here.
5.2 Tests and Testing
People vary very widely in their reactions to tests. Some like the sense of challenge; others find it
unpleasant. Some perform at their best under test conditions, others perform badly.
Thus, it would be a mistake to come out with sweeping statements like: 'People get very stressed when
they are tested', or 'Tests are unpopular'. The amount of unpleasant stress associated with a test depends
on various factors, at least some of which may be under the control of the teacher: how well the learners
are prepared for it and how confident they feel of success; what rewards and penalties are associated
with success or failure (how important the results are perceived to be); how clear the test items are; how
easy the test is as a whole; how often such tests are given; and so on.
Types of tests
1. Questions and answers
These can be used to test almost anything. The more 'closed' the question is (that is, the fewer the
possible options for correct answers), the easier the item will be to mark. It is fairly easy to compose and
grade closed-ended questions; more open, thought-provoking ones are more difficult, but may actually
test better.
2. True/false
This does not directly test writing or speaking abilities: only listening or reading. It may be used to test
aspects of language such as vocabulary, grammar, content of a reading or listening passage. It is fairly
easy to design; it is also easy to administer, whether orally or in writing, and to mark.
3. Multiple-choice
This may be used for the same testing purposes as true/false items; it does test rather more thoroughly
since it offers more optional answers and is obviously very easy to mark. It is administered more
conveniently through writing; but note that since the reading of the question-and-options is fairly time-
consuming, the process of comprehension of the actual question items may take more time and effort
than the point ostensibly tested, which raises problems of validity. Another important problem is that
good multiple-choice questions are surprisingly difficult to design: they often come out ambiguous, or
with no clear right answer, or with their solutions over-obvious. They are to be approached with
caution!
4. Gap-filling and completion
This usually tests grammar or vocabulary, as in the examples. It is tedious to compose, though not so
difficult as multiple-choice; it is more easily administered in writing than in speech; the marking is
usually simple. You may need to be aware that there is more than one possible right answer.
5. Matching
This usually tests vocabulary, and is rather awkward to administer orally: thus it is best presented
written on the board or on paper, though responses may be either oral or in writing. Items can be timeconsuming and difficult to compose, and again, there may be alternative 'right' answers to any particular
item. Answers are fairly easily checked.
6. Dictation
This mainly tests spelling, perhaps punctuation, and, perhaps surprisingly on the face of it, listening
comprehension: people can only usually write words down accurately from dictation if they understand
them. It does not, however, test other writing skills or speech, and involves very little reading. It may
supply some information on testees' passive knowledge of pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. It is
very easy to prepare and administer; it is relatively easy to mark, though there may be a problem
deciding how much weight to attribute to different mistakes.
7. Cloze
This tests (intensive) reading, spelling, and to some extent knowledge of vocabulary and grammar. It
can be adapted to 'target' specific language items, by, for example, omitting all the verbs (in which case
it is not, strictly speaking, 'cloze', but rather 'gap-filling'). It is fairly easy to prepare and administer.
Marking can be tricky: you may find it difficult sometimes to decide if a specific item is 'acceptable' or
not.
8. Transformation
This item is relatively easy to design, administer and mark, but its validity may be suspect. It tests the
ability of the testee to transform grammatical structures, which is not the same as testing grammar: a
testee may perform well on transformation items without knowing the meaning of the target structure or
how to use it in context. Marking is fairly straightforward.
9. Rewriting
This tests the same sort of thing as transformation, but is likely to reflect more thorough knowledge of
the target items, since it involves paraphrasing the entire meaning of a sentence rather than transforming
a particular item. It is, however, more difficult to compose, and the marking may be more subjective. It
is, as its name suggests, usually done in writing.
10. Translation
A technique which, at the time of writing, is for various reasons rather unpopular, but in my opinion
undeservedly so. In a monolingual class whose teacher also speaks the learners' mother tongue, the
translation of a 'bit' of language to or from the target language can give very quick and reliable
information on what the testee does or does not know, particularly when it involves entire units of
meaning (phrases, sentences) within a known context. Translation items are also relatively easy to
compose - even improvise, in an informal test - and administer, in either speech or writing. Marking
may sometimes be more difficult, but not prohibitively so.
11.Essay
This is a good test of general writing abilities. It is relatively easy to provide a topic and tell the class
to write an essay about it but marking is extremely difficult and time-consuming. It must be clear in
advance, both to you and to the students, how much emphasis you are going to lay on language forms,
such as spelling, grammar, punctuation, and how much on aspects of content, such as interest and
originality of ideas, effectiveness of expression, organization
12. Monologue
This tests oral fluency in 'long turns' - something not everyone can do in their mother tongue! It also
tests overall knowledge of pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. To choose a topic and allot it is not
so difficult; to assess is very difficult indeed, demanding concentration and a very clear set of criteria
and weighting system.
Stages in testing. Below are given some recommendations of an experienced teacher how to organize
testing.
Before the test
I use the period leading up to the test in order to do all I can to ensure that my students will succeed in
it. Thus the tests are announced at least a week in advance in order to give them plenty of time to
prepare and details are given of when, where and how long the test will be. The class is also told as
precisely as possible what material is to be tested, what sort of items will be used, and how answers will
be assessed. I sometimes give them 'test-tips' - for example, how best to allot time, or what to do first particularly if they are coming near to the state school-leaving exam, for which my course is to some
extent a preparation. I usually allow at least some class time for revision, in order to encourage and help
with pre-test learning.
Giving the test
It is quite important for me to administer the test myself, and more pleasant for my students. Thus, I
will be able, if I wish, to remind them about the test content, format and marking system before giving
out the papers; and sometimes run through the instructions with them after doing so in order to make
sure that everything is clear - as well as wishing them good luck!
During the test, I may help students who still have difficulty with instructions; I do not normally help
with the content itself.
After the test
The tests are marked and returned as quickly as possible (within a week) so that we can discuss
specific points while the test is still fresh in the students' minds. Usually I will go through the answers in
class, but fairly briskly; points that seem to produce special problems I note for more leisurely representation and further practice in the future. I do not usually ask students to copy out corrected
answers: this is, I think, more tedious than helpful for them. It is better and more interesting to provide
the practice in the same language points in other activities, using new content and tasks.
.
LECTURE 6 PLANNING LESSONS
6.1 The necessity for planning
You know that teaching and learning a foreign language is ensured: 1) through methods and
techniques, i. e. acquisition of new information about a linguistic or language phenomenon to acquire
some knowledge; drill and transformation to form habits on the material presented; making use of the
habits acquired in various language skills. The choice of techniques for realizing each of the methods is
determined by the principles which govern teaching and learning this subject in schools nowadays; 2)
with the help of various teaching aids and teaching materials now in use; 3) by means of different
arrangements of pupils’ language learning: work in unison, mass work, work in small groups, in pairs,
individual work with programmed materials and individual cards; 4) taking into consideration the stage
of instruction, pupils’ age, their progress in language learning, their intellectual development, the
linguistic and language material, time the teacher has at his disposal. All these points answer the
question how to teach and to learn this subject.
To utilize all these points effectively systematic and careful planning is necessary.
The foreign language teacher plans all the kinds of work he is to do: he plans the essential course, the
optional course (if any), and the extra-curricular work.
The first step in planning is to determine where each of his classes is in respect to achievements. It is
easy for the teacher to start planning when he receives beginners.
Though the teacher does not know his pupils yet, his success will fully depend on his preparation for
the lessons since pupils are usually eager to learn a foreign language in the 4th form (or the 2nd form in a
specialized school). Planning is also relatively easy for the teacher who worked in these classes the
previous year (or years) because he knows the achievements of his pupils in each class. He is aware of
what language skills they have acquired. Planning is more difficult when the teacher receives a class
(classes) from another teacher and he does not know the pupils, their proficiency in hearing, speaking,
reading, and writing.
