A R A B L E
W I L D L I F E :
Arable
Wildlife
Sponsor:
British
Agrochemicals
Association
Protecting
Non-target Species
P R O T E C T I N G
N O N - T A R G E T
S P E C I E S
Sponsor:
British
Agrochemicals
Association
This publication is supported by:
This publication
is supported by:
Contents
1 The Duty of Care for Wildlife
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
The natural ecosystem
The impact of agriculture
Targets and non-targets
A changing technology
The duty of care
2 Land Management for Wildlife
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
© 1997 The British Agrochemicals Association
4 Lincoln Court, Lincoln Road, Peterborough PE1 2RP
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without prior permission of the copyright owners.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data.
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library.
British Agrochemicals Association
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
ISBN 0 905598 06 7
BAA would like to acknowledge the use of the information contained in the Farmland Bird
Management Guidelines produced jointly by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB),
Game Conservancy Trust, British Trust for Ornithology (BTO) and Farming and Wildlife Advisory
Group (FWAG) and sponsored by MAFF, in the writing of the section on birds.
BAA would like to thank the following organisations for their assistance in supplying photographs
and illustrative material for this publication: British Crop Protection Council, English Nature,
Farming Wildlife Advisory Group, The Game Conservancy Trust, Holts Studios (lacewing pp 77),
IACR-Long Ashton, Profarma Ltd, Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, Roger Key (common
darter and water beetle pp 67, mite and wasp pp 79, rove beetles pp 80 and earthworm pp 82), Roger
Tidman Wildlife Photography (corn bunting pp 52, yellow hammer pp 56 and linnet pp 58) and
Warwickshire Wildlife Trust. The illustrations on pp 14, 24 and 26 are based on those published in
the AgrEvo UK Ltd’s Farm Conservation Guide.
Whilst this guide has been prepared from the best available information, the publishers cannot
accept liability for any inaccuracy or error contained herein.
Designed in Great Britain by Major Design and Production, Nottingham
2.1 Cropped land
2.1.1 Crops
2.1.2 Headlands
2.1.3 Field margins
2.2 Uncropped land
2.2.1 Hedges
2.2.2 Woodland
2.2.3 Water
2.3 Set-aside
2.4 Summary
1
2
2
4
5
6
9
10
10
18
20
21
21
23
25
27
30
3 Wildlife Protection Calendar
35
4 The Key Non-target Species
49
By season and by crop (cereals, peas, beans, root crops – e.g. potatoes,
sugar beet, onions – oilseed rape, linseed, grass, non-cropped land
and set-aside)
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
Birds
Small mammals
Aquatic life
Butterflies and moths
Honeybees (and other bees)
Arable flowers
Predatory insects and spiders
Earthworms
Soil fauna
5 Getting Help, Advice and Information
50
62
66
68
70
71
76
82
83
85
Contents
1 The Duty of Care for Wildlife
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
The natural ecosystem
The impact of agriculture
Targets and non-targets
A changing technology
The duty of care
2 Land Management for Wildlife
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
© 1997 The British Agrochemicals Association
4 Lincoln Court, Lincoln Road, Peterborough PE1 2RP
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without prior permission of the copyright owners.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data.
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library.
British Agrochemicals Association
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
ISBN 0 905598 06 7
BAA would like to acknowledge the use of the information contained in the Farmland Bird
Management Guidelines produced jointly by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB),
Game Conservancy Trust, British Trust for Ornithology (BTO) and Farming and Wildlife Advisory
Group (FWAG) and sponsored by MAFF, in the writing of the section on birds.
BAA would like to thank the following organisations for their assistance in supplying photographs
and illustrative material for this publication: British Crop Protection Council, English Nature,
Farming Wildlife Advisory Group, The Game Conservancy Trust, Holts Studios (lacewing pp 77),
IACR-Long Ashton, Profarma Ltd, Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, Roger Key (common
darter and water beetle pp 67, mite and wasp pp 79, rove beetles pp 80 and earthworm pp 82), Roger
Tidman Wildlife Photography (corn bunting pp 52, yellow hammer pp 56 and linnet pp 58) and
Warwickshire Wildlife Trust. The illustrations on pp 14, 24 and 26 are based on those published in
the AgrEvo UK Ltd’s Farm Conservation Guide.
Whilst this guide has been prepared from the best available information, the publishers cannot
accept liability for any inaccuracy or error contained herein.
Designed in Great Britain by Major Design and Production, Nottingham
2.1 Cropped land
2.1.1 Crops
2.1.2 Headlands
2.1.3 Field margins
2.2 Uncropped land
2.2.1 Hedges
2.2.2 Woodland
2.2.3 Water
2.3 Set-aside
2.4 Summary
1
2
2
4
5
6
9
10
10
18
20
21
21
23
25
27
30
3 Wildlife Protection Calendar
35
4 The Key Non-target Species
49
By season and by crop (cereals, peas, beans, root crops – e.g. potatoes,
sugar beet, onions – oilseed rape, linseed, grass, non-cropped land
and set-aside)
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
Birds
Small mammals
Aquatic life
Butterflies and moths
Honeybees (and other bees)
Arable flowers
Predatory insects and spiders
Earthworms
Soil fauna
5 Getting Help, Advice and Information
50
62
66
68
70
71
76
82
83
85
1
The Duty
of Care for
Wildlife
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
1.1 The natural ecosystem
food for people and their stock. Well known examples are the chalk grasslands,
acid heathlands, neutral hay meadows, marshlands and water courses, but
equally arable land supported its own range of specialised plants, insects
Great fleas have little fleas upon their backs to bite ‘em
And little fleas have lesser fleas, and so ad infinitum;
and birds.
The pattern of fields and hedgerows, crops and woodland, cattle and sheep,
And the great fleas themselves in turn have greater fleas to go on
dry stone walls and farm buildings that characterise the British landscape are
While these again have greater still, and greater still, and so on.
the positive results of centuries of farming.
de Morgan Budget of Paradoxes
Whilst the verse may lack scientific accuracy, the essence of its meaning is
clear. Nature is a massive, and largely balanced, ecosystem of creatures living
together in varying degrees of competition and mutual dependence. It includes
plants and animals, fungi and micro-organisms, predators and victims.
It can be a hostile world as any countryman knows. The struggle for survival
is evident to anyone who has chanced on the pathetic heap of feathers left after
a kill by the sparrow hawk, or witnessed the now widespread kestrel hovering
with intent and finally descending on the hapless mouse. The hierarchy of
hunters and hunted extends from these very visible examples to the lowest
limits of the animal kingdom and beyond, to the specialist viruses that attack
bacteria.
Farming has always shaped the British rural landscape.
A few species – in relative terms a tiny minority – have an adverse effect on
people, in their homes, on their health and in agriculture, and must be kept in
check. The remainder comprises the rich biodiversity of our environment and
our countryside which it is our duty to conserve.
But in recent years agriculture has begun to change the countryside more
radically. New farming techniques and increasing intensification have led to
larger fields, fewer hedgerows, more powerful machinery and a sharper focus
on agricultural productivity. Farmland habitats have also been lost to today’s
demand for more houses, industry, transport and leisure areas. The innocent
1.2 The impact of agriculture
casualties of this march of progress, besides farm employment, have been some
... agriculture fashioned the countryside
... farming favoured the ‘pests’
Ever since people started to produce food from the land they have sought to
tame the natural environment. Early farmers with their low intensity methods
unwittingly shaped the landscape into a variety of man-made land types or
habitats, each with its rich yet different array of wildlife and each also yielding
By cultivating and fertilising the land, farmers alter the natural ecosystem
2
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
of the creatures and plants that were once more common on our farms.
in favour of some species and to the detriment of others. Ploughing and
soil inversion creates an environment in which certain plant species thrive,
multiply and gain ‘weed’ status, while other creatures – earthworms, for
3
1.1 The natural ecosystem
food for people and their stock. Well known examples are the chalk grasslands,
acid heathlands, neutral hay meadows, marshlands and water courses, but
equally arable land supported its own range of specialised plants, insects
Great fleas have little fleas upon their backs to bite ‘em
And little fleas have lesser fleas, and so ad infinitum;
and birds.
The pattern of fields and hedgerows, crops and woodland, cattle and sheep,
And the great fleas themselves in turn have greater fleas to go on
dry stone walls and farm buildings that characterise the British landscape are
While these again have greater still, and greater still, and so on.
the positive results of centuries of farming.
de Morgan Budget of Paradoxes
Whilst the verse may lack scientific accuracy, the essence of its meaning is
clear. Nature is a massive, and largely balanced, ecosystem of creatures living
together in varying degrees of competition and mutual dependence. It includes
plants and animals, fungi and micro-organisms, predators and victims.
It can be a hostile world as any countryman knows. The struggle for survival
is evident to anyone who has chanced on the pathetic heap of feathers left after
a kill by the sparrow hawk, or witnessed the now widespread kestrel hovering
with intent and finally descending on the hapless mouse. The hierarchy of
hunters and hunted extends from these very visible examples to the lowest
limits of the animal kingdom and beyond, to the specialist viruses that attack
bacteria.
Farming has always shaped the British rural landscape.
A few species – in relative terms a tiny minority – have an adverse effect on
people, in their homes, on their health and in agriculture, and must be kept in
check. The remainder comprises the rich biodiversity of our environment and
our countryside which it is our duty to conserve.
But in recent years agriculture has begun to change the countryside more
radically. New farming techniques and increasing intensification have led to
larger fields, fewer hedgerows, more powerful machinery and a sharper focus
on agricultural productivity. Farmland habitats have also been lost to today’s
demand for more houses, industry, transport and leisure areas. The innocent
1.2 The impact of agriculture
casualties of this march of progress, besides farm employment, have been some
... agriculture fashioned the countryside
... farming favoured the ‘pests’
Ever since people started to produce food from the land they have sought to
tame the natural environment. Early farmers with their low intensity methods
unwittingly shaped the landscape into a variety of man-made land types or
habitats, each with its rich yet different array of wildlife and each also yielding
By cultivating and fertilising the land, farmers alter the natural ecosystem
2
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
of the creatures and plants that were once more common on our farms.
in favour of some species and to the detriment of others. Ploughing and
soil inversion creates an environment in which certain plant species thrive,
multiply and gain ‘weed’ status, while other creatures – earthworms, for
3
example – may suffer. The farmer scatters seed on the ground providing
pigeons with a ready-made meal. Monoculture, the most convenient and
effective way to grow crops, offers an open invitation to invaders such as the
specialised insect pests and fungal diseases. These are the pest species; the
plants, animals, insects and fungi that benefit from man’s activity, damage
crops and, if uncontrolled, deprive people of their food.
... pest control is essential
Everybody accepts that to grow crops successfully, whether in the garden, the
allotment or on a farm scale, requires some sort of pest control. Hand weeding
the vegetable patch is as much an act of pest control as spraying a 50 hectare
wheat field with a chemical insecticide. Both are potentially beneficial, but
both may do more harm than good if insufficient consideration is given to the
damage that may be done to the crop, the soil or other organisms. Not all the
species that live in or around crops are harmful – indeed some are predatory
on the pests themselves – and nothing is achieved by destroying them.
At farm level, much can be done to control pests indirectly, as will be seen
later in these guidelines, by modifying existing practices and techniques to
disrupt pest life cycles or by using genetic pest resistance in crops. Invariably,
however, direct chemical pest control has to be integrated with these other
measures. This requires skill and judgement to optimise the control of the pest
and minimise the impact on the environment.
1.3 Targets and non-targets
of economic significance. At this point it ceases to be a target species. If the
decline progresses to the point where they become rare or even endangered,
as has occurred with a number of plant species, they should be regarded not
just as non-target, but worthy of positive efforts to conserve them.
Some non-target species, ladybirds and ground beetles for example, can
be regarded as beneficial, while others are merely benign. As far as these
management guidelines for their protection are concerned, there is no need
to separate the two, although they bring different benefits: rationalisation of
pesticide use in the one case, and enrichment of farmland biodiversity in the
other.
1.4 A changing technology
The popular perception of pesticides is largely based on the events of the
past rather than the successes of the present. There is no doubt that the
drive to increase agricultural output in the post-war years led to an overreliance on some techniques – the use of pesticides among them. Some of the
basic principles of good farming were abandoned and mistakes were made.
For example, the use of certain organochlorine insecticides in the 1950’s
indisputably caused the deaths of many birds, including top predatory species
that fed on them, through accumulation in the food chain. This resulted in
declines in the populations of peregrine falcon and sparrowhawks, for
example. These species fully recovered in the 1980s when these chemicals
were withdrawn and less toxic, less persistent alternatives were introduced.
Pests are target species and the remainder of the fauna and flora are non-target
species. But care is necessary and restraint is needed in interpretation. A pest
is an organism in the wrong place; an organism where it is not wanted. By
extrapolation, it is not wanted because it is in some way harmful or damaging.
One poppy plant in a wheat field is not damaging; indeed, as these guidelines
show, it is likely to be beneficial. One hundred poppy plants per square metre
in a wheat field is very likely to be damaging to yield. At this level of
infestation it is a pest and a target species for control.
Sadly our knowledge of economic thresholds for many pests is incomplete, but
it is self-evident that there is a level for every pest below which it is no longer
The use of pesticides is increasingly being integrated with other management methods – here, the
first 6m of land is left untreated to encourage broad-leaved plants, insects, birds and small mammals.
4
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
5
example – may suffer. The farmer scatters seed on the ground providing
pigeons with a ready-made meal. Monoculture, the most convenient and
effective way to grow crops, offers an open invitation to invaders such as the
specialised insect pests and fungal diseases. These are the pest species; the
plants, animals, insects and fungi that benefit from man’s activity, damage
crops and, if uncontrolled, deprive people of their food.
... pest control is essential
Everybody accepts that to grow crops successfully, whether in the garden, the
allotment or on a farm scale, requires some sort of pest control. Hand weeding
the vegetable patch is as much an act of pest control as spraying a 50 hectare
wheat field with a chemical insecticide. Both are potentially beneficial, but
both may do more harm than good if insufficient consideration is given to the
damage that may be done to the crop, the soil or other organisms. Not all the
species that live in or around crops are harmful – indeed some are predatory
on the pests themselves – and nothing is achieved by destroying them.
At farm level, much can be done to control pests indirectly, as will be seen
later in these guidelines, by modifying existing practices and techniques to
disrupt pest life cycles or by using genetic pest resistance in crops. Invariably,
however, direct chemical pest control has to be integrated with these other
measures. This requires skill and judgement to optimise the control of the pest
and minimise the impact on the environment.
1.3 Targets and non-targets
of economic significance. At this point it ceases to be a target species. If the
decline progresses to the point where they become rare or even endangered,
as has occurred with a number of plant species, they should be regarded not
just as non-target, but worthy of positive efforts to conserve them.
Some non-target species, ladybirds and ground beetles for example, can
be regarded as beneficial, while others are merely benign. As far as these
management guidelines for their protection are concerned, there is no need
to separate the two, although they bring different benefits: rationalisation of
pesticide use in the one case, and enrichment of farmland biodiversity in the
other.
1.4 A changing technology
The popular perception of pesticides is largely based on the events of the
past rather than the successes of the present. There is no doubt that the
drive to increase agricultural output in the post-war years led to an overreliance on some techniques – the use of pesticides among them. Some of the
basic principles of good farming were abandoned and mistakes were made.
For example, the use of certain organochlorine insecticides in the 1950’s
indisputably caused the deaths of many birds, including top predatory species
that fed on them, through accumulation in the food chain. This resulted in
declines in the populations of peregrine falcon and sparrowhawks, for
example. These species fully recovered in the 1980s when these chemicals
were withdrawn and less toxic, less persistent alternatives were introduced.
Pests are target species and the remainder of the fauna and flora are non-target
species. But care is necessary and restraint is needed in interpretation. A pest
is an organism in the wrong place; an organism where it is not wanted. By
extrapolation, it is not wanted because it is in some way harmful or damaging.
One poppy plant in a wheat field is not damaging; indeed, as these guidelines
show, it is likely to be beneficial. One hundred poppy plants per square metre
in a wheat field is very likely to be damaging to yield. At this level of
infestation it is a pest and a target species for control.