The teacher begins his planning before school opens and during the first week. He should establish
the achievement level of his classes. There is a variety of ways in which this may be done. The teacher
asks the previous teacher to tell him about each of the pupils. He may also look through the pupils’ testbooks and the register to find out what mark each of his pupils had the previous year. The teacher may
administer pre-tests, either formally or informally, to see how pupils do with them. He may also conduct
an informal quizzing, asking pupils questions in the foreign language to know if they can understand
them and respond properly, or he has a conversation within the topics of the previous year. After the
teacher has determined the achievement level of his classes, he sketches out an outline of the year’s
work. In making up his yearly outline the teacher consults the syllabus, Teacher’s Book, Pupil’s Book,
and other teaching materials and sets seems to him to be realistic limits to the content to be covered
during the course of the tear. In sketching out an outline of the term’s work the teacher makes a careful
study of Teacher’s Book, Pupil’s Book, teaching aids and teaching materials available for this particular
form. Taking into consideration the achievements of his class, he compiles a calendar plan in
accordance with the time-table of a given form.
6.2 Unit planning
The teacher needs two kinds of plans to work successfully: the plan of a series of class-periods for a
lesson or unit of the textbook or a unit plan, and the daily plan or the lesson plan for a particular classperiod.
In compiling a unit plan, i. e., in planning the lesson of the textbook, the teacher determines the
difficulties of the lesson, namely, phonetic difficulties (sounds, stress, intonation); grammar difficulties
(grammar items, their character and amount), and vocabulary difficulties (the amount of new words,
their character).
He then distributes these difficulties evenly over the number of class-periods allotted to the lesson in
the calendar plan.
1. The teacher starts by stating the objective or objectives of each class-period, that is, what can be
achieved in a classroom lesson. Of course the long-term aims of the course help the teacher to
ensure that every particular lesson is pulling in the right direction and is another step towards
gaining the ultimate goals of the course. “To help the class to speak English better”, “To teach
pupils to and” or “To develop pupils' proficiency in reading” cannot be the objectives of the
lesson because they are too abstract to be clear to the learners. The lesson objectives should be
stated as precisely as possible.
Pupils coming to the lesson should know what they are to do during the lesson, what performance
level is required of them, and how it can be achieved. There are a few examples:
- Teach pupils to understand the following words … when hearing and to use them in sentences orally.
- Teach pupils to form new words with the help of the following suffixes … and to use them in the
situations given.
- Teach pupils to consult a dictionary to look up the meaning of the following words ... .
- Teach pupils to recognize the international words ... when hearing (or reading).
- Teach pupils to guess the meaning of unfamiliar words from the context while reading text " ...".
- Teach pupils to understand the statements in the Present Perfect and to use them in the following
situations ... ... .
- Teach pupils to ask and answer questions in the Present Perfect and to make up dialogues following
the models ... ... .
- Teach pupils to find the logical predicate in the sentences ... while reading following the structural
signals.
- Teach pupils to speak about the following objects ... ... on utterance level (in a few sentences).
- Teach pupils to use the words and grammar covered in speaking about the places of interest in our
town.
- Teach pupils to find topical sentences while reading text "..." silently.
- Teach pupils to get the main information while reading text "...".
The teacher can state no more than three concrete objectives for a particular class-period depending
on the stage of instruction, the material of the lesson, and some other factors.
2. The teacher distributes the linguistic material (sounds, words, grammar, etc.) throughout the
class-periods according to the objectives of each period, trying to teach new vocabulary on the
grammatical material familiar to pupils, and to teach a new grammar item within the vocabulary
assimilated by pupils; or he first teaches pupils hearing and speaking on the new material
presented, and then pupils use this in reading and writing.
3. The teacher selects and distributes exercises for class and homework using various teaching aids
and teaching materials depending on the objectives of each class-period. For example, for
developing his pupils' skill in dialogic speech within the material covered the teacher needs a
record with a pattern dialogue, word cards for changing the semantic meaning of the pattern
dialogue to make the structure of the dialogue fit new situations.
In distributing exercises throughout the class-periods the teacher should involve his pupils in oral
practice and speech, in oral and silent reading, and in writing. Exercises which are difficult for pupils
should be done under the teacher's supervision, i. e., in class. Those exercises which pupils can easily
perform independently are left for homework. In other words, new techniques, exercises, and skills
should be practiced in class before the pupil attempts them at home. The homework done, the pupils
return to class for perfecting, polishing, expanding, and varying what they have practiced at home, they
learn to use the new words, the new structures in varied situations.
When the teacher determines the pupil's homework he should take into account that the subject he is
teaching though important and difficult is not the only one the pupil learns at school. The realities of
schools militate against more than 20-30 minutes of every day homework in a foreign language. This
requires the teacher to teach in class rather than test. Practice proves that pupils do their homework
provided they know exactly what to do, how it should be done, and that their work will be evaluated.
Besides, pupils should know that six twenty-minutes' work at their English on consecutive days is more
effective than two hours at a stretch.
The unit plan, therefore, involves everything the teacher needs for the detailed planning of a lesson
(class-period), namely: the objective (objectives) of each lesson, the material to work at, and the
exercises which should be done both during the class-period and at home to develop pupils’ habits and
skills in the target language.
The unit plan includes nine columns:
1. The number of class-periods.
2. The objectives of each period.
3. Language material.
4 – 7. Language skills.
8. Accessories.
9. Homework.
The importance of unit plans cannot be overestimated since unit planning permits the teacher to direct
the development of all language skills on the basis of the new linguistic material the lesson involves. He
can lead his pupils from reception through pattern practice to creative exercises, and in this way perfect
their proficiency in hearing, speaking, reading, and writing. He can vary teaching aids and teaching
materials within the class-periods allotted to the lesson. Unit planning allows the teacher to concentrate
pupils’ attention on one or two language skills during the lesson; in this case the class hour is divided
into two main parts: a period of 20—25 minutes, during which he takes his pupils through a series of
structural drills or other exercises supplied by the textbook, and a period of 20—25 minutes during
which the teacher engages the class in creative exercises when they use the target language as a means
of communication.
The teacher should bear in mind that pupils lose all interest in a language that is presented to them by
means of endless repetitions, pattern practices, substitutions, and so on, and which they cannot use in its
main function of exchange of information through hearing or reading. That is why, whenever possible,
the teacher should make his pupils values of his pupils aware of the immediate values of his lesson if he
hopes to keep and stimulate their interest in language learning which is very important in itself. When a
pupil is convinced that learning is vital, he is usually willing to work hard to acquire a good knowledge
of the target language. It is well known that some pupils see little value in much of their school work in
a foreign language and feel no enthusiasm for their work at the language. Careful unit planning helps the
teacher to keep pupils’ progress in language learning under constant control and use teaching aids and
teaching materials more effectively and, in this way, make his classes worthwhile to all of his pupils.
All this should be done by the teacher if there are no teacher’s books to the textbooks. If there are
such books the teacher’s planning should deal with
(1) the study of the author’s recommendations;
(2) the development of these recommendations according to his pupils’ abilities.
The teacher tries to adapt the plan to his pupils. He may either take it as it is and strictly follow the
authors’ recommendations, or he may change it a bit. For instance, if he has a group of bright pupils
who can easily assimilate the material, the teacher utilizes all the exercises involved in Pupil's Book and
include some additional material or stimuli pictures, objects for the pupils’ speaking within the same
class-periods. If the teacher has a group of slow pupils, he needs at least one more period to cover the
material, he also omits some exercises in Pupil's Book with asterisk designed for those pupils who want
to have more practice in the target language. The teacher may also increase the number of oral exercises
and give pupils special cards to work on individually and in pairs.
Given below are the examples of plans the teacher can find in Teacher's Book.
In Fourth Form English Teacher’s Book by A. P. Starkov, R. R. Dixon, M. D. Rybakov the material is
distributed throughout the terms, and within the term – the weeks and class-periods. The plan includes
nine columns:
Gram.
Speaking
Vocab.
Gram.
Vocab.
Writing
Phonetics
Auding
Reading
Class-period
Week
Oral language
Class work
Home work
Reading
Writing
Text
Exercises
Newspaper
Exercises
New topic
of
Revision
topic
Auding
Class-periods
Week
Speaking
Grammar at teacher’s
discretion
Looking through the plan the teacher can see that auding is the most important skill that should be
developed in pupils in this form. They can aud more than they can speak. In the first term pupils learn to
aud and to speak. As far as reading and writing are concerned, pupils learn the English alphabet and
English penmanship.
The plan in Ninth Form English Teacher’s Book is:
The plan manifests the importance of planning pupils’ work in the classroom and at home. The
teacher can see that in the classroom he should develop pupils speaking, and auding skills. As to
reading, pupils develop this skill at home reading various texts and performing oral and written
exercises connected with the texts. The teacher can also see what topics should be reviewed and what
topics are new for his pupils. He can also find a new column in the plan “Newspaper reading”. It means
pupils should be taught to work with this type of texts. There is a column in the plan dealing with
grammar. Pupils should review grammar in a certain system.
The teacher therefore thoroughly studies the plans in Teacher’s Books and adapts them to his
pupils.
6.3 Planning a class period
The unit plan completed the teacher may move into planning a class-period or a daily plan which, in
addition to what has been determined by the unit plan, indicates the ways the teacher will follow to
organize his class to work during he lesson. Therefore the daily plan includes
(1) what should be achieved during this particular lesson;
(2) what material is used for achieving the objectives;
(3) how the objectives should be achieved.
Since almost every teacher has several classes of one level he usually makes preparations for each
level although, ideally, a separate plan is needed for each class because classes proceed at different
speed, thus he must make adaptations in his plans to compensate for varying speeds of progress in the
classes of the same level.
The teacher should write his daily plans if he strives for effective and reasonable use of time allotted
to his pupils’ learning a foreign language. However some teachers, including novice teachers, do not
prepare written plans. They claim that they can teach “off the top of their heads”, and they really can,
but their teaching usually results in poor pupils’ language skills because in this case we have, “teacher-
dominated” classes when the teacher works hard during the lesson while his pupils remain mere
“observers” of the procedure. Indeed, when the teacher is standing in front of pupils he does not have
much time to think how to organize his pupils’ activity. This should be done before the lesson for the
teacher to be able to stimulate and direct pupils’ learning the language.
We may state that the effectiveness of pupils’ desired learning is fully dependent on the teacher’s
preparation for the lessons. If the teacher is talking, reading, and writing a great deal himself during the
lesson, he is not ready for it. And vice versa, if the teacher gets his pupils to talk or read with
communicative assignments while he listens, or to write while he moves about the class, giving a
helping hand to everyone who needs it, he has thoroughly thought over the plan of the lesson
beforehand. Therefore we may conclude: to provide necessary conditions for pupils’ learning a foreign
language, the teacher should thoroughly plan their work during the lesson which is possible if he writes
his daily plan in advance.
There are teachers who strictly follow the textbook and accept plans that others have made for them
without any changing. In doing this they overlook the unique capacities of their particular classes. They
race through the textbook covering the ground regardless of whether pupils master each section.
Some experienced teachers assume that the content of foreign language teaching is constant and as
they have worked for many years they do not need daily plans; they have them in their minds. In reality,
however, the content changes continuously as well as the methods and techniques of teaching.
Moreover, the old plans which are in their minds may not suit the needs of a particular class, since each
group of pupils is unique, or they may no longer be applicable because better and more effective
teaching aids and teaching materials have appeared. Consequently, proceeding from these
considerations the teacher needs a daily plan to provide a high level of language learning of his pupils.
To involve all pupils in the work done in the classroom the teacher should compile a kind of scenario
in which every pupil has his role, while the teacher only stimulates and directs his pupils’ role-playing.
In any case, a workable form for a daily plan should state the objectives, specify the activities, include
evaluation techniques, indicate the assignment, and determine teaching aids and teaching materials. The
plan itself should
(1) be brief, but with sufficient detail to be precise;
(2) assign a definite number of minutes to each activity;
(3) indicate exactly what words, phrases, facts, items are to be learnt and how;
(4) make use of a variety of classroom activity for every pupil.
In the organization and conduct of a foreign language lesson there is always a wide range of
possibilities. No two teachers will treat the same topic in the same way. There are, however, certain
basic principles of teaching and learning which should be observed:
1. Every lesson should begin with a greeting in the foreign language and a brief talk between the
teacher and the pupils. Through this conversation the lesson may be motivated. The conversation
may take place between:
Teacher — Class
Teacher — Pupil on duty
Pupil on duty — Class
Two Pupils on duty
The foreign language should be used for all common classroom activities; the teacher manages the
class activities by giving directions in the foreign language. He stimulates pupils’ participation by
asking questions, praises and encourages pupils from time to time, and he may also criticize the
behavior of a pupil or a class if necessary.
2. There should be a variety of activities at every lesson, including pronunciation drill, oral
activities, reading, and writing. The success of activity is measured by attention, enthusiasm, and
involvement on the part of the pupils.
3. The lesson should be conducted at a high speed when oral drill exercises are performed. Pupils
should not stand up to say a word, a phrase, or a sentence.
4. The lesson should provide a certain sequence in pupils’ assimilating language material and
developing habits and skills from perception, comprehension, and memorizing, through the
usage in a similar situation following a model, to the usage of the material received in new
situations that require thinking on the part of the learner.
5. The lesson should provide time, for the activity of every pupil in the class. They must be active
participants of the procedure and not the teacher as is often the case when the teacher talks more
than all the pupils.
6. The lesson should provide conditions for pupils to learn. “Language is a skill so it must be learnt,
it cannot be taught” (M. West). A certain amount of time should be devoted to seatwork as
opposed to activities involving the class as a whole. During seatwork and other forms of solitary
study pupils learn to learn for themselves. The use of language laboratories, teaching machines,
and programmed instruction creates conditions for each pupil to learn for himself.
7. The work done during the lesson should prepare pupils for their independent work at home. It is
generally accepted as good practice not to assign exercises that have not been covered in class;
this especially refers to early stages of language learning.
8. The lesson should be well equipped with teaching aids and teaching materials which allow the
teacher to create natural situations for developing pupils’ hearing and speaking skills in a foreign
language.
In Teacher’s Book the teacher can find daily plans which differ greatly in form from conventional
plans. For example, the author A. P. Starkov and his coauthors do not determine the objectives of each
class-period and the points of the lesson (session) in a traditional way when the object of planning was
rather teacher’s work than pupils’ activity. They plan pupils’ work for each particular class-period.
Pupils should pass through a number of “steps”, each designed for forming a particular habit or
involving them in a certain language activity. Since there are a lot of habits and skills to be formed and
developed in pupils, a daily plan comprises a great number of “steps”.
REFERENCES
. 1. Jeremy Harmer. The Practice of English Language Teaching – Longmаn, 2001
2. Penny Ur. A Course in Language Teaching – Cambridge University Press, 1996
3. Marianne Celce – Murсia, Editor. Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language – Boston,
Massachusetts, 1991
4. G.V.Rogova, Methods of Teaching English – M.: Просвещение, 1983
5. Р.П.Мильруд. Методика преподавания английского языка. English Teaching Methodology
– М.: Дрофа, 2005
4 СОДЕРЖАНИЕ ПРАКТИЧЕСКИХ ЗАНЯТИЙ
4.1 Планы практических занятий
1. Innovative approaches
1.1 Approach, method and technique
1.2 Pre-communication methods.
1.2 Comprehension-based approaches
1.3 Production-based learning
1.4 Humanistic and psychosuggestive approaches
1.5 Communicative approach
1.6 Communicative competence
1.7 Communication strategies
1.8 Non-verbal means of communication
1.9 Communicative techniques
1.10 The three-phase framework
2. Teaching aids
2.1 Syllabuses and curriculum
2.2 Common characteristics of a syllabus
2.3 How necessary is a course book?
2.4 Educational Technology and Other Teaching Equipment
3. Techniques for classroom interaction
3.1 Presentations and explanations
3.2 Guidelines on giving effective explanations and instructions
3.3 Practice Activities
3.4 Characteristics of effective language practice
3.5 Different ways of class organization
3.6 Interaction Patterns
3.7 Questioning
3.8 Group work
3.9 Group-work organization
3.10 Individualization
4. Focusing on language
4.1 Teaching pronunciation
4.2 How to teach pronunciation
4.3 Teaching vocabulary
4.4 Vocabulary: what should be taught
4.5 Stages in teaching vocabulary
4.6 Teaching grammar
4.7 How to teach grammar
4.8 Types of exercises for the assimilation of grammar
5. Receptive and productive skills
5.1 Teaching listening
5.2 Techniques the teacher uses to develop listening skills
5.3 Types of listening activities
5.4 Teaching speaking
5.5 Characteristics of a successful speaking activity
5.6 Speech and oral exercises
5.7 Teaching reading
5.8 Reading activities
5.9 Teaching writing
5.10 How to teach writing
6. Tests and testing
6.1 Correction and feedback
6.2 Types of tests
6.3 The characteristics of tests
6.4 Stages in testing
6.5 Teaching the test
6.6 Public exams
7. Practical lesson management
7.1 The shape of a lesson
7.2 Lesson preparation
7.3 Varying lesson components
7.4 Ordering components
7.5 Practical lesson management
7.6 Criteria for evaluating lesson effectiveness
4.2 Проблемные ситуации для обсуждения на практическихзанятиях
Тема 1 Communicative approach
Give a rationale for communicative language teaching. Illustrate the tasks for teaching grammar and
lexis (indicate the source). Describe the tasks for teaching speaking, listening, reading and writing.