Sadly our knowledge of economic thresholds for many pests is incomplete, but
it is self-evident that there is a level for every pest below which it is no longer
The use of pesticides is increasingly being integrated with other management methods – here, the
first 6m of land is left untreated to encourage broad-leaved plants, insects, birds and small mammals.
4
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
5
All technologies move forward by learning the lessons of the past; ship
building did not stop with the sinking of the Titanic. Similarly, pesticides
today are developed to increasingly demanding specifications for user,
consumer and environmental safety. As a result, the days of direct effects of
chemical pesticides on non-target vertebrate species are long past. The crop
protection industry has made great progress in developing products that are
less toxic,
less persistent and therefore less of a hazard to users, consumers and the
environment.
Nevertheless, even with modern pesticides, there is a duty of care not only to
use them correctly (a legal requirement) but also responsibly by integrating
their use with other management methods. These guidelines indicate how this
can be achieved.
On any farm the process of improvement starts with a detailed survey of the
site to identify wildlife habitats and the wildlife present. Current management
practices can then be assessed against these guidelines and an action plan
drawn up. The main objectives should be:
• The conservation and enhancement of the diversity of the naturally
occurring plants and wildlife of the whole farm and its surrounding areas.
• Optimisation of the contribution available from natural pest predators
by the integration of measures that will encourage the build-up of their
populations.
• Optimisation of the contribution that can be made by crop rotations to
discourage the build up of pest populations and disease.
Today we are more concerned about the indirect effects of modern farming
methods in general on non-target species. Increased mechanisation, changed
rotations, more efficient weedkillers and pressures to maximise agricultural
output to produce cheap food have all imposed changes that have impacted on
non-target species. The centres of large fields are beyond the normal range of
natural hedge-dwelling predators; fewer weeds mean less food supply for birds
and insects; fewer hedges mean fewer nesting sites and shelter; larger and
heavier machinery means potential damage to soil structure and loss of soil
fauna through cultivation; more winter cropping means fewer overwintering
stubbles; better drainage means less wet areas on the farm ... and so on.
1.5 The duty of care
The countryside is our heritage and it is incumbent on everyone, including
farmers and the farming industry to work towards conserving it. It can take
centuries for a habitat such as a hedge or a woodland to achieve its full
complement of species, and minutes to destroy it. Where such sites exist on
the farm, they should be given full protection.
These guidelines are designed to show farmers and advisors that, given
commitment and skill, backed by knowledge and understanding, non-target
species can be protected without prejudicing productivity or profitability.
Indeed both may be enhanced. The guidance in this booklet is general. It will
take readers a long way towards a more diverse, flourishing wildlife on arable
6
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
7
All technologies move forward by learning the lessons of the past; ship
building did not stop with the sinking of the Titanic. Similarly, pesticides
today are developed to increasingly demanding specifications for user,
consumer and environmental safety. As a result, the days of direct effects of
chemical pesticides on non-target vertebrate species are long past. The crop
protection industry has made great progress in developing products that are
less toxic,
less persistent and therefore less of a hazard to users, consumers and the
environment.
Nevertheless, even with modern pesticides, there is a duty of care not only to
use them correctly (a legal requirement) but also responsibly by integrating
their use with other management methods. These guidelines indicate how this
can be achieved.
On any farm the process of improvement starts with a detailed survey of the
site to identify wildlife habitats and the wildlife present. Current management
practices can then be assessed against these guidelines and an action plan
drawn up. The main objectives should be:
• The conservation and enhancement of the diversity of the naturally
occurring plants and wildlife of the whole farm and its surrounding areas.
• Optimisation of the contribution available from natural pest predators
by the integration of measures that will encourage the build-up of their
populations.
• Optimisation of the contribution that can be made by crop rotations to
discourage the build up of pest populations and disease.
Today we are more concerned about the indirect effects of modern farming
methods in general on non-target species. Increased mechanisation, changed
rotations, more efficient weedkillers and pressures to maximise agricultural
output to produce cheap food have all imposed changes that have impacted on
non-target species. The centres of large fields are beyond the normal range of
natural hedge-dwelling predators; fewer weeds mean less food supply for birds
and insects; fewer hedges mean fewer nesting sites and shelter; larger and
heavier machinery means potential damage to soil structure and loss of soil
fauna through cultivation; more winter cropping means fewer overwintering
stubbles; better drainage means less wet areas on the farm ... and so on.
1.5 The duty of care
The countryside is our heritage and it is incumbent on everyone, including
farmers and the farming industry to work towards conserving it. It can take
centuries for a habitat such as a hedge or a woodland to achieve its full
complement of species, and minutes to destroy it. Where such sites exist on
the farm, they should be given full protection.
These guidelines are designed to show farmers and advisors that, given
commitment and skill, backed by knowledge and understanding, non-target
species can be protected without prejudicing productivity or profitability.
Indeed both may be enhanced. The guidance in this booklet is general. It will
take readers a long way towards a more diverse, flourishing wildlife on arable
6
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
7
2
Land
Management
8
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
skylarks, grey partridge and corn buntings. Stubbles that contain plenty of
annual broad-leaved plants, or are undersown with grass, clover or turnips are
particularly favoured. The spring crops themselves will encourage lapwings
and skylarks by providing potential areas for them to nest.
2.1 Cropped land
2.1.1 Crops
There are numerous ways in which general crop management can influence
non-target species. Management practices that favour creatures at the top of
the natural food chain (i.e. birds and mammals) are likely to be beneficial to
the ecosystem as a whole because the entire natural community is interdependent.
The crucial aspect is the maintenance of a mosaic of varying crops in
moderately-sized fields, intersected by non-crop corridors, which are
themselves a habitat, and along which wildlife can move. However, the
sensible use of pesticides, rotations, variety selection, cultivation practices and
pollution control are also involved.
As with most crop management decisions, there are sometimes conflicts of
interest. Some actions that will favour non-target species, for example leaving
stubbles and volunteers over winter, or leaving unsprayed headlands, may not
be seen to be best practice from a pest management viewpoint. Compromise
will sometimes be necessary but, in general, the techniques outlined here can
be undertaken without major impact on the farming business, but with
significant benefit for the environment where it is located.
Stubbles left untouched over the winter will provide cover and food for skylarks, grey partridge
and corn bunting.
Inclusion of spring sown crops allows some stubbles to be left untouched
through the winter thus providing cover and food for bird species like
Unimproved permanent pastures have a large number of grasses and broadleaved species in the sward and are valuable conservation areas. Many are
Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI’s). Management agreements can be
negotiated to enhance their interest in selected areas in England under
English Nature’s Wildlife Enhancement Scheme. As far as non-target species are
concerned, they represent an environment that was once commonplace and
abundant, occupying over 50% of the total farmland area in the 1930s. The
decline of several bird species can be partly attributed to the loss of permanent
pastures. An example is the corncrake which historically was present in hay
meadows throughout Britain but the mechanised cutting of meadows much
earlier in the summer and their conversion to arable has resulted in corncrakes
now being confined to the north western fringes of Britain. Maintenance of
areas of unimproved pasture on the farm can contribute to encouraging a
diversity of insect life including butterflies and grasshoppers which in turn
will provide food for birds such as yellowhammers in the breeding season. The
wetter unimproved pastures will encourage snipe and curlew to feed and
breed.
10
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Rotations
The notion of growing different crops in sequence has long been recognised as
an effective means of reducing the impact of weeds, insect pests and diseases.
Even in the most intensive of modern arable systems some form of alternation
of crops is practised, albeit somewhat different from the original four-course
rotations of the nineteenth century.
Rotations can have an important influence on non-target species too. One
of the fundamental requirements to encourage nearly all the groups described
in section 4 of this book is the maintenance of a diversity of cropping on the
farm. In this way a mosaic of habitats can be created across the farm which
collectively provide a continuous supply of food and shelter.
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
11
skylarks, grey partridge and corn buntings. Stubbles that contain plenty of
annual broad-leaved plants, or are undersown with grass, clover or turnips are
particularly favoured. The spring crops themselves will encourage lapwings
and skylarks by providing potential areas for them to nest.
2.1 Cropped land
2.1.1 Crops
There are numerous ways in which general crop management can influence
non-target species. Management practices that favour creatures at the top of
the natural food chain (i.e. birds and mammals) are likely to be beneficial to
the ecosystem as a whole because the entire natural community is interdependent.
The crucial aspect is the maintenance of a mosaic of varying crops in
moderately-sized fields, intersected by non-crop corridors, which are
themselves a habitat, and along which wildlife can move. However, the
sensible use of pesticides, rotations, variety selection, cultivation practices and
pollution control are also involved.
As with most crop management decisions, there are sometimes conflicts of
interest. Some actions that will favour non-target species, for example leaving
stubbles and volunteers over winter, or leaving unsprayed headlands, may not
be seen to be best practice from a pest management viewpoint. Compromise
will sometimes be necessary but, in general, the techniques outlined here can
be undertaken without major impact on the farming business, but with
significant benefit for the environment where it is located.
Stubbles left untouched over the winter will provide cover and food for skylarks, grey partridge
and corn bunting.
Inclusion of spring sown crops allows some stubbles to be left untouched
through the winter thus providing cover and food for bird species like
Unimproved permanent pastures have a large number of grasses and broadleaved species in the sward and are valuable conservation areas. Many are
Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI’s). Management agreements can be
negotiated to enhance their interest in selected areas in England under
English Nature’s Wildlife Enhancement Scheme. As far as non-target species are
concerned, they represent an environment that was once commonplace and
abundant, occupying over 50% of the total farmland area in the 1930s. The
decline of several bird species can be partly attributed to the loss of permanent
pastures. An example is the corncrake which historically was present in hay
meadows throughout Britain but the mechanised cutting of meadows much
earlier in the summer and their conversion to arable has resulted in corncrakes
now being confined to the north western fringes of Britain. Maintenance of
areas of unimproved pasture on the farm can contribute to encouraging a
diversity of insect life including butterflies and grasshoppers which in turn
will provide food for birds such as yellowhammers in the breeding season. The
wetter unimproved pastures will encourage snipe and curlew to feed and
breed.
10
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Rotations
The notion of growing different crops in sequence has long been recognised as
an effective means of reducing the impact of weeds, insect pests and diseases.
Even in the most intensive of modern arable systems some form of alternation
of crops is practised, albeit somewhat different from the original four-course
rotations of the nineteenth century.
Rotations can have an important influence on non-target species too. One
of the fundamental requirements to encourage nearly all the groups described
in section 4 of this book is the maintenance of a diversity of cropping on the
farm. In this way a mosaic of habitats can be created across the farm which
collectively provide a continuous supply of food and shelter.
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
11
Conservation management of unimproved pasture
Wildlife-friendly harvesting/cutting techniques
• Do not drain if valuable wetland species are present.
• Maintain adequate stocking levels with grazing stock to control
aggressive weeds and prevent scrub establishment.
• Do not over-graze and keep stock out of the field until wild-plants have
flowered and seed set.
• Delay cutting a hay crop until around mid-July onwards.
• Cattle are preferable to sheep in many circumstances as they produce a
more varied structure to the sward
• After a hay cut, restrict grazing the aftermath to a limited period.
• Spot-treat aggressive weeds, such as thistles, ragwort and bracken,
mechanically where possible, or with an appropriate herbicide applied
through a weed wiper or knapsack sprayer.
Cut from the gate towards the middle of the field. The centre of the field
can be cut when there is sufficient turning space. Finish the rest cutting
outwards to the fences.
• Keep farm traffic across it to a minimum.
• Note and, if necessary, fence off rare plants and birds’ nests.
Mechanical operations
Cultivations are an essential element of arable farm management, but they
can be extremely damaging to non-target species. Inappropriate machinery,
incorrect tyre pressures and ill-timed operations can all be detrimental.
Soil life is abundant and diverse. A single act of cultivation can not only
It may be necessary to cut a strip at the top and bottom sections first.
This method is suitable for drum/rotary mowers. Cut the field from the
middle outwards.
damage soil structure but also cause enormous losses in earthworm
populations, overwintering sawfly pupae and bird nesting-sites. Reduced
The timing of other operations also needs careful consideration. Maximising
tillage and non-inversion cultivations, rather than ploughing, can help retain
the interval between silage cuts can give ground-nesting birds time to raise
populations of many beneficial insects such as spiders and beetles as well as
their brood; skylarks need six weeks. Delaying spring operations such as
earthworms.
harrowing, drilling and rolling benefits birds by leaving food sources available
over the winter but do not leave later than March since this will mean that
Rolling, mechanical weed control or cutting in the spring months can also
operations are carried out in fields where birds may be nesting.
destroy nests as well as young, and even adult, birds. Ploughing permanent
grassland should be avoided if possible, but if it must be done, it should be
Cultivating too close in to the base of hedgerows can remove ground shelter
ploughed as early as possible in spring, preferably March, and re-seeded as
for insects and food for birds. Not only this, but close cultivation along field
quickly as possible. When harvesting cereals or cutting grass for silage or hay,
boundaries creates an area of disturbed soil in which weeds can germinate and
wildlife can escape if the field is cut in sections working across the field or
flourish. This in turn necessitates herbicide treatment right up to the edge of
from the centre towards the outside.
the field with the attendant risk of drift into the hedge bottom itself. Gradually
12
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
13
Conservation management of unimproved pasture
Wildlife-friendly harvesting/cutting techniques
• Do not drain if valuable wetland species are present.
• Maintain adequate stocking levels with grazing stock to control
aggressive weeds and prevent scrub establishment.
• Do not over-graze and keep stock out of the field until wild-plants have
flowered and seed set.
• Delay cutting a hay crop until around mid-July onwards.
• Cattle are preferable to sheep in many circumstances as they produce a
more varied structure to the sward
• After a hay cut, restrict grazing the aftermath to a limited period.
• Spot-treat aggressive weeds, such as thistles, ragwort and bracken,
mechanically where possible, or with an appropriate herbicide applied
through a weed wiper or knapsack sprayer.
Cut from the gate towards the middle of the field. The centre of the field
can be cut when there is sufficient turning space. Finish the rest cutting
outwards to the fences.
• Keep farm traffic across it to a minimum.
• Note and, if necessary, fence off rare plants and birds’ nests.
Mechanical operations
Cultivations are an essential element of arable farm management, but they
can be extremely damaging to non-target species. Inappropriate machinery,
incorrect tyre pressures and ill-timed operations can all be detrimental.
Soil life is abundant and diverse. A single act of cultivation can not only
It may be necessary to cut a strip at the top and bottom sections first.
This method is suitable for drum/rotary mowers. Cut the field from the
middle outwards.
damage soil structure but also cause enormous losses in earthworm
populations, overwintering sawfly pupae and bird nesting-sites. Reduced
The timing of other operations also needs careful consideration. Maximising
tillage and non-inversion cultivations, rather than ploughing, can help retain
the interval between silage cuts can give ground-nesting birds time to raise
populations of many beneficial insects such as spiders and beetles as well as
their brood; skylarks need six weeks. Delaying spring operations such as
earthworms.
harrowing, drilling and rolling benefits birds by leaving food sources available
over the winter but do not leave later than March since this will mean that
Rolling, mechanical weed control or cutting in the spring months can also
operations are carried out in fields where birds may be nesting.
destroy nests as well as young, and even adult, birds. Ploughing permanent
grassland should be avoided if possible, but if it must be done, it should be
Cultivating too close in to the base of hedgerows can remove ground shelter
ploughed as early as possible in spring, preferably March, and re-seeded as
for insects and food for birds. Not only this, but close cultivation along field
quickly as possible. When harvesting cereals or cutting grass for silage or hay,
boundaries creates an area of disturbed soil in which weeds can germinate and
wildlife can escape if the field is cut in sections working across the field or
flourish. This in turn necessitates herbicide treatment right up to the edge of
from the centre towards the outside.
the field with the attendant risk of drift into the hedge bottom itself. Gradually
12
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
13
the vegetation at the field edge becomes dominated by invasive weed species
which threaten to ingress into the cropped area unless given further herbicide
treatment. The result is an intractable weed problem and the loss of valuable
habitat for birds and insects. Both can be overcome by establishing a
permanent grass strip between the crop and the boundary and by not allowing
close cultivation nor applying fertilisers onto uncultivated field margins or
into the bottom of hedgerows. Take particular care with liquid manures and
slurry. Ideally, they should be injected or applied through low level booms.
Application on to frozen ground should be avoided.
Arable field margin
Hedgerow tree
Barrier
Hedge, Fence, Wall,
Grass baulk, Windbreak
Ditch,
Rhyne,
Drain,
Stream
Boundary
Hedge bottom
Mown strip
Hedge bank
Sterile strip
Farm track
(cultivated or sprayed)
Beetle banks can be used to create a refuge for wildlife in large fields.
Crop
edge
Boundary
Strip
It may be necessary to apply a broad spectrum, non-residual herbicide to
remove opportunist weeds before sowing the grass, but once the ridges are
established the sown grasses should exclude most weeds. It will take two to
three years for the ridges to develop into suitable habitats for overwintering
insects and spiders from where they can play their part in reducing crop pests.
Detailed guidance on the establishment of beetle banks is provided by the
Farmland Ecology Unit of the Game Conservancy Trust.
(not
necessarily
the same as
headland)
Main Crop
Crop protection
Beetle banks
Pest control is an essential part of any farming system. Where this involves
the use of chemicals it is important that the measures are specific for the
pest species present so that any threat to non-target species is minimised.
Where fields are large, the beneficial predatory insects do not readily penetrate
to the middle. A simple way to encourage them without interfering with farm
management practices is to create mid-field refuges, or ‘beetle banks’, where
predators can overwinter and from where they can spread into the crop in
spring. This is achieved by creating a ridge or bank by careful two directional
ploughing during normal autumn cultivations and sowing it with a mixture of
perennial grasses. A beetle bank created with a tussocky grass mix could also
provide nesting sites for skylarks and a refuge for other wildlife, for example
hares. The number of banks needed will depend on the size of the field and
the extent of the ground cover round the edges.
Whilst the days of direct toxic effects of pesticides on higher animals such
as mammals and birds have long since gone, there are undoubtedly losses,
caused mainly by insecticides, among invertebrates. In addition, the indirect
effect of modern herbicides that regularly achieve well over 90% control of
weeds means that the main body of the average arable field provides a sparse
supply of food or shelter for birds and insects alike. The effect of this is to
place an even greater reliance on the vegetation at the field margin. However,
some species such as lapwing and skylark avoid such areas if hedges or trees
are present and action for them has to focus on practices which affect the
whole field.
14
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
15
the vegetation at the field edge becomes dominated by invasive weed species
which threaten to ingress into the cropped area unless given further herbicide
treatment. The result is an intractable weed problem and the loss of valuable
habitat for birds and insects. Both can be overcome by establishing a
permanent grass strip between the crop and the boundary and by not allowing
close cultivation nor applying fertilisers onto uncultivated field margins or
into the bottom of hedgerows. Take particular care with liquid manures and
slurry. Ideally, they should be injected or applied through low level booms.
Application on to frozen ground should be avoided.
Arable field margin
Hedgerow tree
Barrier
Hedge, Fence, Wall,
Grass baulk, Windbreak
Ditch,
Rhyne,
Drain,
Stream
Boundary
Hedge bottom
Mown strip
Hedge bank
Sterile strip
Farm track
(cultivated or sprayed)
Beetle banks can be used to create a refuge for wildlife in large fields.
Crop
edge
Boundary
Strip
It may be necessary to apply a broad spectrum, non-residual herbicide to
remove opportunist weeds before sowing the grass, but once the ridges are
established the sown grasses should exclude most weeds. It will take two to
three years for the ridges to develop into suitable habitats for overwintering
insects and spiders from where they can play their part in reducing crop pests.
Detailed guidance on the establishment of beetle banks is provided by the
Farmland Ecology Unit of the Game Conservancy Trust.
(not
necessarily
the same as
headland)
Main Crop
Crop protection
Beetle banks
Pest control is an essential part of any farming system. Where this involves
the use of chemicals it is important that the measures are specific for the
pest species present so that any threat to non-target species is minimised.
Where fields are large, the beneficial predatory insects do not readily penetrate
to the middle. A simple way to encourage them without interfering with farm
management practices is to create mid-field refuges, or ‘beetle banks’, where
predators can overwinter and from where they can spread into the crop in
spring. This is achieved by creating a ridge or bank by careful two directional
ploughing during normal autumn cultivations and sowing it with a mixture of
perennial grasses. A beetle bank created with a tussocky grass mix could also
provide nesting sites for skylarks and a refuge for other wildlife, for example
hares. The number of banks needed will depend on the size of the field and
the extent of the ground cover round the edges.
Whilst the days of direct toxic effects of pesticides on higher animals such
as mammals and birds have long since gone, there are undoubtedly losses,
caused mainly by insecticides, among invertebrates. In addition, the indirect
effect of modern herbicides that regularly achieve well over 90% control of
weeds means that the main body of the average arable field provides a sparse
supply of food or shelter for birds and insects alike. The effect of this is to
place an even greater reliance on the vegetation at the field margin. However,
some species such as lapwing and skylark avoid such areas if hedges or trees
are present and action for them has to focus on practices which affect the
whole field.
14
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
15
some major pest species. The decisions can be difficult and, in cases of doubt,
... non-chemical pest control
the help of a BASIS-qualified advisor should be sought. In any event, decisions
Much can be done by creation of conservation headlands and field margin
management (see pp 18 –21) but there is scope to build on the benefits
of these field-edge approaches in the overall farm crop protection strategy.
about using pesticides should never be made without physically inspecting the
field and evaluating the most economic and environmentally acceptable course
of action. In general the aim should be to contain (rather than eliminate) the
The reliance on chemical pesticide usage can be reduced by starting with
careful rotation planning and the choice of pest-resistant crop varieties, and
moving through to integration of non-chemical methods of pest control when
problems occur. Total reliance on chemical pesticides is, in any case, bad
farming and increases the possibility of chemical resistance. By definition,
pests are adaptable organisms and, over the 50 years since pesticides have
been used on a wide-scale, numerous instances of resistance have arisen.
problem at a level that does not cause economic damage.
Integrated Crop Management (ICM) is a system that balances all management
methods to control pests and grow crops rather than relying on a single
technique for control. In brief, it is a skills-intensive combination of
responsible farming practices which balance the economic production of
crops with measures that conserve and enhance the environment.
warned if use of an insecticide hazardous to honeybees is anticipated.
species. An inappropriate insecticide presents a great hazard, not only directly
to beneficial insects, but also indirectly by removing the main food supply for
the chicks of birds like the skylark. Ill-timed use of insecticides when crops or
weeds are in flower, also endangers bees. Local beekeepers should always be
The risks are greatest where broad spectrum insecticides are used in late
spring/early summer. Where this is unavoidable, they must not be used on
crops in flower (unless there is a specific statement on the label which allows
this) or where bees are actively foraging. Drift into hedgerow vegetation must
... choosing pesticides
also be avoided.
When chemicals are used, the policy
should be to use as little as possible but
as much as necessary.
Drift is caused by a combination of spray droplet size, wind speed and the
height of the sprayer boom. The best way to avoid drift into the hedge is
to leave an unsprayed strip at the crop margin (a statutory requirement for
The use of pesticides should always be
part of a planned pest control strategy.
Last-minute panic remedies will often
place non-target species at risk partly
because maximum doses are needed and
partly because the opportunity to optimise
timing has been lost.
Identification of the pest problem is the
first essential step followed by evaluation
of whether the infestation requires
treatment at all. Various aids, such as
diagnostic kits for diseases, help correct
identification, while treatment thresholds
have been scientifically determined for
16
Correct choice of pesticide treatments is crucial in the protection of non-target
some insecticides). If this is not practical, keeping the spray boom as low as
possible will reduce drift but an even spray deposition on the target must
be maintained. Small drops are more likely to be caught by the wind, so if
conditions mean that drift is possible a switch of nozzles to provide a coarser
spray will help, provided the product label allows it. The latest sprayer
technology has improved droplet targeting and reduces the likelihood of
drift.
Herbicides are also an indirect threat to non-target species by removing shelter
and food resources. Weed problems are created by close cultivation to the field
edge and accidental fertiliser placement in the hedge bottom. By avoiding
these mistakes and creating an uncropped boundary strip the need for
Correct choice of pesticide treatments is
crucial in the protection of non-target
species.
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
herbicide treatment at the very edge of the field can be eliminated for the
benefit of a wide range of non-target species.
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
17
some major pest species. The decisions can be difficult and, in cases of doubt,
... non-chemical pest control
the help of a BASIS-qualified advisor should be sought. In any event, decisions
Much can be done by creation of conservation headlands and field margin
management (see pp 18 –21) but there is scope to build on the benefits
of these field-edge approaches in the overall farm crop protection strategy.
about using pesticides should never be made without physically inspecting the
field and evaluating the most economic and environmentally acceptable course
of action. In general the aim should be to contain (rather than eliminate) the
The reliance on chemical pesticide usage can be reduced by starting with
careful rotation planning and the choice of pest-resistant crop varieties, and
moving through to integration of non-chemical methods of pest control when
problems occur. Total reliance on chemical pesticides is, in any case, bad
farming and increases the possibility of chemical resistance. By definition,
pests are adaptable organisms and, over the 50 years since pesticides have
been used on a wide-scale, numerous instances of resistance have arisen.
problem at a level that does not cause economic damage.
Integrated Crop Management (ICM) is a system that balances all management
methods to control pests and grow crops rather than relying on a single
technique for control. In brief, it is a skills-intensive combination of
responsible farming practices which balance the economic production of
crops with measures that conserve and enhance the environment.
warned if use of an insecticide hazardous to honeybees is anticipated.
species. An inappropriate insecticide presents a great hazard, not only directly
to beneficial insects, but also indirectly by removing the main food supply for
the chicks of birds like the skylark. Ill-timed use of insecticides when crops or
weeds are in flower, also endangers bees. Local beekeepers should always be
The risks are greatest where broad spectrum insecticides are used in late
spring/early summer. Where this is unavoidable, they must not be used on
crops in flower (unless there is a specific statement on the label which allows
this) or where bees are actively foraging. Drift into hedgerow vegetation must
... choosing pesticides
also be avoided.
When chemicals are used, the policy
should be to use as little as possible but
as much as necessary.
Drift is caused by a combination of spray droplet size, wind speed and the
height of the sprayer boom. The best way to avoid drift into the hedge is
to leave an unsprayed strip at the crop margin (a statutory requirement for
The use of pesticides should always be
part of a planned pest control strategy.
Last-minute panic remedies will often
place non-target species at risk partly
because maximum doses are needed and
partly because the opportunity to optimise
timing has been lost.
Identification of the pest problem is the
first essential step followed by evaluation
of whether the infestation requires
treatment at all. Various aids, such as
diagnostic kits for diseases, help correct
identification, while treatment thresholds
have been scientifically determined for
16
Correct choice of pesticide treatments is crucial in the protection of non-target
some insecticides). If this is not practical, keeping the spray boom as low as
possible will reduce drift but an even spray deposition on the target must
be maintained. Small drops are more likely to be caught by the wind, so if
conditions mean that drift is possible a switch of nozzles to provide a coarser
spray will help, provided the product label allows it. The latest sprayer
technology has improved droplet targeting and reduces the likelihood of
drift.
Herbicides are also an indirect threat to non-target species by removing shelter
and food resources. Weed problems are created by close cultivation to the field
edge and accidental fertiliser placement in the hedge bottom. By avoiding
these mistakes and creating an uncropped boundary strip the need for
Correct choice of pesticide treatments is
crucial in the protection of non-target
species.
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
herbicide treatment at the very edge of the field can be eliminated for the
benefit of a wide range of non-target species.
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
17
... storing, applying and disposing of pesticides
same time every opportunity should be taken to enhance the wildlife value of
the non-cropped areas on the farm.
Disposal of unwanted spray, sprayer washings and empty containers also needs
care. The particular danger here is allowing material to enter drains and
watercourses. Once again, the guidance in the Codes of Practice should be
followed.
the field or the hedge (if there is one) provides an ideal area for the transition
from the one to the other. A technique of managing these areas by adopting
the selective reduction of pesticide inputs has been developed by the Game
Conservancy Trust, originally specifically focused on reversing the decline
of the grey partridge on farmland. The habitats thus created are termed
‘conservation headlands’ and are demonstrably helpful for the survival
and multiplication of many non-target species, not just partridges.
1.3m
Creation of a conservation headland
Diagram not to scale
2m
These considerations also apply to the use of diluted product in the field and
much can be done to minimise the danger to non-target species by following
the guidance given in the various Codes of Practice. This includes careful
calibration of the spraying equipment, regular maintenance of spraying
machinery, training operators and carrying out COSHH assessments. Common
sense dictates much of what has to happen. It is not good practice to spray in
windy conditions; it is irresponsible to spray where drift outside the treated
area may occur – whether on to a neighbouring crop or into a wildlife haven
such as a hedgerow or watercourse.
The 6m of land between the first tramline of a drilled crop and the edge of
6m
0.5m
Spillage of concentrated pesticide, whether by accident or neglect, constitutes
a significant environmental threat. It is inevitable that, for some of the year at
least, pesticides must be stored on the farm and it is important that they are
stored safely and securely. Avoiding pollution of water, with resultant damage
to aquatic life, is especially important.
Tramlines
1m
1m
The aim of conservation headlands is to encourage the growth of nonaggressive broad-leaved plant species and the insects that live on them,
2.1.2 Headlands
thereby providing a source of food not only for the birds, but also for the
insects themselves, many of which are important predators or pollinators.
It will be clear from the guidelines given above for crop management that
the main threat to non-target species is the indirect consequence of modern
farming methods that have simultaneously intensified crop management
and sought to minimise the area of ‘unproductive’ ground. The enlargement
of fields, the loss of stock from many farms in eastern England and the
intensification of the use of machinery and other technologies are some of
the manifestations of this trend. In simple terms, the effects have been to
reduce the area where non-target species can live and to remove much of
their food.
Conservation headlands are also a refuge for rare arable flowers.
Management practices for the protection of non-target species must seek to
move from a clinically ‘clean’ cropped area to one where, as far as possible,
the damaging pests are contained while allowing the non-target species to exist
without adversely affecting food quality, productivity and profitability. At the
Creating a conservation headland in the first 6m of the crop benefits many non-target species.
18
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
19
... storing, applying and disposing of pesticides
same time every opportunity should be taken to enhance the wildlife value of
the non-cropped areas on the farm.
Disposal of unwanted spray, sprayer washings and empty containers also needs
care. The particular danger here is allowing material to enter drains and
watercourses. Once again, the guidance in the Codes of Practice should be
followed.
the field or the hedge (if there is one) provides an ideal area for the transition
from the one to the other. A technique of managing these areas by adopting
the selective reduction of pesticide inputs has been developed by the Game
Conservancy Trust, originally specifically focused on reversing the decline
of the grey partridge on farmland. The habitats thus created are termed
‘conservation headlands’ and are demonstrably helpful for the survival
and multiplication of many non-target species, not just partridges.
1.3m
Creation of a conservation headland
Diagram not to scale
2m
These considerations also apply to the use of diluted product in the field and
much can be done to minimise the danger to non-target species by following
the guidance given in the various Codes of Practice. This includes careful
calibration of the spraying equipment, regular maintenance of spraying
machinery, training operators and carrying out COSHH assessments. Common
sense dictates much of what has to happen. It is not good practice to spray in
windy conditions; it is irresponsible to spray where drift outside the treated
area may occur – whether on to a neighbouring crop or into a wildlife haven
such as a hedgerow or watercourse.
The 6m of land between the first tramline of a drilled crop and the edge of
6m
0.5m
Spillage of concentrated pesticide, whether by accident or neglect, constitutes
a significant environmental threat. It is inevitable that, for some of the year at
least, pesticides must be stored on the farm and it is important that they are
stored safely and securely. Avoiding pollution of water, with resultant damage
to aquatic life, is especially important.