Work out a three-phase framework for any one of the tasks. Ask your peers to evaluate your “threephase framework task” according to the following criteria.
• The explanation of tasks is quite clear
• The task motivates communication
• The task provides an information gap for the learners
• The task simulates the real world
• The task develops language knowledge in learners
• The task develops world knowledge in learners
• The task creates a reasonable challenge for the learners
• The three phases of the task are quite logical
• The tasks provide for good communicative practice
Тема 2 Teaching aids and teaching matters
2.1 How important are teaching aids in teaching-learning process? Consider the following questions.
• What teaching aids does the FLT have at his disposal?
• Do you agree that effective teaching cannot be ensured without the use of audio-visual matters?
• Say what factors you will consider in selecting audio-visual matters?
• Are you ready to utilize teaching aids and teaching matters you have learned about? Analyze
your strong and weak points in this respect.
2.2 Take a locally-used course book and examine it, applying the criteria in the list below:
• Objectives explicitly laid out in an introduction, and implemented in the material
• Approach educationally and socially acceptable to target community
• Clear attractive layout; print easy to read
• Appropriate visual materials available
• Interesting topics and tasks
• Varied topics and tasks, so as to provide for different learner levels, learning styles, interests, etc.
• Clear instructions
• Systematic coverage of syllabus
• Content clearly organized and graded (sequenced by difficulty)
• Periodic review and test sections
• Plenty of authentic language
• Good pronunciation explanation and practice
• Good vocabulary explanation and practice
• Good grammar presentation and practice
• Fluency practice in all four skills
• Encourages learners to develop own learning strategies and to become independent in their
learning
• Adequate guidance for the teacher; not too heavy preparation load
• Audio cassettes
• Readily available locally
Can you now make some overall evaluation of the course book?
Тема 3 Techniques for classroom interaction
3.1 Which of the metaphors expresses best, in your opinion as a teacher, the essence of a lesson?
There is, of course, no 'right' answer, but your choice will reflect your own conception. If you can find
no metaphor here which suits you, invent your own.
A variety show
A conversation
Climbing a mountain
Doing the shopping
Eating a meal
A football game
A wedding
A symphony
A menu
Consulting a doctor
3.2 Look at the various patterns of interaction described below, and note for each one how active the
teacher and students are in their participation, using the following code:
TT = Teacher very active, students only receptive
T = Teacher active, students mainly receptive
TS = Teacher and students fairly equally active
S = Students active, teacher mainly receptive
SS = Students very active, teacher only receptive
Interaction patterns
• Closed-ended teacher questioning (‘IRF’)
Only one 'right' response gets approved sometimes cynically called the 'Guess what the teacher
wants you to say' game.
• Individual work
The teacher gives a task or set of tasks, and students work on them independently, the teacher walks
around monitoring and assisting where necessary.
• Choral responses
The teacher gives a model which is repeated by all the class in chorus, or gives a cue which is
responded to in chorus.
• Group work
Students work in small groups on tasks that entail interaction conveying information, for example,
or group decision-making The teacher walks around listening, intervenes little if at all.
• Collaboration
Students do the same sort of tasks as in 'Individual work', but work together, usually in pairs, to try
to achieve the best results they can The teacher may or may not intervene (Note that this is different
from 'Group work', where the task itself necessitates interaction).
• Student initiates, teacher answers
For example, in a guessing game' the students think of questions and the teacher responds, but the
teacher decides who asks.
• Full-class interaction
The students debate a topic or do a language task as a class, the teacher may intervene occasionally,
to stimulate participation or to monitor.
• Teacher talk
This may involve some kind of silent student response, such as writing from dictation, but there is
no initiative on the part of the student.
• Self-access
Students choose their own learning tasks, and work autonomously.
• Open-ended teacher questioning
There are a number of possible 'right' answers, so that more students answer each cue.
Тема 4 Focusing on language
4.1 Can you think of five or six examples of items in the language you teach whose grammatical
characteristics are not obviously covered by a regular grammatical rule, and which you would therefore
need to teach when you
teach the item?
4.2 Think of three or four typical collocations in the language you teach, and try translating them
into another language. Do the collocations translate exactly? If not, what kinds of learning/teaching
problems might this lead to, and what might you do about it?
4.3 How would you present the meanings of the words swim, fame, childish, political, impertinence,
kid, guy and bastard? For which would you mention their connotations? And their appropriate
contexts?
4.4 Select an item from the vocabulary taught in a foreign language textbook you know. Think how
the meaning of this item would best be presented to learners who are encountering it for the first time,
and note down some ideas.
4.5 Compose or choose from a course book and conduct a grammar activity with pre-activity, whileactivity, and post-activity phases. After micro-teaching with your peers, reflect on how the activity went
on and what you would like to change in the future.
• Pre-activity (reviewing grammar rule, preparing for the language, preparing for the ideas)
• While-activity (doing the task)
• Post-activity (focus on the language, integrating with other material, setting a further task)
Indicate the following.
• Goal of instruction (e.g. teaching to express future actions in conditional clauses "if”)
• Stage of teaching (e.g. material presentation, meaningful drill, communicative production, etc.)
• Level of learner language (elementary, intermediate, advanced, etc.).
Тема 5 Receptive and productive skills
5.1 Imagine or recall a successful speaking activity in the classroom that you have
either organized as teacher or participated in as student. What are the characteristics of this activity
that make you judge it 'successful'?
5.2 Make a list of possible reading activities, using different kinds of texts. These can be for
different kinds of learners, or for a specific class you are acquainted with. A locally-used textbook may
be one source of ideas, as well as your own and your colleagues' experience and creativity.
Тема 6 Tests and testing
6.1 Try doing the test given below. You have twenty minutes. Your results will be expressed as a
percentage; each of Questions 1-10 is worth ten marks. Question 11 is optional.
1 What is a 'valid' test?
2 What is a 'reliable' test?
3 What is 'backwash'?
4 What is the difference between an 'achievement' test and a 'proficiency' test?
5 What is the difference between a 'diagnostic' test and a 'prognostic' test?
6 Can you give an example of a 'discrete-point' test
7 Can you give an example of an ‘integrative' test?
8 Are Questions 1-7 above examples of 'objective' or 'subjective' test items7 Why?
9 Give examples of
a) a multiple-choice item
b) an extract from a cloze test
10 Within the multiple-choice item you have given, can you identify:
a) the stem?
b) the options?
c) the distractors?
11 How have you felt about doing this test? (Optional)
Check your answers against those given by your teacher. Give yourself a mark out of 100.
Reflecting on the test experience you have just had, and perhaps on other test experiences, think about
and/or discuss the following questions.
1. (If you did optional Question 11, look at your answer.) How did you feel about being tested?
You may have felt: irritated, unpleasantly stressed, acceptably or even pleasantly tense, indifferent. Any
other reactions or comments?
2. Did the fact that you knew you were going to be tested make any difference to how well you
learned the material in advance?
3. Would you have preferred not to sum up your overall result (so much out of 100)? Or do you
feel it important to get some kind of (numerical?) assessment after a test?
4. Would you have preferred someone else to check your answers?
You have just experienced a test from the point of view of a testee, and discussed that experience.