Tramlines
1m
1m
The aim of conservation headlands is to encourage the growth of nonaggressive broad-leaved plant species and the insects that live on them,
2.1.2 Headlands
thereby providing a source of food not only for the birds, but also for the
insects themselves, many of which are important predators or pollinators.
It will be clear from the guidelines given above for crop management that
the main threat to non-target species is the indirect consequence of modern
farming methods that have simultaneously intensified crop management
and sought to minimise the area of ‘unproductive’ ground. The enlargement
of fields, the loss of stock from many farms in eastern England and the
intensification of the use of machinery and other technologies are some of
the manifestations of this trend. In simple terms, the effects have been to
reduce the area where non-target species can live and to remove much of
their food.
Conservation headlands are also a refuge for rare arable flowers.
Management practices for the protection of non-target species must seek to
move from a clinically ‘clean’ cropped area to one where, as far as possible,
the damaging pests are contained while allowing the non-target species to exist
without adversely affecting food quality, productivity and profitability. At the
Creating a conservation headland in the first 6m of the crop benefits many non-target species.
18
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
19
It is important to realise that conservation headlands are not left unsprayed
(which would almost certainly result in economic loss of production), but
there are restrictions on pesticide use. Selective pesticides to control grass
weeds, cleavers, virus vectors and diseases may be used. Insecticides should
not be used after March 15. Headlands heavily infested with difficult weeds
such as barren brome or cleavers are not ideal starting points for the creation
of such habitats.
Where these species have become abundant in the hedge, it is best to create
a 1m wide strip between the crop and the boundary vegetation sown with a
fescue mixture. A selective grass weedkiller can then be used to prevent
ingress of the pernicious species into the crop.
Ploughing of headlands is recommended wherever possible, especially on
heavy soils and where black-grass and barren brome are problems. Care should
be taken not to turn the furrow on to the grassy strip (see Field margins below)
to avoid creating conditions that favour annual weeds.
2–3 years. Ploughing right up to this area, and spray and fertiliser drift into it,
must be avoided.
Full and detailed guidelines for the management of field margins, including
specific guidance on the management of difficult weed species are available
from the Game Conservancy Trust.
2.2 Uncropped Land
2.2.1 Hedges
Hedges provide shelter and nesting sites for a different group of birds. Berries
and fruits form one of the main food resources of hedges. They are normally
borne on second-year wood and so a farm hedge management plan is necessary
to schedule hedges on the farm to be trimmed on a rotational basis every
2–3 years, although it is useful to leave some areas uncut, particularly at
2.1.3 Field margins
hedge junctions. Cutting is best carried out in January or February. It should
For maximum benefits from conservation headlands, attention should also be
given to the adjacent field boundaries. Correct management of these areas will
provide nesting sites for birds as well as overwintering and breeding sites for
beneficial and other non-target arthropods. In addition it will prevent these
areas from becoming sources of pernicious weeds that will ultimately invade
the cropped area.
crop conditions prevent winter cutting then post-harvest, autumn cutting on
never be carried out in the bird nesting season from April to July. If soil and
a 2–3 year rotation should be adopted for those particular hedges.
The area under the hedge bottom is used by animals, game birds and other
ground-nesting birds, for example the yellowhammer, and for overwintering by
beneficial insects and spiders. Many species use field margins even where no
hedge is present. They should be at least 1m wide and preferably sited on a
bank. The vegetation should consist of perennial non-invasive grasses, ideally
including tussock-forming grasses such as cock’s-foot, and non-weedy
herbaceous species. If absolutely necessary, selective grass weedkillers may be
used to control invasive annuals such as brome and black-grass, but once the
perennials are established no further chemical treatment should be needed.
Dead grass should be allowed to build up to provide nesting material and
over winter cover for invertebrates, but the vegetation should be topped every
Hedgerow berries and fruits provide a much needed autumn/winter food resource for many species
of birds.
20
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
21
It is important to realise that conservation headlands are not left unsprayed
(which would almost certainly result in economic loss of production), but
there are restrictions on pesticide use. Selective pesticides to control grass
weeds, cleavers, virus vectors and diseases may be used. Insecticides should
not be used after March 15. Headlands heavily infested with difficult weeds
such as barren brome or cleavers are not ideal starting points for the creation
of such habitats.
Where these species have become abundant in the hedge, it is best to create
a 1m wide strip between the crop and the boundary vegetation sown with a
fescue mixture. A selective grass weedkiller can then be used to prevent
ingress of the pernicious species into the crop.
Ploughing of headlands is recommended wherever possible, especially on
heavy soils and where black-grass and barren brome are problems. Care should
be taken not to turn the furrow on to the grassy strip (see Field margins below)
to avoid creating conditions that favour annual weeds.
2–3 years. Ploughing right up to this area, and spray and fertiliser drift into it,
must be avoided.
Full and detailed guidelines for the management of field margins, including
specific guidance on the management of difficult weed species are available
from the Game Conservancy Trust.
2.2 Uncropped Land
2.2.1 Hedges
Hedges provide shelter and nesting sites for a different group of birds. Berries
and fruits form one of the main food resources of hedges. They are normally
borne on second-year wood and so a farm hedge management plan is necessary
to schedule hedges on the farm to be trimmed on a rotational basis every
2–3 years, although it is useful to leave some areas uncut, particularly at
2.1.3 Field margins
hedge junctions. Cutting is best carried out in January or February. It should
For maximum benefits from conservation headlands, attention should also be
given to the adjacent field boundaries. Correct management of these areas will
provide nesting sites for birds as well as overwintering and breeding sites for
beneficial and other non-target arthropods. In addition it will prevent these
areas from becoming sources of pernicious weeds that will ultimately invade
the cropped area.
crop conditions prevent winter cutting then post-harvest, autumn cutting on
never be carried out in the bird nesting season from April to July. If soil and
a 2–3 year rotation should be adopted for those particular hedges.
The area under the hedge bottom is used by animals, game birds and other
ground-nesting birds, for example the yellowhammer, and for overwintering by
beneficial insects and spiders. Many species use field margins even where no
hedge is present. They should be at least 1m wide and preferably sited on a
bank. The vegetation should consist of perennial non-invasive grasses, ideally
including tussock-forming grasses such as cock’s-foot, and non-weedy
herbaceous species. If absolutely necessary, selective grass weedkillers may be
used to control invasive annuals such as brome and black-grass, but once the
perennials are established no further chemical treatment should be needed.
Dead grass should be allowed to build up to provide nesting material and
over winter cover for invertebrates, but the vegetation should be topped every
Hedgerow berries and fruits provide a much needed autumn/winter food resource for many species
of birds.
20
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
21
The aim should be to manage a variety of hedge types on the farm in terms
of size, shape and composition. Overgrown hedges should be coppiced and
the new growth trimmed or laid. Hedges should not be allowed to grow over
adjacent grassy strips at the field margin. However, where is it possible to do
so without creating a hazard, hedges running next to roads should be allowed
to grow higher in order to encourage birds to fly over traffic.
Finally new hedges can be planted with a diverse range of tree and shrub
species. Always choose native species that reflect the character of existing
hedges in your area.
2.2.2 Woodland
Hedges provide shelter and nesting sites for birds such as linnets and white-throats.
A code for hedge management
• Adopt a long-term policy with a regular maintenance programme. Trim
every 2-3 years.
• Cut hedges in the late winter after berries have been eaten – never in the
bird nesting season from April to July.
• Ensure that flail cutters are in good working order and used correctly.
Train your staff.
• On strong growth (greater than one inch diameter) use a saw or hand
tools – not a mechanical flail which lacerates stems allowing disease into
the living wood.
• When using a mechanical flail start at the top and work downwards so
that the trimmings are further cut and mulched.
• Coppice or lay overgrown hedges.
• Leave saplings wherever possible, especially at intersections and corners.
• Do not spray pesticides or spread fertilisers into hedge bottoms.
• Leave old trees including dying and dead trees where they are not a
hazard. Many animals use holes in trees for nesting, shelter and roosting
and the dead wood supports its own community of insects.
22
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Isolated trees, hedgerow trees, spinneys or larger areas of woodland are present
on most lowland farms. They are not only important wildlife habitats but they
shelter livestock, provide firewood and fencing materials and are the basis of
shooting coverts. Trees take a long time to grow, but can be quickly destroyed.
It is important to establish a long-term woodland management plan for the
farm, with particular attention to the management of any ancient woodland.
Open space within woodland, and even standing dead timber, are valuable
habitats for many forms of wildlife.
The first step is to make a survey of the existing woodland noting such things
as species, their age and condition, and the presence of woodland animals and
insects. Special requirements and uses need to be identified at this stage.
These might include livestock shelters, shooting cover, and screens for
buildings, or there might be commercial uses such as forestry or coppicing.
Opportunities to establish new areas of woodland should be sought with the
aim of creating a balanced mixture of young, middle-aged and older trees on
the farm. New woodland areas should not be sited on existing wildlife habitat
or where the landscape is traditionally open e.g. downland.
For wildlife management purposes it is better to grow native species of trees
and shrubs which usually support a greater diversity of wildlife. These include
oak, birch, hawthorn, blackthorn, willows, ash, cherry and a number of others;
local farm and forestry advisers can help with the appropriate selection. By
careful selection of species, several farm objectives, including wildlife
protection, can be achieved simultaneously in one small plantation.
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
23
The aim should be to manage a variety of hedge types on the farm in terms
of size, shape and composition. Overgrown hedges should be coppiced and
the new growth trimmed or laid. Hedges should not be allowed to grow over
adjacent grassy strips at the field margin. However, where is it possible to do
so without creating a hazard, hedges running next to roads should be allowed
to grow higher in order to encourage birds to fly over traffic.
Finally new hedges can be planted with a diverse range of tree and shrub
species. Always choose native species that reflect the character of existing
hedges in your area.
2.2.2 Woodland
Hedges provide shelter and nesting sites for birds such as linnets and white-throats.
A code for hedge management
• Adopt a long-term policy with a regular maintenance programme. Trim
every 2-3 years.
• Cut hedges in the late winter after berries have been eaten – never in the
bird nesting season from April to July.
• Ensure that flail cutters are in good working order and used correctly.
Train your staff.
• On strong growth (greater than one inch diameter) use a saw or hand
tools – not a mechanical flail which lacerates stems allowing disease into
the living wood.
• When using a mechanical flail start at the top and work downwards so
that the trimmings are further cut and mulched.
• Coppice or lay overgrown hedges.
• Leave saplings wherever possible, especially at intersections and corners.
• Do not spray pesticides or spread fertilisers into hedge bottoms.
• Leave old trees including dying and dead trees where they are not a
hazard. Many animals use holes in trees for nesting, shelter and roosting
and the dead wood supports its own community of insects.
22
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Isolated trees, hedgerow trees, spinneys or larger areas of woodland are present
on most lowland farms. They are not only important wildlife habitats but they
shelter livestock, provide firewood and fencing materials and are the basis of
shooting coverts. Trees take a long time to grow, but can be quickly destroyed.
It is important to establish a long-term woodland management plan for the
farm, with particular attention to the management of any ancient woodland.
Open space within woodland, and even standing dead timber, are valuable
habitats for many forms of wildlife.
The first step is to make a survey of the existing woodland noting such things
as species, their age and condition, and the presence of woodland animals and
insects. Special requirements and uses need to be identified at this stage.
These might include livestock shelters, shooting cover, and screens for
buildings, or there might be commercial uses such as forestry or coppicing.
Opportunities to establish new areas of woodland should be sought with the
aim of creating a balanced mixture of young, middle-aged and older trees on
the farm. New woodland areas should not be sited on existing wildlife habitat
or where the landscape is traditionally open e.g. downland.
For wildlife management purposes it is better to grow native species of trees
and shrubs which usually support a greater diversity of wildlife. These include
oak, birch, hawthorn, blackthorn, willows, ash, cherry and a number of others;
local farm and forestry advisers can help with the appropriate selection. By
careful selection of species, several farm objectives, including wildlife
protection, can be achieved simultaneously in one small plantation.
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
23
Uncultivated corners of the farm can often be a source of seedlings and
saplings which should be planted in the required location during the winter
months. Most young trees will need protection during establishment and some
form of vegetation control will be necessary for up to three years.
areas of woodland should be identified but it should also be remembered that
It is worth noting that land planted with trees under the Woodland Grant
Scheme which also attracts payments under the Farm Woodland Premium Scheme
can be counted as part of the set-aside requirement (see pp 27).
existing woodland, and replacing broad-leaved species with conifers should
Established woodland may be relatively recently established, or very old.
Ancient semi-natural woods are those on sites which have been continuously
wooded for hundreds of years. Ancient woods are a unique wildlife habitat and
historically irreplaceable. They can be identified by the presence of indicator
species such as wood sorrel, spindle trees, sessile oak, yellow archangel and
dog’s mercury.
especially at field corners, which, if properly designed and managed, can add
open space within woodland is valuable for wildlife. The aim should be to
create a mixture of young, middle aged and old trees on the farm at all
times – preferably within individual woods. Reducing or fragmenting
be avoided. Woodland must never be used for dumping waste or storage.
Most farms present the opportunity to create small areas of woody species,
valuable habitats for the whole range of farm wildlife.
2.2.3 Water
Watercourses passing through farmland are generally maintained to ensure
good drainage to prevent waterlogging and flooding. They receive run-off,
either via land drains, direct surface run-off or by erosion of soil particles.
Planting trees in field corners
Tree cover:
Oak, elm, alder,
poplar, willow, beech,
sycamore, conifers
Large Fields
In the corner of big fields try
a grass strip, shrub layer and
trees.
direct effect on the aquatic life, plant or animal, in the immediate vicinity but
water purposes can also be affected. Whilst groundwater is not a wildlife
habitat as such, it is nevertheless a resource that must be protected.
→
Southerly aspect
Adjoining Fields
The option
illustrated is useful
where adjoining field
corners are to be
planted; four such
corners planted
together would make
a sizeable spinney.
Management of woodland for the protection of wildlife and non-target
species requires a long-term plan. Ancient woodland needs particular care
and specialist advice should be sought. Opportunities for establishing new
24
pollutants from many different parts of the farm. These pollutants may have a
other downstream users like fisheries and abstractors for irrigation or drinking
Shrub layer:
Hawthorn, bramble, wild rose
Grass strip:
Low cut
3–4.5m width
They are therefore vulnerable because they can be the collecting point for
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Pond management
• Seek advice before undertaking significant work to restore an existing
pond.
• If overgrown, dredge out excess vegetation and create areas of greater
depth. Edges of the pond should be very gently shelving to create
marshy areas for wading birds to feed.
• Cut aggressive plants back regularly.
• Take advice on the introduction of new species. Do not introduce nonnative species into a wildlife pond and do not heavily stock with fish,
particularly carp which cloud the water as they feed.
• Do not use herbicides in or near the water unless absolutely necessary,
in which case take expert advice and use products approved for the job.
• Identify and remove any sources of pollution (e.g. farm effluent).
• Remove trees from the south side, leaving those on the north and west
margins and allow at least a 35˚ approach for wildfowl.
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
25
Uncultivated corners of the farm can often be a source of seedlings and
saplings which should be planted in the required location during the winter
months. Most young trees will need protection during establishment and some
form of vegetation control will be necessary for up to three years.
areas of woodland should be identified but it should also be remembered that
It is worth noting that land planted with trees under the Woodland Grant
Scheme which also attracts payments under the Farm Woodland Premium Scheme
can be counted as part of the set-aside requirement (see pp 27).
existing woodland, and replacing broad-leaved species with conifers should
Established woodland may be relatively recently established, or very old.
Ancient semi-natural woods are those on sites which have been continuously
wooded for hundreds of years. Ancient woods are a unique wildlife habitat and
historically irreplaceable. They can be identified by the presence of indicator
species such as wood sorrel, spindle trees, sessile oak, yellow archangel and
dog’s mercury.
especially at field corners, which, if properly designed and managed, can add
open space within woodland is valuable for wildlife. The aim should be to
create a mixture of young, middle aged and old trees on the farm at all
times – preferably within individual woods. Reducing or fragmenting
be avoided. Woodland must never be used for dumping waste or storage.
Most farms present the opportunity to create small areas of woody species,
valuable habitats for the whole range of farm wildlife.
2.2.3 Water
Watercourses passing through farmland are generally maintained to ensure
good drainage to prevent waterlogging and flooding. They receive run-off,
either via land drains, direct surface run-off or by erosion of soil particles.
Planting trees in field corners
Tree cover:
Oak, elm, alder,
poplar, willow, beech,
sycamore, conifers
Large Fields
In the corner of big fields try
a grass strip, shrub layer and
trees.
direct effect on the aquatic life, plant or animal, in the immediate vicinity but
water purposes can also be affected. Whilst groundwater is not a wildlife
habitat as such, it is nevertheless a resource that must be protected.
→
Southerly aspect
Adjoining Fields
The option
illustrated is useful
where adjoining field
corners are to be
planted; four such
corners planted
together would make
a sizeable spinney.
Management of woodland for the protection of wildlife and non-target
species requires a long-term plan. Ancient woodland needs particular care
and specialist advice should be sought. Opportunities for establishing new
24
pollutants from many different parts of the farm. These pollutants may have a
other downstream users like fisheries and abstractors for irrigation or drinking
Shrub layer:
Hawthorn, bramble, wild rose
Grass strip:
Low cut
3–4.5m width
They are therefore vulnerable because they can be the collecting point for
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Pond management
• Seek advice before undertaking significant work to restore an existing
pond.
• If overgrown, dredge out excess vegetation and create areas of greater
depth. Edges of the pond should be very gently shelving to create
marshy areas for wading birds to feed.
• Cut aggressive plants back regularly.
• Take advice on the introduction of new species. Do not introduce nonnative species into a wildlife pond and do not heavily stock with fish,
particularly carp which cloud the water as they feed.
• Do not use herbicides in or near the water unless absolutely necessary,
in which case take expert advice and use products approved for the job.
• Identify and remove any sources of pollution (e.g. farm effluent).
• Remove trees from the south side, leaving those on the north and west
margins and allow at least a 35˚ approach for wildfowl.
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
25
at least one metre wide should be left between the top of ditches and the crops
or any cultivated ground.
Ditches should be cleaned out regularly, but on a rotational basis. One bank
should be dealt with at a time, leaving the other untouched at least during that
season, and preferably permanently. The work should be done in the winter
months. Silt should never be dumped on naturally rich areas such as adjacent
unimproved vegetation.
Cut vegetation in the ditches and along their banks after the bird breeding
season of April to August.
Water should be protected by leaving a wide buffer strip (at least one metre) between the crop and
the ditch.
Many farms have wetland areas which are of great value to wildlife, but they
are also especially vulnerable to contamination. Fertiliser run-off can raise the
nutrient status of marshes, ponds and bogs resulting in the loss of their wildlife
species diversity. Wetlands should be carefully preserved and managed.
Pollution is the major threat to non-target species in and around water. One
careless act, possibly several hundred metres away from the nearest water, can
result in damage. Farm management must include detailed waste disposal and
pollution control plans so that the commonly occurring farm pollutants of
silage liquor, slurry, fertilisers and pesticides (including sprayer and glove
washings) are never allowed to reach watercourses.
Cross-section of typical aquatic vegetation
Emergent
Floating
Rooted in mud.
Submerged and
aerial form.
Arrow
Amphibious
Head
bistort.
Algae
Alder
Water
Mint
Duckweed
Algae
Reed
Yellow
Flag
Attached to stones,
submerged algae
e.g. Cladophora spp.
Rooted in mud.
Leaves are submerged.
Spiked water milfoil.
2.3 Set-aside
Set-aside is now, for most farmers, an integral part of the cropping plan.
Although the primary purpose of set-aside is to reduce agricultural
production, it presents farmers with a major opportunity to reduce inputs and
increase farm biodiversity. Evidence that set-aside can be managed
successfully for wildlife comes from the experimental Countryside Premium
Scheme in which farmers were given additional payments for managing setaside land in the original 1988 scheme, for environmental benefit. The overall
management aim should be to make best use of wildlife already present in, or
capable of reaching, the site.
should be restored, never filled in or drained, and stock access limited. An area
There are several different set-aside options and the rules now provide many
opportunities to create habitats for game and associated non-target species.
Details of the various schemes tend to vary from year to year and the rules
allow change from one option to another. For example selection of natural
regeneration cover in the first year of the Flexible Set-aside Scheme can then
be switched to the Wild Bird Cover option. Managing set-aside for wildlife and
non-target species involves planning and setting objectives in the same way as
26
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Management of watercourses on the farm must be planned and may need
professional advice. The first step is to survey the streams and ditches on the
farm. Provided that water can get away quickly, there is no reason why ditches
and watercourses cannot be managed to benefit wildlife. Neglected ponds
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
27
at least one metre wide should be left between the top of ditches and the crops
or any cultivated ground.
Ditches should be cleaned out regularly, but on a rotational basis. One bank
should be dealt with at a time, leaving the other untouched at least during that
season, and preferably permanently. The work should be done in the winter
months. Silt should never be dumped on naturally rich areas such as adjacent
unimproved vegetation.
Cut vegetation in the ditches and along their banks after the bird breeding
season of April to August.
Water should be protected by leaving a wide buffer strip (at least one metre) between the crop and
the ditch.
Many farms have wetland areas which are of great value to wildlife, but they
are also especially vulnerable to contamination. Fertiliser run-off can raise the
nutrient status of marshes, ponds and bogs resulting in the loss of their wildlife
species diversity. Wetlands should be carefully preserved and managed.
Pollution is the major threat to non-target species in and around water. One
careless act, possibly several hundred metres away from the nearest water, can
result in damage. Farm management must include detailed waste disposal and
pollution control plans so that the commonly occurring farm pollutants of
silage liquor, slurry, fertilisers and pesticides (including sprayer and glove
washings) are never allowed to reach watercourses.
Cross-section of typical aquatic vegetation
Emergent
Floating
Rooted in mud.
Submerged and
aerial form.
Arrow
Amphibious
Head
bistort.
Algae
Alder
Water
Mint
Duckweed
Algae
Reed
Yellow
Flag
Attached to stones,
submerged algae
e.g. Cladophora spp.
Rooted in mud.
Leaves are submerged.
Spiked water milfoil.
2.3 Set-aside
Set-aside is now, for most farmers, an integral part of the cropping plan.
Although the primary purpose of set-aside is to reduce agricultural
production, it presents farmers with a major opportunity to reduce inputs and
increase farm biodiversity. Evidence that set-aside can be managed
successfully for wildlife comes from the experimental Countryside Premium
Scheme in which farmers were given additional payments for managing setaside land in the original 1988 scheme, for environmental benefit. The overall
management aim should be to make best use of wildlife already present in, or
capable of reaching, the site.
should be restored, never filled in or drained, and stock access limited. An area
There are several different set-aside options and the rules now provide many
opportunities to create habitats for game and associated non-target species.
Details of the various schemes tend to vary from year to year and the rules
allow change from one option to another. For example selection of natural
regeneration cover in the first year of the Flexible Set-aside Scheme can then
be switched to the Wild Bird Cover option. Managing set-aside for wildlife and
non-target species involves planning and setting objectives in the same way as
26
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Management of watercourses on the farm must be planned and may need
professional advice. The first step is to survey the streams and ditches on the
farm. Provided that water can get away quickly, there is no reason why ditches
and watercourses cannot be managed to benefit wildlife. Neglected ponds
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
27
managing for agricultural production. The decision depends on the
opportunities present on the individual farm. For this reason it is only possible
to give general guidelines here.
In all cases the farmer should develop a whole farm plan for environmental
set-aside, ideally in consultation with a professional advisor, notably from
the local Farming and Wildlife Advisory Group. The fundamental decision
to be made is whether to opt for rotational or flexible set-aside. Both provide
opportunities for non-target species protection but flexible set-aside allows
for the provision of all types of habitats throughout the year.
... rotational set-aside
Rotational set-aside can be used to benefit seed-eating and insectivorous birds
by allowing natural regeneration without cutting. Some of the set-aside area
should be used as 20-metre wide strips around the boundary of fields adjacent
to wildlife habitats. After harvest, cereal stubbles should be left untreated
throughout the winter. This provides overwinter feeding and holding cover, a
chance for chick-food insects (e.g. sawflies) to emerge in spring and a broodrearing habitat for chicks. Insectivorous birds and birds of prey also benefit
from minimal cultivation of part of the field in early spring.
Consider using 20m set-aside strips in fields adjacent to good wildlife habitats.
Weed control is a problem that has to be managed in rotational set-aside
because the land returns to cropping at the end of the year. Specific rules
apply to the cutting and ploughing of rotational set-aside. Cutting and
ploughing as a means of weed control should be avoided because of the danger
to the nests and chicks of ground-nesting birds such as skylarks, and corn
28
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
buntings. The longer the land can be left undisturbed the better for all
non-target species.
Where chemical weed control becomes necessary to control the most invasive
weeds like black-grass, wild-oat or cleavers, a selective herbicide should be
used that will leave cereal volunteers and non-target broad-leaved plants
unaffected. If non-selective herbicides are chosen, they are best applied in
the first two weeks of June to control annual grasses and prevent shedding
of viable seed. Perennial grasses should be treated in late June/early July to
prepare land for entry into an arable crop. The creation of ‘brown cover’ from
both these applications is preferable to cutting and ploughing when this is
permissable under set-aside rules since cover and some food is still available
during the critical period for raising game and wild bird chicks.
... non-rotational set-aside
Non-rotational set-aside requires that the same land is kept in set-aside for
a number of years. Clearly this allows for the restoration of a greater variety
of habitats than is possible under rotational set-aside and so allows a better
build-up of natural species populations. The options are to allow natural
regeneration or to sow grass.
Naturally regenerated rotational set-aside is the better option on light or
shallow soils; fields with a long history of intensive management are best sown
with a slow-growing grass mixture to allow broad-leaved species to establish as
well.
The establishment of 20 metre strips around fields has the potential to benefit
the widest variety of wildlife on most farms but there are exceptions such as
rare arable weeds and birds which nest in the middle of fields. Advice should
be sought to check for such possibilities if long term decisions are being made
about the location of set-aside. Recent changes in the management rules which
ban any cutting or cultivation between 1 April and 15 July, and increase the
area that may be left uncut and the period it may remain uncut, have all
improved still further the benefits of non-rotational set-aside, especially for
ground-nesting birds.
As the land is not being returned for cropping in the short term, weed control
may be a less pressing problem than on rotational set-aside. Volunteer cereals
provide a good brood-rearing habitat in summer if left undisturbed, but must
be cut between 15 July and 15 August.
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
29
managing for agricultural production. The decision depends on the
opportunities present on the individual farm. For this reason it is only possible
to give general guidelines here.
In all cases the farmer should develop a whole farm plan for environmental
set-aside, ideally in consultation with a professional advisor, notably from
the local Farming and Wildlife Advisory Group. The fundamental decision
to be made is whether to opt for rotational or flexible set-aside. Both provide
opportunities for non-target species protection but flexible set-aside allows
for the provision of all types of habitats throughout the year.
... rotational set-aside
Rotational set-aside can be used to benefit seed-eating and insectivorous birds
by allowing natural regeneration without cutting. Some of the set-aside area
should be used as 20-metre wide strips around the boundary of fields adjacent
to wildlife habitats. After harvest, cereal stubbles should be left untreated
throughout the winter. This provides overwinter feeding and holding cover, a
chance for chick-food insects (e.g. sawflies) to emerge in spring and a broodrearing habitat for chicks. Insectivorous birds and birds of prey also benefit
from minimal cultivation of part of the field in early spring.
Consider using 20m set-aside strips in fields adjacent to good wildlife habitats.
Weed control is a problem that has to be managed in rotational set-aside
because the land returns to cropping at the end of the year. Specific rules
apply to the cutting and ploughing of rotational set-aside. Cutting and
ploughing as a means of weed control should be avoided because of the danger
to the nests and chicks of ground-nesting birds such as skylarks, and corn
28
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
buntings. The longer the land can be left undisturbed the better for all
non-target species.
Where chemical weed control becomes necessary to control the most invasive
weeds like black-grass, wild-oat or cleavers, a selective herbicide should be
used that will leave cereal volunteers and non-target broad-leaved plants
unaffected. If non-selective herbicides are chosen, they are best applied in
the first two weeks of June to control annual grasses and prevent shedding
of viable seed. Perennial grasses should be treated in late June/early July to
prepare land for entry into an arable crop. The creation of ‘brown cover’ from
both these applications is preferable to cutting and ploughing when this is
permissable under set-aside rules since cover and some food is still available
during the critical period for raising game and wild bird chicks.
... non-rotational set-aside
Non-rotational set-aside requires that the same land is kept in set-aside for
a number of years. Clearly this allows for the restoration of a greater variety
of habitats than is possible under rotational set-aside and so allows a better
build-up of natural species populations. The options are to allow natural
regeneration or to sow grass.
Naturally regenerated rotational set-aside is the better option on light or
shallow soils; fields with a long history of intensive management are best sown
with a slow-growing grass mixture to allow broad-leaved species to establish as
well.
The establishment of 20 metre strips around fields has the potential to benefit
the widest variety of wildlife on most farms but there are exceptions such as
rare arable weeds and birds which nest in the middle of fields. Advice should
be sought to check for such possibilities if long term decisions are being made
about the location of set-aside. Recent changes in the management rules which
ban any cutting or cultivation between 1 April and 15 July, and increase the
area that may be left uncut and the period it may remain uncut, have all
improved still further the benefits of non-rotational set-aside, especially for
ground-nesting birds.
As the land is not being returned for cropping in the short term, weed control
may be a less pressing problem than on rotational set-aside. Volunteer cereals
provide a good brood-rearing habitat in summer if left undisturbed, but must
be cut between 15 July and 15 August.
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
29
... wild bird cover
A G R I C U LT U R A L C H A N G E
Under this option, natural regeneration or sowing an unharvestable seeds
mixture containing at least two different crop groups (for example brassicas
and cereals) is allowed. It may also contain up to 5% by weight of legume
species. Ideally the mixture should be established in early spring after natural
regeneration over winter and left untouched for two years. This should provide
a mixed grass and broad-leaved flora in which bird species such as grey
partridge and corn buntings will thrive. The sown crop will also provide a food
source throughout the winter for seed-eating birds such as finches and buntings.
Hedgerow removal: between 1984
and 1990 52,200km of hedgerow
were removed in UK and only
26,400km planted.
‘New for old’ is not an ideal
management policy, but it is
better than nothing. Species
diversity in hedges takes years to
establish and it is better not to
remove them in the first place.
Hedges are an abundant source of
shelter and food and ideally a
mosaic of sizes and types should
be maintained and cut every 2–3
years on a rotational basis. Avoid
annual trimming, avoid spraying
the hedge bottom and avoid
ploughing too close to the base:
leave a grassy bank instead. Avoid
using a flail on growth greater
than an inch in diameter.
Use of broad-spectrum insecticides.
Remember that treatment for a
pest species with a broad-spectrum
product has the potential to
endanger other insects which may
be important food for birds and
other wildlife. Use narrow-spectrum
products if possible, especially in
summer. Spray early morning or
evening, avoid drift into hedgerows
and warn local beekeepers.
Increasing use of fertilisers.
Remember that the most invasive
weeds benefit as much as the crop
from fertiliser application. But,
if it ends up in watercourses you
lose money and the aquatic wildlife
suffers. Match fertiliser use to need
and apply it carefully – never into
the hedge bottom. Fertiliser applied
to hedge bottoms wastes money and
can create weed problems.
... advice on set-aside
Detailed guidance on the management of set-aside land for wildlife protection
can be obtained from a variety of sources. Publications from the Game
Conservancy Trust, the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology (ITE) and the Royal
Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) are particularly useful. MAFF has
also published a document ‘How to manage your set-aside land for specific
environmental objectives – December 1996’. See Section 5.
2.4 Summary
The majority of the advice given in this section has been concerned with the
integration into modern farming systems of practices and techniques that, in
some measure, restore the natural and semi-natural habitats that were once
commonplace on our farms.