Returning now to the role of teacher, go through your answers to each of the questions above and think
about how they might affect the way you would, or should, test in the classroom.
6.2 Design your own test. This should be for a learner population you know: a class you teach or
have taught, or the kind of class you have in the past been a member of yourself. The material to be
tested should, similarly, be part of a syllabus and teaching programme you are familiar with: perhaps a
section of a course book, or certain elements of a set curriculum.
Stage 1: Preparation
Prepare your test. It is a good idea to list in writing all the material that you want your test to cover:
you can then refer back to the list during and after the test-writing to see if you have included all you
intended.
Stage 2: Performance
If possible, administer your test to a class of learners; if not, ask colleagues to try doing it
themselves.
Stage 3: Feedback
Look at how your test was done, and ask the testees how they felt about it.
6.3 Thinking about test administration. Let us assume that you are going to administer and mark a
formal written test (whether or not you have written it yourself) in the course of your teaching
programme. How will you prepare for, present and give feedback on it? Have in mind a teaching
situation you are familiar with - your own class, if you are teaching, or the kind of class you expect to be
teaching in due course - and a particular kind of test (preferably a specific one you have administered or
taken yourself). You may find it convenient to use the questions below as a basis for thinking or
discussion.
Before the test
- How far in advance do you announce the test?
- How much do you tell the class about what is going to be in it, and about the criteria for marking?
- How much information do you need to give them about the time, place, any limitations or rules?
- Do you give them any 'tips' about how best to cope with the test format?
- Do you expect them to prepare at home, or do you give them some class time for preparation?
Giving the test
- How important is it for you yourself to administer the test?
- Assuming that you do, what do you say before giving out the test papers?
- Do you add anything when the papers have been distributed but students have not yet started
work?
- During the test, are you absolutely passive or are you interacting with the students in anyway?
After the test
- How long does it take you to mark and return the papers?
- Do you then go through them in class?
- Do you demand any follow-up work on the part of the students?
Тема 7 Practical lesson management
7.1 Giving a lesson involves classroom management. It involves the following elements:
• Starting a lesson
• Using classroom board in a well-organized way
• Maintaining discipline in the classroom
• Arranging seats adequately to the tasks
• Confidence building in learners
• Timing a lesson
• Giving directions to the learners
• Rationing teacher talking time
• Rationing learner time for tasks
• Closing up
|
Comment on the ways classroom management can be effective (give examples}.
7.2 Teach a lesson of your choice and reflect on it by ticking off statements about your own lesson if
"Yes ".
Statements about your own lesson
• I have planned my lesson with clear objectives of teaching in mind.
• I had a good command of the teaching material.
• My teaching techniques were logically sequenced.
• My teaching goal was fully attained in the lesson.
• All the tasks were well fulfilled by the learners.
• The learners were motivated and involved in the activities.
• Interaction during the lesson was active and productive.
• The process of the lesson was well structured.
• The result of the lesson was achieved and demonstrated by learners.
Compare your statements with those of your observers.
5. ОРГАНИЗАЦИЯ САМОСТОЯТЕЛЬНОЙ РАБОТЫ
5.1 Содержание самостоятельной работы
Вид учебной деятельности
Количество
часов
1. Подготовка к практическим занятиям
40
2. Написание реферата
32
3 Подготовка
к
проведению
профессионально22
педагогической ролевой игры
4 Работа в форумах
8
Всего:
102
5.2 Примерная тематика рефератов
5.2.1 Общеметодические принципы организации обучения иностранным языкам
5.2.2 Системы управления процессом обучения иноязычному говорению
5.2.3 Реализация лингвострановедческого подхода на уроках иностранного языка
5.2.4 Основные принципы коммуникативного обучения иностранному языку
5.2.5 Ролевые игры в обучении иностранным языкам
5.2.6 Проблемы обучения учащихся активному и пассивному владению иностранным языком
5.2.7 Видеофильм как средство повышения мотивации школьников при обучении
иностранному языку
5.2..8 Проектная методика на уроках иностранного языка
5.2.9 Интегративное обучение грамматической стороне речи
5.2.10 Роль мотивации в изучении иностранного языка
5.2.11 Структура урока иностранного языка
5.2.12 Значение внеклассной работы и основные положения, определяющие её проведение
5.2.13 Иноязычная культура как цель обучения
5.2.14 Технология обучения речевым умениям. Обучение аудированию
5.2.15 Технология обучения речевым умениям. Обучение говорению
5.2.16 Технология обучения речевым умениям. Обучение чтению
5.3 Учебно-методическое обеспечение
5.3.1 Г.В.Рогова, Ф.М.Рабинович, Т.Е.Сахарова. Методика обучения иностранным языкам
в средней школе – M.: Просвещение, 1991
5.3.2 Е.И.Пассов, В.П.Кузовлев, В.Б.Царькова. Учитель иностранного языка:
мастерство и личность – M.: Просвещение, 1993
5.3.3 Е.И.Пассов. Современный урок иностранного языка в средней школе –
М.: Просвещение, 1998
5.3.4 Актуальные проблемы обучения иностранным языкам в школе и вузе: Курс лекций
для студентов факультетов иностранных языков – Воронеж: ВГУ, 1999
5.3.5 Я.М.Колкер, Е.С.Устинова, Т.М. Еналиева. Практическая методика обучения
иностранному языку – М.: Академия, 2000
5.3.6 Е.И.Пассов. Основы коммуникативной методики обучения иноязычному
общению – М.: Русский язык, 1989
5.3.7 Журналы «Иностранные языки в школе», 2000 - 2009
6 СЛОВАРЬ ОСНОВНЫХ ТЕРМИНОВ И ПОНЯТИЙ
Achievement tests measure the command of the course studied.
Activation of mental lexicon is arousing a chain reaction in the brain and making the
accessible for communication (usually a lot more words than necessary get
words
activated in the brain).
Active listening is perception of an oral language with particular attention to the
message.
Activities for teaching to listen are the acts of communicative language learning that
are performed
by the students.
Approximation approach is the target pronunciation that resembles the native
pronunciation only
partially but is nevertheless sufficient for communication.
Argument is a genre of group dialogue, in which speakers attempt to seek a solution by
pursuing
their own points of view.
Atmosphere is the spirit of the lesson facilitating or debilitating the learners.
Audio-lingual method is a way to teach a foreign language through intense repetitions
of language
patterns.
Brainstorming is a procedure of eliciting creative ideas in the course of spontaneous
opinions, their uncritical registration and subsequent selection of the most
exchange of
useful suggestions.
Classroom discourse is the language used in class by the teachers and the learners.
Classroom interaction is interaction during a lesson between the teacher and the
learners as well as
between the learners themselves.
Circumlocution is a roundabout expression of meaning.
Cloze tests offer the test-takers a task to complete the gaps in a coherent discourse. Coinage of words is
creation of non-existent words.
Collocation is made up of two or more words often placed together in oral or written
Communicative approach is a theory of teaching and learning foreign languages that
speech.
recognizes the
primacy of communication as the goal and the media of instruction.
Communicative competence is the knowledge that is necessary for successful
communication.
Communicative function is an oral language activity to request or give information, to
perform
rituals or to manipulate each other's behavior.
Communicative method is a way to teach a foreign language through communication
for the
purposes of communication.
Communicative principles are guiding rules of instruction in the framework of the
communicative
approach.
Communicative situation is a set of circumstances, in which it is necessary to use
language for
communication in order to achieve the desired goal.
Communicative strategies are the means and maneuvers of communication to deal
partner and circumstances.
with the goal,
Communicative techniques are the ways to organize teaching activities for the purpose
instruction including non-reality techniques (preparation for language),
of
simulation techniques (role-
play, problem-solving or group discussion, communicative games, etc) and reality techniques
(socialization in the real world with native speakers).
Communicative techniques are the devices to organize teaching in compliance with
communicative
principles.
Community language teaching is a teaching approach that emphasizes the importance
of students'
co-operation, support and interaction.
Comprehension of words is understanding the meaning of words.
Concurrent validity is coincidence of the testing results with the results obtained by
other means
including teacher's continuous assessment.
Consistency is agreement between parts of the text in terms of difficulty and results.