In the following table, some of the main changes which have occurred in
agriculture over the past 50 years and which have contributed to the decline
of non-target species are listed. Opposite each is a brief reference to the
measures described in more detail elsewhere in this section.
A G R I C U LT U R A L C H A N G E
M ANAGEMENT GUID ELINE
Changed timing of tillage
associated with the switch to winter
cropping, with the result that much
less ground is cultivated in spring.
All the comments about stubble on
pp 34 apply, and remember that
lapwings prefer open ground and
bare soil to hunt for their favoured
food (earthworms). Use rotovated
areas in set-aside to provide this
(MAFF derogation needed).
30
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
MANAG EMENT G UIDELINE
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
31
... wild bird cover
A G R I C U LT U R A L C H A N G E
Under this option, natural regeneration or sowing an unharvestable seeds
mixture containing at least two different crop groups (for example brassicas
and cereals) is allowed. It may also contain up to 5% by weight of legume
species. Ideally the mixture should be established in early spring after natural
regeneration over winter and left untouched for two years. This should provide
a mixed grass and broad-leaved flora in which bird species such as grey
partridge and corn buntings will thrive. The sown crop will also provide a food
source throughout the winter for seed-eating birds such as finches and buntings.
Hedgerow removal: between 1984
and 1990 52,200km of hedgerow
were removed in UK and only
26,400km planted.
‘New for old’ is not an ideal
management policy, but it is
better than nothing. Species
diversity in hedges takes years to
establish and it is better not to
remove them in the first place.
Hedges are an abundant source of
shelter and food and ideally a
mosaic of sizes and types should
be maintained and cut every 2–3
years on a rotational basis. Avoid
annual trimming, avoid spraying
the hedge bottom and avoid
ploughing too close to the base:
leave a grassy bank instead. Avoid
using a flail on growth greater
than an inch in diameter.
Use of broad-spectrum insecticides.
Remember that treatment for a
pest species with a broad-spectrum
product has the potential to
endanger other insects which may
be important food for birds and
other wildlife. Use narrow-spectrum
products if possible, especially in
summer. Spray early morning or
evening, avoid drift into hedgerows
and warn local beekeepers.
Increasing use of fertilisers.
Remember that the most invasive
weeds benefit as much as the crop
from fertiliser application. But,
if it ends up in watercourses you
lose money and the aquatic wildlife
suffers. Match fertiliser use to need
and apply it carefully – never into
the hedge bottom. Fertiliser applied
to hedge bottoms wastes money and
can create weed problems.
... advice on set-aside
Detailed guidance on the management of set-aside land for wildlife protection
can be obtained from a variety of sources. Publications from the Game
Conservancy Trust, the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology (ITE) and the Royal
Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) are particularly useful. MAFF has
also published a document ‘How to manage your set-aside land for specific
environmental objectives – December 1996’. See Section 5.
2.4 Summary
The majority of the advice given in this section has been concerned with the
integration into modern farming systems of practices and techniques that, in
some measure, restore the natural and semi-natural habitats that were once
commonplace on our farms.
In the following table, some of the main changes which have occurred in
agriculture over the past 50 years and which have contributed to the decline
of non-target species are listed. Opposite each is a brief reference to the
measures described in more detail elsewhere in this section.
A G R I C U LT U R A L C H A N G E
M ANAGEMENT GUID ELINE
Changed timing of tillage
associated with the switch to winter
cropping, with the result that much
less ground is cultivated in spring.
All the comments about stubble on
pp 34 apply, and remember that
lapwings prefer open ground and
bare soil to hunt for their favoured
food (earthworms). Use rotovated
areas in set-aside to provide this
(MAFF derogation needed).
30
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
MANAG EMENT G UIDELINE
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
31
AG R I C U LT U RA L C H A N G E
M ANAGEMENT GUID ELINE
A G R I C U LT U R A L C H A N G E
Increased stocking rates on
livestock farms made possible
by more intensive grassland
management, use of fertilisers
and herbicides.
Livestock trample ground
indiscriminately and endanger
ground-nesting birds. At two cows
per hectare, lapwings will lose about
40% of their nesting sites to
trampling. If ground-nesting species
are present, find out their breeding
season and, if possible, delay the
introduction of livestock, or at least
reduce stocking levels.
Loss of wetlands.
A switch from hay to silage
production.
Remember that silage cutting, which
may happen every 4–5 weeks in
some seasons, not only destroys nests
of birds like skylarks, but also
prevents broad-leaved plants from
flowering and setting seed. Wherever
possible delay the first cut and leave
at least 6 weeks between cuts. Cut
fields from the middle outwards.
Enlarging fields, removal of scrub,
removal of woodland, general
‘tidying up’ especially around
buildings.
32
The benefits and common sense of
good housekeeping round the farm
are not in question. However, avoid
creating a completely ‘sterile’
environment of bricks, concrete and
metalled farm roads. Comments
below about wetlands and above
about hedges all apply. Create beetle
banks to encourage insects and birds
into large fields; leave odd corners of
unimproved pasture or scrub;
manage woodland sensitively and
never use it for dumping or storage;
remember that farm buildings not
only have an intrinsic interest
themselves, but they also house barn
owls, swallows and other wildlife:
allow access or install nesting boxes.
Look for opportunities to scatter
tailings and sweepings in a field to
provide winter food for finches and
buntings rather than burn it.
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Loss of flood meadows through
drainage.
MANAG EMENT G UIDELINE
Areas which remain on the farm
with poor field drainage or flood
frequently from watercourses have
the potential for the rehabilitation
of their wetland nature. Seek advice
on how water can be retained and
managed on such sites to form
wetlands rather than look upon
them as areas to dig out as ponds.
Loss of ponds through in-filling or
long term neglect.
Restore existing ponds in-situ
through removal of accumulated
silt, disposing of the material on an
area of low wildlife value. Increase
the value of existing ponds through
a management programme.
Loss of riverside habitat through
straightening and dredging.
Manage the banks of watercourses
through a programme of cutting in
alternate years and where annual
cutting is necessary do not do so in
the bird breeding season. Leave a
grass margin between the crop and
the watercourse.
Loss of natural and semi-natural
pasture in the switch away from
mixed to arable farming. Also the
gradual reduction in the amount of
‘non-productive’ land on the farm.
Retain, or create, as wide a range
of cropping and habitats as
practicable, including some
unimproved pasture. Use of setaside is an ideal opportunity but
much can also be done by
considering the pattern of cropping
on the farm to create a mosaic rather
than huge blocks of a single crop.
Maximise the habitat value offered
at the edges of fields by sensitive
management of hedges and ditches
and creation of additional habitat at
the field edge through grass margins
and conservation headlands.
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
33
AG R I C U LT U RA L C H A N G E
M ANAGEMENT GUID ELINE
A G R I C U LT U R A L C H A N G E
Increased stocking rates on
livestock farms made possible
by more intensive grassland
management, use of fertilisers
and herbicides.
Livestock trample ground
indiscriminately and endanger
ground-nesting birds. At two cows
per hectare, lapwings will lose about
40% of their nesting sites to
trampling. If ground-nesting species
are present, find out their breeding
season and, if possible, delay the
introduction of livestock, or at least
reduce stocking levels.
Loss of wetlands.
A switch from hay to silage
production.
Remember that silage cutting, which
may happen every 4–5 weeks in
some seasons, not only destroys nests
of birds like skylarks, but also
prevents broad-leaved plants from
flowering and setting seed. Wherever
possible delay the first cut and leave
at least 6 weeks between cuts. Cut
fields from the middle outwards.
Enlarging fields, removal of scrub,
removal of woodland, general
‘tidying up’ especially around
buildings.
32
The benefits and common sense of
good housekeeping round the farm
are not in question. However, avoid
creating a completely ‘sterile’
environment of bricks, concrete and
metalled farm roads. Comments
below about wetlands and above
about hedges all apply. Create beetle
banks to encourage insects and birds
into large fields; leave odd corners of
unimproved pasture or scrub;
manage woodland sensitively and
never use it for dumping or storage;
remember that farm buildings not
only have an intrinsic interest
themselves, but they also house barn
owls, swallows and other wildlife:
allow access or install nesting boxes.
Look for opportunities to scatter
tailings and sweepings in a field to
provide winter food for finches and
buntings rather than burn it.
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Loss of flood meadows through
drainage.
MANAG EMENT G UIDELINE
Areas which remain on the farm
with poor field drainage or flood
frequently from watercourses have
the potential for the rehabilitation
of their wetland nature. Seek advice
on how water can be retained and
managed on such sites to form
wetlands rather than look upon
them as areas to dig out as ponds.
Loss of ponds through in-filling or
long term neglect.
Restore existing ponds in-situ
through removal of accumulated
silt, disposing of the material on an
area of low wildlife value. Increase
the value of existing ponds through
a management programme.
Loss of riverside habitat through
straightening and dredging.
Manage the banks of watercourses
through a programme of cutting in
alternate years and where annual
cutting is necessary do not do so in
the bird breeding season. Leave a
grass margin between the crop and
the watercourse.
Loss of natural and semi-natural
pasture in the switch away from
mixed to arable farming. Also the
gradual reduction in the amount of
‘non-productive’ land on the farm.
Retain, or create, as wide a range
of cropping and habitats as
practicable, including some
unimproved pasture. Use of setaside is an ideal opportunity but
much can also be done by
considering the pattern of cropping
on the farm to create a mosaic rather
than huge blocks of a single crop.
Maximise the habitat value offered
at the edges of fields by sensitive
management of hedges and ditches
and creation of additional habitat at
the field edge through grass margins
and conservation headlands.
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
33
A G R I C U LT U R A L C H A N G E
Increasing use of herbicides that
have become progressively more
efficient and formulated or used
in mixtures to control an everwidening spectrum of species.
The changed balance of barley to
wheat and the switch from spring
to winter cropping.
M ANAGEMENT GUID ELINE
Resist the temptation to create
crops that are ‘squeaky clean’.
Be aware what the really damaging
species are, assess whether they are
present in damaging numbers and
select a herbicide accordingly.
Apply it carefully – never into the
hedge – and integrate measures to
create flower-rich field margins.
Remember that plants and their
seeds provide vital food for birds
and many other creatures.
Remember that autumn sowing
results in less stubble being left
in the winter. Combine fields from
the middle outwards. Try to leave
at least some stubbles untouched
through the winter and adopt
practices to encourage broadleaved species in them. Consider
the opportunities to use spring
crops within the rotation. Use
rotational set-aside with natural
regeneration to mimic an
overwinter stubble with the added
benefit of providing habitat
through spring and early summer.
2.5 Conclusion
These guidelines are not a prescription to ‘turn the clock back’. Farming must
remain a thriving and profitable industry by adopting modern technologies to
ensure a continuing supply of wholesome affordable food. But farmers are
often described as ‘custodians of the environment’. These guidelines describe
relatively low cost practices that can be integrated into a modern farming
business to help meet that responsibility.
34
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
3
Wildlife
Protection
Calendar
By season and by crop
A G R I C U LT U R A L C H A N G E
Increasing use of herbicides that
have become progressively more
efficient and formulated or used
in mixtures to control an everwidening spectrum of species.
The changed balance of barley to
wheat and the switch from spring
to winter cropping.
M ANAGEMENT GUID ELINE
Resist the temptation to create
crops that are ‘squeaky clean’.
Be aware what the really damaging
species are, assess whether they are
present in damaging numbers and
select a herbicide accordingly.
Apply it carefully – never into the
hedge – and integrate measures to
create flower-rich field margins.
Remember that plants and their
seeds provide vital food for birds
and many other creatures.
Remember that autumn sowing
results in less stubble being left
in the winter. Combine fields from
the middle outwards. Try to leave
at least some stubbles untouched
through the winter and adopt
practices to encourage broadleaved species in them. Consider
the opportunities to use spring
crops within the rotation. Use
rotational set-aside with natural
regeneration to mimic an
overwinter stubble with the added
benefit of providing habitat
through spring and early summer.
2.5 Conclusion
These guidelines are not a prescription to ‘turn the clock back’. Farming must
remain a thriving and profitable industry by adopting modern technologies to
ensure a continuing supply of wholesome affordable food. But farmers are
often described as ‘custodians of the environment’. These guidelines describe
relatively low cost practices that can be integrated into a modern farming
business to help meet that responsibility.
34
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
3
Wildlife
Protection
Calendar
By season and by crop
Contents
SPRING
Crop(s)
Cereals, peas, beans
Spring
Summer
Autumn
Winter
37
41
44
47
Root crops
(e.g. potatoes, sugar beet, onions)
38
41
44
47
Oilseed rape/linseed
38
42
45
47
Grass
39
42
45
48
Set-aside (rotational)
39
43
46
48
Cereals,
peas,
beans
Include spring-sown crops.
To provide a foraging and nesting habitat for species like
skylark, lapwing and stone curlew.
Set-aside (non-rotational)
39
43
46
–
Delay harrowing until March but do not leave later
since this will mean that mechanical operations are
carried out in fields where birds may be nesting. Do not
cultivate too close to the base of hedgerows.
Non-cropped land
40
42
45
48
To leave food sources available until spring growth starts.
39–40
43
46
48
General points
Watch out for nests when drilling, harrowing, rolling.
Practical Actions
To protect ground-nesting birds.
To produce the food we need, large areas of arable land are occupied by our
major crops.
Mark lapwing nests with canes/piles of stones 10–15m
from nests.
Area grown in 000’s hectares in the UK – 1995/1996
Winter wheat
and winter barley
Spring barley
Oats
Winter oilseed rape
Spring oilseed rape
2,725
518
96
302
54
Sugar beet
Potatoes
Peas
Beans
Managed grass
Rough grazing
199
156
104
100
6,665
5,726
Source: MAFF Census Data
The crops sown in the autumn, such as winter cereals or oilseed rape, will
need attention throughout the growing season until harvest. Other crops, such
as spring barley, potatoes and sugar beet, are only planted in the spring and
the land can be left cultivated or uncultivated through the autumn and winter.
All situations offer the farmer the chance to protect and benefit wildlife
throughout the year.
This section looks at the major crops together with the four main periods of
the farming year and proposes practical actions that farmers can consider as
part of their integrated crop management programme. The text in italics gives
the purpose of the advice.
36
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Protection of lapwings.
Cultivate over-wintered stubbles, but not too early.
To increase availability of invertebrates at a critical time.
It also benefits some rare arable plant species.
Use insecticides on conservation headlands (but only if
absolutely necessary) before 15 March.
Assess weed infestations and select products for the key
yield-reducing species rather than total control.
Non-competitive weeds house beneficial insects and provide
a food source.
Spray and apply fertilisers with care; avoid drift into
hedges, ditches and field margins, and use the correct
equipment. Wait until wind is blowing away from any
adjacent sensitive habitats.
Good agricultural practice, economy, protection of all species
living at or near the field margin.
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
37
Contents
SPRING
Crop(s)
Cereals, peas, beans
Spring
Summer
Autumn
Winter
37
41
44
47
Root crops
(e.g. potatoes, sugar beet, onions)
38
41
44
47
Oilseed rape/linseed
38
42
45
47
Grass
39
42
45
48
Set-aside (rotational)
39
43
46
48
Cereals,
peas,
beans
Include spring-sown crops.
To provide a foraging and nesting habitat for species like
skylark, lapwing and stone curlew.
Set-aside (non-rotational)
39
43
46
–
Delay harrowing until March but do not leave later
since this will mean that mechanical operations are
carried out in fields where birds may be nesting. Do not
cultivate too close to the base of hedgerows.
Non-cropped land
40
42
45
48
To leave food sources available until spring growth starts.
39–40
43
46
48
General points
Watch out for nests when drilling, harrowing, rolling.
Practical Actions
To protect ground-nesting birds.
To produce the food we need, large areas of arable land are occupied by our
major crops.
Mark lapwing nests with canes/piles of stones 10–15m
from nests.