Construct validity is the ability of the test to measure what it claims to measure (e.g. a
claiming to measure speaking performance should not measure lexical or
test
grammar competence
instead).
Contextualization tests offer the test-takers a task to produce an oral or written
discourse out of a
graphical form (tables, graphs, charts, etc.).
Conversational analysis is the study into how humans talk to each other and interact
with each
other.
Conversational discourse is a stretch of spoken language featuring ellipsis (omission
of sentence
elements), discourse markers (Well...), etc.
Coordinates are words with a meaningful relationship between them e.g. "red + blood"
Debate is a genre of group dialogue, in which speakers attempt to find a solution by
overcoming
differences.
Derivation is the process of producing words from a stem with the help of affixation
and other word-
building models (e.g. conversion from nouns to verbs).
Description is putting on paper details of an object or process.
Description is a genre of monologue, in which a speaker gives an account of an object
or a process.
Diagnostic tests measure strengths and weaknesses of the test takers.
Dialogue is a genre of conversation between two or more people with an exchange of
relatively short
turns.
Direct method is a way to teach a foreign language by switching over exclusively to
the target
language in the classroom and intense grammar structure practice.
Discourse (oral discourse) is a continuous stretch of spoken language in the dialogue or
mode featuring communicative message, cohesion, coherence and
contextual reference.
Discussion is a genre of group dialogue, in which speakers attempt to seek a solution by
various aspects of the problem from various angles.
Essay is a genre of writing that focuses on a thesis and develops it.
monologue
looking at
Exposition is putting on paper the description of situational circumstances.
Expressive writing is putting on paper one's own thoughts and feelings (as in a diary).
Exercises for teaching to listen are the activities done with the purpose to reinforce
listening
skills.
Extensive listening is the perception of oral information with the search for the gist.
Gap-filling tests offer the test-takers a task to complete the gaps in sentences.
Grammar-translation method is a way to teach a foreign language with the help of
contrastive
native and target grammar analysis.
Group discussion is a problem-solving activity with a puzzle, conflict of opinions and
problem-
resolution as a result of concerted group efforts.
Hearing is an act of receiving an oral message.
Humanistic approach is an education theory that recognizes the necessity to facilitate
free and
creative development of the personality.
Idiom is a figure of speech, the meaning of which cannot be drawn from its elements.
Information gap is a technique to give the students complementary information, which
they have to
pool together in the process of communication in order to fulfil the task.
Information gap is a teaching technique to distribute information unevenly among the
in order to stimulate their interaction in an attempt to pool all the
participants
information together.
Information-transfer tests offer the test-takers a task to transfer information from a
text into a
graphical form (tables, graphs, charts, etc.).
Informative writing is putting on paper ideas and data intended to create knowledge in
the reader.
Input opportunities are the chances of accessing information in the lesson.
Intensive listening is perception of an oral message with interpretation and inferences.
Interactive learning is instruction using tasks that can't be fulfilled by isolated students
but require
co-operation.
Interactive tests consider the background knowledge and other individual traits of the
Jigsaw listening is an activity, during which participants listen to two (or more)
test-takers.
different yet related
pieces of language with subsequent interactive work.
Learner receptivity opportunities are the chances to facilitate the intake by the
learners during a
lesson.
Lesson is an organized and goal-oriented process, which is a set of learning
cognition and a framework for the interaction of the
opportunities, a model of
participants.
Lexical cloze is filling the gaps in a meaningful text with target words.
Lexical competence is the knowledge of how to use vocabulary for communication.
Lexical mind-map is a cluster of words that are associated with a central concept.
Lexicon is vocabulary that is often specialized and related to a certain field.
Listening is a communicative skill with the purpose of receiving, comprehending and
oral message.
interpreting an
Listening role is the social function that a listener performs, such as a "witness", a
"participant in the
conversation", etc. while listening.
Long-term memory is storage of the heard or read information for future use.
Management of the lesson is creation of the teaching/learning media in the lesson by
discipline, seating arrangements, error correction, use of classroom board,
control of
etc.
Matching tests offer the test-takers a task to find consistent pairs of language samples
(another
option is to find consistent pairs of language and pictures).
Mental lexicon is vocabulary in mind.
Metaphor is a figure of speech, in which lexical meaning is shifted to a different object
is used to denote figuratively a dissimilar thing (often done to add more
and a word
expression to speech).
Metaphors of the lesson are the figurative collocations to describe various types of the
"climbing a mountain" is a lesson with a challenge for the learners that
the help of the teacher and by investing their own
lesson (e.g.
they gradually overcome with
efforts).
Mnemonic exercises are used to facilitate memorization of words.
Model of cognition in most general terms includes encounter with the problem,
resolution of the
problem and reflection on the results.
Monologue is a relatively long speech turn.
Multiple choice tests offer the test-takers a choice of the correct answer out of a
number of
"distracters".
Narration is a genre of monologue, in which a speaker describes a process or an event
in
chronological order.
Narration is putting on paper a succession of events.
Natural approach is a way to teach a foreign language through massive exposure to
the
comprehensible language input in the classroom.
Negotiation of meaning is the communicative strategy to bridge the gap of
understanding between
the participants in oral conversation.
Neuro-linguistic programming is a teaching way that combines mental imagery with
Non-verbal communication uses physical distance between the participants, facial
the language.
expressions, eye
contact, gestures, appearance and clothes, smell and perfume, etc.
Ordering tests offer the test-takers a task to sequence correctly randomized parts of a
discourse.
Oral approach is a way to teach a foreign language through oral introduction and
practice of the
language structures with the help of objects and pictures to create
"situations".
Paradigm is the set of forms that a word or structure can assume. E.g. write, wrote,
written, writing,
etc.
Paragraph is a meaningful chunk of text expressing a single idea or aspect of
the subject that is
chosen for writing.
Persuasive writing is putting on paper one's wishes, commands and/or instructions in
manipulate the behavior of the reader.
order to
Phonetic competence is the knowledge of correct pronunciation.
Phrasal verbs consist of a verb and a preposition/adverb making up an idiomatic
expression.
Placement tests are used to find the right stage of the curriculum for the learners and to
teach them
the adequate language difficulty level.
Planning of the lesson is a scheme for the accomplishment of the lesson goals.
Poetic writing is putting on paper a communicative message with the help of rhymes,
symbolic
allusions and imaginative details thus producing a poetic image.
Polysemy is the property of many words to have more than one meaning.
Practicality is convenience of the test as a measuring tool (time saving, etc.).
Practice opportunities are the chances to reinforce the knowledge and skills in the
lesson.
Presentation is a communicative technique of bringing before the public the results of
one's
individual or group performance.
Principles of teaching to listen are the guiding rules that prompt the choice of the
teaching tasks,
techniques and activities.
Problem-solving is a communicative technique with a puzzle, conflict of opinions and
problem-
resolution as a result of individual or group efforts.
Process-oriented teaching focuses on the motivation and involvement in the activities
with the
expectation of different results in learners according to their aptitude.
Proficiency tests measure general language competence.
Project is an activity to resolve a problem by tapping available resources and producing
a final
product.
Pronunciation drill is an activity that is based on language rehearsal with the purpose
of practicing
pronunciation.
Pronunciation errors are phonetic inaccuracies that stem from the fallacious idea of
what correct
pronunciation should be.
Pronunciation mistakes are occasional inaccuracies against the background of a
generally correct
pronunciation.
Prototype is the primary type of a thing or a phenomenon.
Reasoning errors are deviations from logic in writing.
Reasoning is a genre of monologue, in which a speaker follows a logical sequence and
comes to a
conclusion.
Reasoning is following a logical line in order to reach a conclusion
Received pronunciation is the most universally understood mode of English
pronunciation that is
accepted as the norm by BBC radio and TV.
Receptive skill is a communicative skill of receiving either an oral message (listening)
or a written
message (reading).
Register is the choice of vocabulary best suited for a communicative situation (e.g.
requires a special register).
talking to children
Reliability is permanence of measuring results produced by the same test in different
(testing speaking and writing is less reliable than testing reading and
circumstances
listening).
Result-oriented teaching is the shortest way for all the learners in the classroom to
achieve the same
result.