Area grown in 000’s hectares in the UK – 1995/1996
Winter wheat
and winter barley
Spring barley
Oats
Winter oilseed rape
Spring oilseed rape
2,725
518
96
302
54
Sugar beet
Potatoes
Peas
Beans
Managed grass
Rough grazing
199
156
104
100
6,665
5,726
Source: MAFF Census Data
The crops sown in the autumn, such as winter cereals or oilseed rape, will
need attention throughout the growing season until harvest. Other crops, such
as spring barley, potatoes and sugar beet, are only planted in the spring and
the land can be left cultivated or uncultivated through the autumn and winter.
All situations offer the farmer the chance to protect and benefit wildlife
throughout the year.
This section looks at the major crops together with the four main periods of
the farming year and proposes practical actions that farmers can consider as
part of their integrated crop management programme. The text in italics gives
the purpose of the advice.
36
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Protection of lapwings.
Cultivate over-wintered stubbles, but not too early.
To increase availability of invertebrates at a critical time.
It also benefits some rare arable plant species.
Use insecticides on conservation headlands (but only if
absolutely necessary) before 15 March.
Assess weed infestations and select products for the key
yield-reducing species rather than total control.
Non-competitive weeds house beneficial insects and provide
a food source.
Spray and apply fertilisers with care; avoid drift into
hedges, ditches and field margins, and use the correct
equipment. Wait until wind is blowing away from any
adjacent sensitive habitats.
Good agricultural practice, economy, protection of all species
living at or near the field margin.
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
37
SPRING
Root crops
(e.g.
potatoes,
sugar beet,
onions)
Monitor soil pest infestations and consider seed
dressings in preference to spray treatments. If granular
insecticides are necessary for eelworm control, use them
carefully and correctly. Do not leave granules on soil
surface.
SPRING
Grass
Undersow spring cereals with clover or grass/clover
mixture.
To encourage insects, especially sawflies, a particularly
valuable part of the diet of grey partridge chicks.
Reduce exposure of soil living species to non-selective
insecticides. Protection of birds and other species that might
take granules left on soil surface.
If permanent pasture must be ploughed, do so in spring
and re-seed as quickly as possible.
Watch out for nests when tractor hoeing sugar beet.
To maintain a continuous breeding site for beneficial and
food-source arthropods.
Protection of ground nesting birds.
Spray and apply fertilisers with care; avoid drift into
hedges, ditches and field margins, and use the correct
equipment. Wait until wind is blowing away from any
adjacent sensitive habitats.
Set-aside
(rotational)
Drill linseed dressed for flax flea beetle control rather
than apply a blanket spray.
Reduce exposure of arthropods living in the crop to
insecticide.
Aim to control only the yield threatening weeds
(cleavers, chickweed, mayweed).
To leave non-damaging plant species as sources of food and
shelter for birds and insects.
Consider herbicide tolerant cops when available.
To delay weed control measures, leaving wildlife food sources
for longer.
Drill crops 1.5m away from headland.
When they become tall, they lean, shading out grass strips;
ensures spraying/desiccation is well away from hedge.
38
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Lightly cultivate/rotovate areas of rotational set-aside
in February.
To provide nesting sites for lapwings [MAFF permission
required]. Similar permission is required for ploughing in
Jan-Feb to aid stone curlew.
Good agricultural practice, economy, protection of all species
living at, or near, the field margin.
Oilseed
rape/
linseed
Sow Wild Bird Cover crops.
Set-aside
(nonrotational)
Sow Wild Bird Cover crops.
General
Always explore the alternatives to chemical pest control
and seek to combine chemical with cultural control
methods.
Where a choice exists, choose the product that will have
least indirect effect on wildlife and their habitat.
Check calibration of spraying machinery before use.
Check that all off-field operations of spray handling,
filling, washing out and container disposal are done
with care and responsibility.
Reduce fertiliser applications on headlands to reduce
encroachment of aggressive weed species (e.g. barren
brome, cleavers).
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
39
SPRING
Root crops
(e.g.
potatoes,
sugar beet,
onions)
Monitor soil pest infestations and consider seed
dressings in preference to spray treatments. If granular
insecticides are necessary for eelworm control, use them
carefully and correctly. Do not leave granules on soil
surface.
SPRING
Grass
Undersow spring cereals with clover or grass/clover
mixture.
To encourage insects, especially sawflies, a particularly
valuable part of the diet of grey partridge chicks.
Reduce exposure of soil living species to non-selective
insecticides. Protection of birds and other species that might
take granules left on soil surface.
If permanent pasture must be ploughed, do so in spring
and re-seed as quickly as possible.
Watch out for nests when tractor hoeing sugar beet.
To maintain a continuous breeding site for beneficial and
food-source arthropods.
Protection of ground nesting birds.
Spray and apply fertilisers with care; avoid drift into
hedges, ditches and field margins, and use the correct
equipment. Wait until wind is blowing away from any
adjacent sensitive habitats.
Set-aside
(rotational)
Drill linseed dressed for flax flea beetle control rather
than apply a blanket spray.
Reduce exposure of arthropods living in the crop to
insecticide.
Aim to control only the yield threatening weeds
(cleavers, chickweed, mayweed).
To leave non-damaging plant species as sources of food and
shelter for birds and insects.
Consider herbicide tolerant cops when available.
To delay weed control measures, leaving wildlife food sources
for longer.
Drill crops 1.5m away from headland.
When they become tall, they lean, shading out grass strips;
ensures spraying/desiccation is well away from hedge.
38
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Lightly cultivate/rotovate areas of rotational set-aside
in February.
To provide nesting sites for lapwings [MAFF permission
required]. Similar permission is required for ploughing in
Jan-Feb to aid stone curlew.
Good agricultural practice, economy, protection of all species
living at, or near, the field margin.
Oilseed
rape/
linseed
Sow Wild Bird Cover crops.
Set-aside
(nonrotational)
Sow Wild Bird Cover crops.
General
Always explore the alternatives to chemical pest control
and seek to combine chemical with cultural control
methods.
Where a choice exists, choose the product that will have
least indirect effect on wildlife and their habitat.
Check calibration of spraying machinery before use.
Check that all off-field operations of spray handling,
filling, washing out and container disposal are done
with care and responsibility.
Reduce fertiliser applications on headlands to reduce
encroachment of aggressive weed species (e.g. barren
brome, cleavers).
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
39
SPRING
General
Avoid fertiliser or pesticide applications to frozen
ground.
Regularly monitor all crops to avoid having to use
last-minute, high-dose, panic pest control measures.
Noncropped
land
SUMMER
Cereals,
peas,
beans
Give preference to narrow-spectrum insecticides and
avoid spraying headlands if possible.
To protect predatory arthropods and supplies of bird food.
Spray only when damage thresholds exceeded, not for
insurance.
To avoid unnecessary risk to beneficial arthropods and to save
money. Insects are a key component of the food of the chicks
of many farmland birds.
Remember that non-cropped land represents the richest
wildlife haven on any farm, and spring is usually the
period of greatest activity for all non-target species. In
general, the guidance at this time of year is to keep off
and leave it alone.
Warn local beekeepers if necessary.
Protection of honeybees.
Root crops
(e.g.
potatoes,
sugar beet,
onions)
Conduct aphid monitoring and trapping.
To determine infestation levels and ensure that any spray
treatments are correctly timed.
Give preference to narrow-spectrum insecticides and
avoid spraying headlands if possible.
To protect predatory insects and supplies of bird food.
Spray only when damage thresholds exceeded, not for
insurance.
To avoid unnecessary risk to beneficial arthropods and to save
money.
If spraying near water courses is necessary, choose
product with care.
Protection of water quality and aquatic life.
Use automatic weather stations to predict blight
conditions in potatoes.
To avoid unnecessary sprays and to ensure correct timing of
those that are applied.
Conduct slug monitoring and trapping.
To eliminate unnecessary slug treatments.
40
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
41
SPRING
General
Avoid fertiliser or pesticide applications to frozen
ground.
Regularly monitor all crops to avoid having to use
last-minute, high-dose, panic pest control measures.
Noncropped
land
SUMMER
Cereals,
peas,
beans
Give preference to narrow-spectrum insecticides and
avoid spraying headlands if possible.
To protect predatory arthropods and supplies of bird food.
Spray only when damage thresholds exceeded, not for
insurance.
To avoid unnecessary risk to beneficial arthropods and to save
money. Insects are a key component of the food of the chicks
of many farmland birds.
Remember that non-cropped land represents the richest
wildlife haven on any farm, and spring is usually the
period of greatest activity for all non-target species. In
general, the guidance at this time of year is to keep off
and leave it alone.
Warn local beekeepers if necessary.
Protection of honeybees.
Root crops
(e.g.
potatoes,
sugar beet,
onions)
Conduct aphid monitoring and trapping.
To determine infestation levels and ensure that any spray
treatments are correctly timed.
Give preference to narrow-spectrum insecticides and
avoid spraying headlands if possible.
To protect predatory insects and supplies of bird food.
Spray only when damage thresholds exceeded, not for
insurance.
To avoid unnecessary risk to beneficial arthropods and to save
money.
If spraying near water courses is necessary, choose
product with care.
Protection of water quality and aquatic life.
Use automatic weather stations to predict blight
conditions in potatoes.
To avoid unnecessary sprays and to ensure correct timing of
those that are applied.
Conduct slug monitoring and trapping.
To eliminate unnecessary slug treatments.
40
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
41
SUMMER
Oilseed
rape/
linseed
Treat for pollen beetle and/or seed weevil only if
thresholds exceeded.
Reduce exposure of insects living in the crop to insecticide.
SUMMER
Set-aside
(rotational)
To help ground-nesting birds and their chicks.
Give preference to narrow-spectrum insecticides and
avoid spraying headlands if possible.
To protect predatory insects and supplies of bird food.
Avoid totally cutting the vegetation during the nesting
season up to the time of ploughing, spot-treat with
selective weedkillers instead.
To avoid destroying birds nests, eggs and young.
Take particular care when treating crops in flower; follow
the label directions. Warn local beekeepers if necessary.
Protection of honeybees.
If weed control necessary, consider use of selective grass
weedkillers. If possible, delay any herbicide application
to June.
To maximise time for wildlife to breed.
[If herbicides have been used, cutting not permitted
before 1 July.]
Desiccate rather than swath oilseed rape.
Protection of ground-nesting birds, e.g. the reed bunting, by
providing a further short period of undisturbed cover.
Noncropped
land
Cut flower-rich margins in late summer (August) or early
autumn, every 2-3 years.
To create a thick sward to benefit insects, plants, birds and
mammals.
Remember that non-cropped land represents the richest
wildlife haven on any farm; and summer is also a period
of great activity for all non-target species. In general, the
guidance at this time of year is to keep off and leave it
alone.
Grass
Leave some grass unmown until after July.
Protection of corn buntings.
42
Set-aside
(nonrotational)
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Cut non-rotational set-aside between 15 Jul and 15 Aug.
Consider cutting irregular patterns.
To provide a range of tall and short vegetation throughout the
area to encourage a diversity of insect and vertebrate species.
25% of each set-aside field may be left uncut for 3 years.
To help over-wintering birds and invertebrates.
Up to an additional 10% can be left uncut for the
duration of the scheme if placed around the boundary
and no more than 2m wide.
To allow the hedge to thicken out.
Delay first cuts for silage or hay: leave 6 weeks between
cuts. Cut fields from the centre.
To protect ground nesting birds, and to allow wildlife escape
when cutting occurs.
Restrict grazing after a hay cut to a limited period.
Keep numbers of stock to a minimum and preferably
do not put cattle out until after the end of the bird
breeding season.
Prevention of nest destruction by trampling.
Plough, spray and /or cut rotational set-aside as late as
possible and set mower high. (Cutting not permitted
before 1 July, but delay until 15 July if possible).
General
Continue crop monitoring to check for pest re-invasion.
Keep farm traffic to defined tracks and roads.
Ensure that sprayer can be correctly set up for specialist
tasks like insecticide applications in tall crops, or blight
spraying to achieve good foliar cover.
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
43
SUMMER
Oilseed
rape/
linseed
Treat for pollen beetle and/or seed weevil only if
thresholds exceeded.
Reduce exposure of insects living in the crop to insecticide.
SUMMER
Set-aside
(rotational)
To help ground-nesting birds and their chicks.
Give preference to narrow-spectrum insecticides and
avoid spraying headlands if possible.
To protect predatory insects and supplies of bird food.
Avoid totally cutting the vegetation during the nesting
season up to the time of ploughing, spot-treat with
selective weedkillers instead.
To avoid destroying birds nests, eggs and young.
Take particular care when treating crops in flower; follow
the label directions. Warn local beekeepers if necessary.
Protection of honeybees.
If weed control necessary, consider use of selective grass
weedkillers. If possible, delay any herbicide application
to June.
To maximise time for wildlife to breed.
[If herbicides have been used, cutting not permitted
before 1 July.]
Desiccate rather than swath oilseed rape.
Protection of ground-nesting birds, e.g. the reed bunting, by
providing a further short period of undisturbed cover.
Noncropped
land
Cut flower-rich margins in late summer (August) or early
autumn, every 2-3 years.
To create a thick sward to benefit insects, plants, birds and
mammals.
Remember that non-cropped land represents the richest
wildlife haven on any farm; and summer is also a period
of great activity for all non-target species. In general, the
guidance at this time of year is to keep off and leave it
alone.
Grass
Leave some grass unmown until after July.
Protection of corn buntings.
42
Set-aside
(nonrotational)
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Cut non-rotational set-aside between 15 Jul and 15 Aug.
Consider cutting irregular patterns.
To provide a range of tall and short vegetation throughout the
area to encourage a diversity of insect and vertebrate species.
25% of each set-aside field may be left uncut for 3 years.
To help over-wintering birds and invertebrates.
Up to an additional 10% can be left uncut for the
duration of the scheme if placed around the boundary
and no more than 2m wide.
To allow the hedge to thicken out.
Delay first cuts for silage or hay: leave 6 weeks between
cuts. Cut fields from the centre.
To protect ground nesting birds, and to allow wildlife escape
when cutting occurs.
Restrict grazing after a hay cut to a limited period.
Keep numbers of stock to a minimum and preferably
do not put cattle out until after the end of the bird
breeding season.
Prevention of nest destruction by trampling.
Plough, spray and /or cut rotational set-aside as late as
possible and set mower high. (Cutting not permitted
before 1 July, but delay until 15 July if possible).
General
Continue crop monitoring to check for pest re-invasion.
Keep farm traffic to defined tracks and roads.
Ensure that sprayer can be correctly set up for specialist
tasks like insecticide applications in tall crops, or blight
spraying to achieve good foliar cover.
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
43
AUTUMN
Cereals,
peas,
beans
Combine crops in blocks, starting from the centre.
To allow wildlife escape.
AUTUMN
Oilseed
rape/
linseed
Leave stubbles – avoid use of herbicides, but if necessary
spot-spray or use selective grass weedkillers.
Shallow-cultivate rape stubble and leave to green up.
To provide shelter and food before drilling winter wheat.
Minimum-cultivate rather than plough before drilling.
To conserve soil moisture and protect earthworms and other
invertebrates.
To provide food and shelter for birds and mammals.
Ensure firm fine seedbed.
Establish beetle banks during autumn cultivations for
winter cereals.
Reducing need for chemical control of slugs and exposing
other soil-living species.
To facilitate predatory control of aphids, especially in large
fields, and to create a nesting habitat for birds.
Assess need for slug control, choose product for
minimum wildlife impact and apply carefully (ideally
admixed with seed at drilling).
Plan conservation headlands for the following season.
Consider minimal cultivations when establishing winter
cereals.
Drill crops 1.5m away from headland.
When they become tall, they lean, shading out grass strips;
ensures spraying/desiccation is well away from hedge.
To reduce need for insecticides to control BYDV.
Avoid applications of nitrogen fertiliser.
Protection of water and benefit to aquatic life.
Reduce threat of slugs by creating firm seed beds and
drilling cereals a little deeper.
Noncropped
land
Reducing need for chemical control and exposing other soilliving species.
Root crops
(e.g.
potatoes,
sugar beet,
onions)
Ensure that any potato haulm desiccation with acid is
conducted by a certified contractor.
Legal requirement, and ensures adoption of correct practices
to protect environment.
44
Cut river, stream and ditch banks rotationally (2–3 years).
To maintain breeding habitat for small mammals and insects.