Retrieval of words is accessing the words in the long-term memory for the purposes of
using them.
Role-play is a communicative technique with role distribution, plot development and
resolution of
the situation.
Role writing is a teaching technique to create a written text and to follow the
conventions of the
social role (e.g. writing a letter to parents).
Short-term memory (also: processing memory) retains a meaningful digest of the
information in the course of listening to provide for consistent
compressed
comprehension.
Silent way is a teaching method that attempts to combine creative thinking with the
minimum of
language resources available to the learners (using colored rods, etc).
Simulation is a technique to replicate in the classroom real-world situations for the
purposes of
communicative language teaching.
Slips of the tongue are oral language inaccuracies caused by brain processing failures.
Sound-symbol correspondence is the association between speech sounds and the
letters with which
these sounds are written.
Speaking is a communicative skill of sending an oral message.
Storage of words is keeping words in the long-term memory.
Suggestopedy is a teaching way attempting to utilize the hidden cognitive resources in
students
through relaxation, music and elements of suggestive therapy.
Tasks for teaching to listen are the teaching/learning assignments with a challenge for
the learners.
Techniques for teaching to listen are the ways to run teaching activities.
Test is a tool for measuring success of performance or ability to do it.
Testing format is the design of a test.
Text format is a layout of written text with specific characteristic features (e.g. the
format of a
business letter).
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon is a situation when a person has accessed the meaning
but is failing to access the word form with many alternative "word
of the word
candidates" revolving in mind.
Tongue-twisters are phrases that are difficult to pronounce because the sounds easily
get confused in
them.
Top-down listening is an act of processing an oral message starting with a presumption
that can be
corrected in the course of listening.
Total physical response is a way of teaching that combines language rehearsals with
physical
activities.
Transactional language focuses on the message and aims at getting things done with
mind.
business in
Vocabulary is the sum of words that have been acquired by a particular person.
Word-clusters are words brought together by associations
Word-meaning interpretation is elicitation of lexical meaning for the purpose of
comprehending
the words.
Word-pragmatics is the relationship between the words and the intended/
comprehended lexical
meaning.
Word reinforcement is the process of making words stick in memory through meaning
interpretation, drill and communicative use.
Writing is a communicative skill to send, store and retrieve information with the help
symbols.
of written
7 РЕЙТИНГОВАЯ СИСТЕМА КОНТРОЛЯ
ЗНАНИЙ СТУДЕНТОВ
Рейтинговая система контроля и оценки знаний предполагает, что на протяжении освоения
учебной дисциплины студенты набирают определённую сумму баллов, в зависимости от которой
определяется рейтинг (итоговая оценка). Возможная семестровая сумма – 100 баллов.
Положительная оценка может быть выставлена по результатам итогового рейтинга только при
условии, что по каждому рубежному рейтингу студентом было набрано не менее 60%
максимального количества баллов.
Шкала соответствия рейтинга итоговой оценке (по пятибалльной системе):
- выше 85 баллов – «отлично»;
- 70-85 баллов
- «хорошо»;
- 60-69 баллов
- «удовлетворительно»;
- менее 60 баллов – «неудовлетворительно».
7.1 Содержание и балльная оценка рейтингов по дисциплине
Содержание рейтингового контроля
1. Оценка по дисциплине
Рейтинговая оценка в баллах
Стартовый
Рейтинг 1
Рейтинг 2
рейтинг
3-4-5
2. За посещение
- всех занятий
- не менее 75%
- не менее 50%
3. Оценка ответов на семинарских
занятиях
Общая сумма баллов за ответы на
семинарских занятиях
4. За участие в форумах
Общая сумма баллов за участие в форумах
(всего 4 форума)
5. За написание реферата
6. За выполнение заданий рейтингового
компьютерного тестирования
7. Всего (максимальный балл)
5
-
-
5
3
1
5
3
1
3-4-5
3-4-5
15-20-25
3-4-5
15-20-25
3-4-5
6-8-10
6-8-10
3-4-5
3-4-5
3-4-5
45
50
7.2 Вопросы рейтингового контроля
Рейтинг 1
1. Give reasons to confirm that Methods is an independent science.
2. Describe specific ways in which knowledge of linguistics or psychology may be helpful
in teachers’ work. What is their relative value to English teacher?
3. There are three main aims in teaching a foreign language. Name them and say whether
you consider them justifiable. Support your statement.
4. Name the specific principles that you think must be observed in teaching this subject in
schools.
5. Are aims, content and principles interrelated? If so, show this interrelation.
6. Outline the main characteristics of the contemporary approaches and methods used in
teaching foreign languages.
7. Which of these approaches did you personally experience as language learner? What
were your impressions and what is your assessment of the effectiveness of the approach
or methods?
8. Which approach do you, as a prospective teacher, would feel most comfortable with?
9. How would you define the term syllabus? What should a syllabus contain?
10. What is the difference between the syllabus and the curriculum?
11. What are the main criteria for coursebook assessment?
12. What teaching aids does the foreign language teacher have at his disposal?
13. Do you agree that effective teaching cannot be ensured without the use of audio-visual
materials?
14. Say what factors you will consider in selecting audio-visual materials in teaching foreign
language.
15. Are you ready to utilize teaching aids and teaching materials you have learned about?
Analyze your story and weak points in this respect.
16. What are the main features of an effective presentation?
17. What are the main guidelines on giving effective explanations and instructions?
18. How can the process of learning a skill be defined?
19. What are the main characteristics of effective language practice?
20. What are the main patterns of classroom interactions?
21. What does the choice of the type of classroom interaction depend on?
22. Describe characteristics of effective questioning techniques in the classroom.
23. Give some guidelines on organizing group work as to its presentation, process, ending
and feedback.
24. What are the two main distinguishable components of feedback?
25. What correction techniques used in the classroom do you know?
26. What is meant by correct pronunciation?
27. What does teaching pronunciation involve?
28. What does a teacher need for teaching pupils pronunciation successfully?
29. What should a teacher do to improve pupils’ pronunciation?
30. Comment on the main rules in teaching vocabulary.
31. Speak on the possible difficulties a pupil has to overcome when new words are presented.
What is the role of the teacher here? Illustrate your answer with several examples.
32. Some techniques of vocabulary presentation are more popular than others. What are they,
and can you account for their popularity?
33. Are there techniques that are particularly appropriate for the presentation of certain types
of words?
34. Are there techniques which are likely to be more, or less, appropriate for particular
learner populations (young) adult, beginner (advanced)?
35. There are different viewpoints on grammar teaching. Analyze them and say which you
consider justifiable in foreign language teaching in schools. Give your reasons.
36. Review the principles grammar teaching should be based upon and show how you will
utilize them in teaching some grammar item.
Рейтинг 2
1.Listening has been the “neglected” skill area of language teaching. Give some reasons for
this curious circumstance.
2.What is the difference between extensive and intensive listening?
3.What are the roles of the teacher in organizing intensive listening?
4.In your own experience how much time do you feel you spend in each of the four areas of
listening, speaking, reading, writing?
5. What are the reasons for pupils’ poor comprehension of the target language when spoken?
6.Compare different approaches to teaching speaking and determine which is most
justifiable.
7.Why is it so difficult to teach speaking in artificial conditions?
8.What can be done to overcome the obstacles and despite them to succeed in teaching oral
language?
9. Why must the text be considered a whole unit and should not be taken in pieces when
silent reading is being taught?
10. The ratio between silent reading and reading aloud should vary in favour of silent reading
from form to form. How should this be reflected on working with the text in class? Confirm
your statement with some examples.
11. Why is it so important, beginning at the intermediate stage, to teach pupils to use the
dictionary and other reference books?
12. The texts pupils read are different by nature. How does this influence the techniques used
while working at a text?
13. Conscious approach to foreign language teaching implies the use of translation. Support
your answer.
14.Do you agree that exercises within the target language are more effective for developing
language skills than those of translating from one language into another?
15.Translation is a complicated skill that requires special training. What is your opinion on
the subject?
16.Teaching English penmanship is not difficult. What is your opinion on the subject?
17.Spelling is one of the most difficult problems in teaching English. Do you agree? Give
some examples to substantiate your opinion.
18.Why is writing an effective means in language learning? Give a few arguments to prove
your answer.
19.Foreign language proficiency is difficult to test. Why?
20.When testing, the teacher instructs. Support this statement.
21.Contemporary teaching aids help the foreign language teaching to administer efficient and
objective tests. Do you agree? Give some examples to illustrate your opinion.
22.Can the teacher test one skill by means of another? Give your arguments for or against.
23.What should be done to enforce the validity of marks? State your reasons.
24. Planning is a necessary prerequisite for effective teaching. Say why.
25. What is recommended as the general shape of a lesson?
26. What is the purpose of a beginning? What are some affective beginnings that you have
observed or used?
27. Why bother with an “ending”? What are some examples of both good and poor
“endings” to lessons?
28. How can lesson planning help with classroom management? With variety?
29. How much detail needs to be written into a lesson plan? How does this depend on the
situation and the teacher?
30. How important do you think motivation is for success in language learning, compared
to, for example, language aptitude?
31. What characteristics and behaviours do you associate with the image of a motivated
learner?
32. The urge to engage in learning activity for its own sake (intrinsic motivation) is
distinguishable from the urge to learn for the sake of some external reward (extrinsic
motivation). Do you think there is any difference between children and adults in the
degree of influence of these two kinds of motivation?
7.3 Тестовые задания для самопроверки
7.3.1 Тест для самопроверки № 1
1. The principle of … implies the ability of a pupil to keep in his memory linguistic and language
material.
2. The principle of … is closely connected with the selection of the material.
activity
visualization
accessibility
durability
3. Knowledge of how to express a message is called … competence.
grammar
cultural
pragmatic
social
4. A technique to replicate in the classroom real-world situation for the purposes of communicative
language teaching is referred to as ….
information gap
matching
simulation
jigsaw reading
5 The syllabus generally has explicit …, usually declared at the beginning of the document.
6. In many places the coursebook serves as a … if it is followed systematically.
7. Computers are seen by many as an important teaching ….
8. The process of teaching a FL includes three teaching acts: presenting and explaining new material,
providing … and testing.
9. When the teacher has finished explaining, he has to check with his class that they have understood,
that is to get ….
10. The kind of work the teacher uses to give the students enough practice in a particular point of
grammar or vocabulary is called … activities.
11. At the first stage the bit of the skill to be learned is defined in words that is … .
12. Group-work organization includes four stages: …, process, ending and feedback.
13. Exercises used for developing pronunciation habits may be of two groups: recognition exercises and
… exercises.
14. … is made up of two or more words often placed together in oral or written speech.
15. Match the principles of teaching grammar and the rules they imply.
Conscious approach
Select the situation for the particular
grammar item.
Structural approach
Give comparative analysis of the
grammar item in English and
Russian.
Practical approach
Teach students to make up sentences
by analogy, to use the same pattern
for various situations..
Teaching active and
Use the oral approach for teaching
passive grammar
active grammar and start with
reading and writing sentences in
which the passive grammar item
occurs.
Situational approach
Teach students correct grammar
usage and not grammar knowledge
16. The main principle in selecting grammar material is the principle of …, i.e. how frequently this or
that grammar item occurs.
7.3.2 Тест для самопроверки № 2
1. Video supplies the aspect of speaker … and the general visual environment of the text.
2. The students listen to the dialogue at the … stage of learning listening comprehension.
reproductive
receptive
constructive
creative
3. Drill exercises with the sentence pattern refer to the … level.
utterance
discourse
statement
text
4. Students learn how to put several sentences together at the … level.
statement
utterance
discourse
text
5. Match the learner difficulties and the “remedies” for them.
Can’t finish the talk
Give language chunks
Lack language
Focus on turn-taking
Can’t start the talk
Offer the beginning of the talk
Lack ideas
Lack enthusiasm
Brainstorm in small groups
Introduce competition
Lack interaction
Set a time limit
6. Before questions may be very helpful for reading ….
7. Reading texts should be easy enough for pupils’ … to get pleasure from reading.
8. Teaching writing includes teaching penmanship, … and composition.
9. The teacher might prefer not to correct a learner’s mistake in ….
fluency work
accuracy work
written exercises
testing
10. Information that is given to the learner about his or her performance of a learning task is called ….
11. Multiple-choice test is administered more conveniently through ….
listening
writing
speaking
reading
12. Filling the gaps in a meaningful text with target words is called lexical ….
13. An organized and goal-oriented process, which is a set of learning opportunities, a model of
cognition and a framework for the interaction of the participants is referred to as ….
14. The teacher distributes the linguistic material (sounds, words, grammar, etc.) throughout the classperiods according to the … of each period.
15. The teacher starts lesson planning by stating the … of the lesson.
16. The effectiveness of pupils’ desired learning is fully dependent on the teacher’s … for the lessons.
7.4 Вопросы экзаменационного контроля
Card 1
1. Methods of Foreign Language Teaching and its relation to other sciences.
2. What are the main guidelines on giving effective explanations and instructions?
3. What is the difference between extensive and intensive listening?
Card 2
1. Language teaching approaches and methods.
2. Some techniques of vocabulary presentation are more popular than others. What are they, and
can you account for their popularity?
3. Compare different approaches to teaching speaking and determine which is most justifiable.
Card 3
1. Aims, content and principles of foreign language teaching in a secondary school.
2. What are the main characteristics of effective language practice?
3. Why must the text be considered a whole unit and should not be taken in pieces when silent
reading is being taught?
Card 4
1. Teaching aids and teaching materials.
2. Review the principles grammar teaching should be based upon and show how you will utilize
them in teaching some grammar item.
3. What are the roles of the teacher in organizing intensive listening?
Card 5
1 The teaching process. Presentations and explanations.
2. Speak on the possible difficulties a pupil has to overcome when new words are presented. What is
the role of the teacher here? Illustrate your answer with
several examples.
3. Why is it so difficult to teach speaking in artificial conditions?
Card 6
1. The teaching process. Practice activities.
2. What does teaching pronunciation involve?
3. The ratio between silent reading and reading aloud should vary in favour of silent reading from
form to form. How should this be reflected on working with the
text in class? Confirm your
statement with some examples.
Card 7
1. Techniques for classroom interaction. Whole-class teaching, pairwork, groupwork.
2. Describe specific ways in which knowledge of linguistics or psychology may be helpful in
teachers’ work. What is their relative value to English teacher?
3. The texts pupils read are different by nature. How does this influence the techniques used while
working at a text?
Card 8
1. Correction and feedback.
2. There are three main aims in teaching a foreign language. Name them and say
whether you consider them justifiable. Support your statement.
3. Why bother with an “ending”? What are some examples of both good and poor “endings” to
lessons?
Card 9
1. Teaching pronunciation.
2. Name the specific principles that you think must be observed in teaching English in schools.
3. Planning is a necessary prerequisite for effective teaching. Say why.
Card 10
1. Teaching vocabulary.
2. How would you define the term syllabus? What should a syllabus contain?
3. How can lesson planning help with classroom management? With variety?
Card 11
1. Teaching grammar.
2. What teaching aids does the foreign language teacher have at his disposal?
3. Do you agree that exercises within the target language are more effective for
developing
language skills than those of translating from one language into another?
Card 12
1. Teaching reading.
2. Give some guidelines on organizing group work as to its presentation, process, ending and
feedback.
3. What are the reasons for pupils’ poor comprehension of the target language when spoken?
Card 13
1. Teaching listening.
2. Outline the main characteristics of the contemporary approaches and methods used in teaching
foreign languages.
3. Why is it so important, beginning at the intermediate stage, to teach pupils to use the dictionary
and other reference books?
Card 14
1. Teaching speaking.
2. Say what factors you will consider in selecting audio-visual materials in teaching foreign
languages.
3. Why is writing an effective means in language learning? Give a few arguments to prove your
answer.
Card 15
1. Teaching writing.
2. Are there techniques that are particularly appropriate for the presentation of certain types of
words?
3. How much detail needs to be written into a lesson plan? How does this depend on the situation
and the teacher?
Card 16
1. Planning lessons.
2. What are the main patterns of classroom interactions?
3. What can be done to overcome the obstacles and despite them to succeed in teaching oral
language?