Establish winter cover crops of turnips or mustard –
shallow drill or broadcast 10 days before harvest.
Providing shelter and food as well as minimising nitrogen
leaching.
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Lightly disc or rotovate the cropped headland (but not
the hedge bottom or the permanent grassy margin)
where rare annual plants are most likely to establish
from seed.
To encourage establishment of threatened annual plant species.
Grass
Keep some rough grass and cut every 2–3 years.
To maintain some low fertility grassland habitat which most
birds prefer.
Remove grazing stock, or reduce stocking levels, during
grazing season.
Prevention of nest destruction by trampling.
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
45
AUTUMN
Cereals,
peas,
beans
Combine crops in blocks, starting from the centre.
To allow wildlife escape.
AUTUMN
Oilseed
rape/
linseed
Leave stubbles – avoid use of herbicides, but if necessary
spot-spray or use selective grass weedkillers.
Shallow-cultivate rape stubble and leave to green up.
To provide shelter and food before drilling winter wheat.
Minimum-cultivate rather than plough before drilling.
To conserve soil moisture and protect earthworms and other
invertebrates.
To provide food and shelter for birds and mammals.
Ensure firm fine seedbed.
Establish beetle banks during autumn cultivations for
winter cereals.
Reducing need for chemical control of slugs and exposing
other soil-living species.
To facilitate predatory control of aphids, especially in large
fields, and to create a nesting habitat for birds.
Assess need for slug control, choose product for
minimum wildlife impact and apply carefully (ideally
admixed with seed at drilling).
Plan conservation headlands for the following season.
Consider minimal cultivations when establishing winter
cereals.
Drill crops 1.5m away from headland.
When they become tall, they lean, shading out grass strips;
ensures spraying/desiccation is well away from hedge.
To reduce need for insecticides to control BYDV.
Avoid applications of nitrogen fertiliser.
Protection of water and benefit to aquatic life.
Reduce threat of slugs by creating firm seed beds and
drilling cereals a little deeper.
Noncropped
land
Reducing need for chemical control and exposing other soilliving species.
Root crops
(e.g.
potatoes,
sugar beet,
onions)
Ensure that any potato haulm desiccation with acid is
conducted by a certified contractor.
Legal requirement, and ensures adoption of correct practices
to protect environment.
44
Cut river, stream and ditch banks rotationally (2–3 years).
To maintain breeding habitat for small mammals and insects.
Establish winter cover crops of turnips or mustard –
shallow drill or broadcast 10 days before harvest.
Providing shelter and food as well as minimising nitrogen
leaching.
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Lightly disc or rotovate the cropped headland (but not
the hedge bottom or the permanent grassy margin)
where rare annual plants are most likely to establish
from seed.
To encourage establishment of threatened annual plant species.
Grass
Keep some rough grass and cut every 2–3 years.
To maintain some low fertility grassland habitat which most
birds prefer.
Remove grazing stock, or reduce stocking levels, during
grazing season.
Prevention of nest destruction by trampling.
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
45
AUTUMN
Grass
Minimise farm traffic across rough pasture and keep
to defined tracks.
Set-aside
(rotational)
Allow natural regeneration on set-aside where possible,
including that chosen for the wild bird option.
Set-aside
(nonrotational)
Select areas for set-aside that contribute least to farm
profitability and which can buffer key habitats such as
woodland, ponds, lakes, SSSIs etc.
WINTER
Cereals,
peas,
beans
Control invasive weeds in the boundary strip by
rotovation or herbicide treatment between October
and January. Better still, establish grass field
margins.
Reduce need for herbicide treatments later in the season.
Apart from the above, try to avoid winter cultivation.
Protection of surface and soil-living species and provision
of vegetation cover and food.
Consider headland set-aside.
To buffer key habitats as above, and provide green bridges
across the farm.
Avoid insect /slug control measures in winter months
if possible.
To maintain winter food sources.
Allow natural regeneration on set-aside where possible,
including that chosen for the wild bird option. An
additional 10% can be left uncut for the duration of setaside which if placed around field margins and in
corners allows hedges to thicken and scrub to develop.
Delay cultivating land destined for spring cereals until
March but do not leave later since this will mean that
mechanical operations are carried out in fields where
birds may be nesting.
Protection of surface and soil-living species and provision
of vegetation cover and food.
To help nesting birds.
General
Plan rotations to utilise pest-resistant varieties and
to create a cropping mosaic round the farm.
Combine mechanical operations where possible to avoid
damage to soil structure (and save energy).
Keep farm traffic to defined tracks and roads, even
across stubble and grassland.
Consider taking advantage of the agri-environment
incentive schemes offered by Government Agriculture
Departments and make conservation part of farming
practice.
46
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Leave stubbles untouched.
To provide bird cover, spilled grain on the surface and weed
seeds for birds.
Root crops
(e.g.
potatoes,
sugar beet,
onions)
Leave seedbed preparation for next crop as late as
possible.
Provision of cover and food for birds.
Oilseed
rape/
linseed
Monitor flea beetle infestations, take note of official
warnings and treat only if thresholds exceeded.
Consider herbicide-tolerant crops of sugar beet when
available.
To delay weed control measures, providing wildlife food
sources and shelter during the early months of the year.
Rationalisation of pesticide inputs and maintaining scarce
food supplies during the winter months.
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
47
AUTUMN
Grass
Minimise farm traffic across rough pasture and keep
to defined tracks.
Set-aside
(rotational)
Allow natural regeneration on set-aside where possible,
including that chosen for the wild bird option.
Set-aside
(nonrotational)
Select areas for set-aside that contribute least to farm
profitability and which can buffer key habitats such as
woodland, ponds, lakes, SSSIs etc.
WINTER
Cereals,
peas,
beans
Control invasive weeds in the boundary strip by
rotovation or herbicide treatment between October
and January. Better still, establish grass field
margins.
Reduce need for herbicide treatments later in the season.
Apart from the above, try to avoid winter cultivation.
Protection of surface and soil-living species and provision
of vegetation cover and food.
Consider headland set-aside.
To buffer key habitats as above, and provide green bridges
across the farm.
Avoid insect /slug control measures in winter months
if possible.
To maintain winter food sources.
Allow natural regeneration on set-aside where possible,
including that chosen for the wild bird option. An
additional 10% can be left uncut for the duration of setaside which if placed around field margins and in
corners allows hedges to thicken and scrub to develop.
Delay cultivating land destined for spring cereals until
March but do not leave later since this will mean that
mechanical operations are carried out in fields where
birds may be nesting.
Protection of surface and soil-living species and provision
of vegetation cover and food.
To help nesting birds.
General
Plan rotations to utilise pest-resistant varieties and
to create a cropping mosaic round the farm.
Combine mechanical operations where possible to avoid
damage to soil structure (and save energy).
Keep farm traffic to defined tracks and roads, even
across stubble and grassland.
Consider taking advantage of the agri-environment
incentive schemes offered by Government Agriculture
Departments and make conservation part of farming
practice.
46
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Leave stubbles untouched.
To provide bird cover, spilled grain on the surface and weed
seeds for birds.
Root crops
(e.g.
potatoes,
sugar beet,
onions)
Leave seedbed preparation for next crop as late as
possible.
Provision of cover and food for birds.
Oilseed
rape/
linseed
Monitor flea beetle infestations, take note of official
warnings and treat only if thresholds exceeded.
Consider herbicide-tolerant crops of sugar beet when
available.
To delay weed control measures, providing wildlife food
sources and shelter during the early months of the year.
Rationalisation of pesticide inputs and maintaining scarce
food supplies during the winter months.
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
47
WINTER
Noncropped
land
Carry out hedge management in January or February.
Cut alternate sides each year, or cut 1 year in every 2 or
3. Set an annual target to establish, say, 10 hedgerow
trees each winter.
To avoid having to do these tasks during bird breeding.
To maintain a source of fruits and berries for birds and small
mammals during the winter.
Carry out woodland management and pollarding.
Provide nesting boxes for tree-nesting birds.
Routine maintenance of fences, ditches, water habitats.
Grass
Avoid ploughing permanent grassland if possible, but
delay until spring if it must be done.
Maintenance of winter cover and food.
Set-aside
(rotational)
Monitor wildlife species and consider ways of
improvement for the following year. Beware release of
nitrogen following cultivation after late harvested crops
such as sugar beet.
General
Use winter months to:
• write, or update, a farm wildlife management plan;
• carry out maintenance of sprayers, spreaders and
hedge-cutting machinery;
• arrange spray operator and practical environmental
management training for staff;
• check arrangements for waste and pollution
management;
• write, or update, farm emergency procedures for
dealing with leakage or spillage of pesticides,
fertiliser and effluent;
• arrange for a visit from a farm conservation adviser.
48
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
4
Key
Non-target
Species
WINTER
Noncropped
land
Carry out hedge management in January or February.
Cut alternate sides each year, or cut 1 year in every 2 or
3. Set an annual target to establish, say, 10 hedgerow
trees each winter.
To avoid having to do these tasks during bird breeding.
To maintain a source of fruits and berries for birds and small
mammals during the winter.
Carry out woodland management and pollarding.
Provide nesting boxes for tree-nesting birds.
Routine maintenance of fences, ditches, water habitats.
Grass
Avoid ploughing permanent grassland if possible, but
delay until spring if it must be done.
Maintenance of winter cover and food.
Set-aside
(rotational)
Monitor wildlife species and consider ways of
improvement for the following year. Beware release of
nitrogen following cultivation after late harvested crops
such as sugar beet.
General
Use winter months to:
• write, or update, a farm wildlife management plan;
• carry out maintenance of sprayers, spreaders and
hedge-cutting machinery;
• arrange spray operator and practical environmental
management training for staff;
• check arrangements for waste and pollution
management;
• write, or update, farm emergency procedures for
dealing with leakage or spillage of pesticides,
fertiliser and effluent;
• arrange for a visit from a farm conservation adviser.
48
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
4
Key
Non-target
Species
4.1 Birds
Birds are a familiar and, with a few farming exceptions, popular constituent of
our natural wildlife. A countryside without bird song is unthinkable. They are
also good general indicators of the health of the environment because they are
often near the top of the food chain and are probably more closely monitored
than any other wildlife group. Because of this, many of the measures that
encourage bird life on the farm also benefit other groups of creatures in the
ecosystem.
Sadly, while some bird species are on the increase (wrens, goldfinches and
chaffinches), many birds of farmland are in decline; some dramatically so.
It is easy to lay the blame at the door of agricultural practice, but surveys
by the British Trust for Ornithology show that there are no single or simple
explanations. Contrary to popular belief, the decline is not due to the direct
effects of pesticides – indeed no pesticide that, when used correctly, presented
such a direct toxic hazard to birds would ever gain Government approval.
There are probably many explanations for these declines, which affect one
species more than another. However, the possible principal reasons for declines
of open-field farmland birds like the skylark are loss of habitat diversity, loss
of over-wintered stubble, weed and insect control during the summer and loss
of under-sowing as a common practice. The relative importance of each factor
has never been determined.
Most of these farmland birds are plant-eaters, especially eating seeds and
grain, but must feed their young on small insects during the summer. They are
therefore vulnerable to removal of weeds whose seeds may be food for them or
which may be hosts for insect larvae on which the birds feed. Injudicious use
of broad-spectrum insecticides can reduce the insects themselves and drift of
broad-spectrum herbicides into hedge bottoms can remove cover and food
for some species .
Management of farm habitats for the protection and encouragement of birds
is often simple and inexpensive. Management practices that encourage birds
are also likely to favour other forms of wildlife on which they depend. It has
to be based on an appreciation of what the birds themselves need. The aim is
twofold: preventing the loss of food sources and avoiding the destruction of
nesting habitat.
50
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Most of the measures described, for example keeping winter stubbles, can
be integrated into the farm management without compromising agronomic
efficiency or financial return. Appropriate management of non-farmed areas
and set-aside and the avoidance of ‘over-tidiness’, can not only save operating
costs but protect and enhance the environment in which birds and other
species can live and forage.
Where pesticides are used, they should be chosen with care, approved for the
job, be as specific for the target(s) as possible, and timed to minimise the effect
on bird food sources or nesting sites.
Examples of farmland bird species are shown below, grouped according to
their nesting habitat. The figure in brackets indicates the change in breeding
population over the period 1969–1994, or in some cases 1968–1991 (Source:
British Trust for Ornithology). The species outlined below are all in decline:
Ground-nesting species (on cropped land)
These are species of open farmland, preferring grass, cereals or other low
vegetation for nesting, and normally avoiding tall hedges and trees. They are
therefore particularly vulnerable to field operations carried out during the
breeding season which destroy nesting habitat and actual nests.
Examples:
SKYLARK
Alauda arvensis
• A small streaky brown bird of the open country
characterised by its clear warbling song whilst
hovering high in the air.
• Nests on the ground in crops and grassland up to
50 cm high. It is suggested sward length governs
the length of the breeding season, with unmanaged
set-aside creating the most favourable environment.
It is certain, though, that skylarks need access to
their nests via openings in the sward.
• 2–3 broods raised per season; 3–5 eggs per clutch.
(-58%)
• In winter they prefer stubbles, but make some use
of root crops, cereals and young leys.
• The decline of the skylark on farms has been related
to changing cropping patterns (including the switch
from autumn to spring sown cereals) and more
intensive grassland management.
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
51
4.1 Birds
Birds are a familiar and, with a few farming exceptions, popular constituent of
our natural wildlife. A countryside without bird song is unthinkable. They are
also good general indicators of the health of the environment because they are
often near the top of the food chain and are probably more closely monitored
than any other wildlife group. Because of this, many of the measures that
encourage bird life on the farm also benefit other groups of creatures in the
ecosystem.
Sadly, while some bird species are on the increase (wrens, goldfinches and
chaffinches), many birds of farmland are in decline; some dramatically so.
It is easy to lay the blame at the door of agricultural practice, but surveys
by the British Trust for Ornithology show that there are no single or simple
explanations. Contrary to popular belief, the decline is not due to the direct
effects of pesticides – indeed no pesticide that, when used correctly, presented
such a direct toxic hazard to birds would ever gain Government approval.
There are probably many explanations for these declines, which affect one
species more than another. However, the possible principal reasons for declines
of open-field farmland birds like the skylark are loss of habitat diversity, loss
of over-wintered stubble, weed and insect control during the summer and loss
of under-sowing as a common practice. The relative importance of each factor
has never been determined.
Most of these farmland birds are plant-eaters, especially eating seeds and
grain, but must feed their young on small insects during the summer. They are
therefore vulnerable to removal of weeds whose seeds may be food for them or
which may be hosts for insect larvae on which the birds feed. Injudicious use
of broad-spectrum insecticides can reduce the insects themselves and drift of
broad-spectrum herbicides into hedge bottoms can remove cover and food
for some species .
Management of farm habitats for the protection and encouragement of birds
is often simple and inexpensive. Management practices that encourage birds
are also likely to favour other forms of wildlife on which they depend. It has
to be based on an appreciation of what the birds themselves need. The aim is
twofold: preventing the loss of food sources and avoiding the destruction of
nesting habitat.
50
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Most of the measures described, for example keeping winter stubbles, can
be integrated into the farm management without compromising agronomic
efficiency or financial return. Appropriate management of non-farmed areas
and set-aside and the avoidance of ‘over-tidiness’, can not only save operating
costs but protect and enhance the environment in which birds and other
species can live and forage.
Where pesticides are used, they should be chosen with care, approved for the
job, be as specific for the target(s) as possible, and timed to minimise the effect
on bird food sources or nesting sites.
Examples of farmland bird species are shown below, grouped according to
their nesting habitat. The figure in brackets indicates the change in breeding
population over the period 1969–1994, or in some cases 1968–1991 (Source:
British Trust for Ornithology). The species outlined below are all in decline:
Ground-nesting species (on cropped land)
These are species of open farmland, preferring grass, cereals or other low
vegetation for nesting, and normally avoiding tall hedges and trees. They are
therefore particularly vulnerable to field operations carried out during the
breeding season which destroy nesting habitat and actual nests.
Examples:
SKYLARK
Alauda arvensis
• A small streaky brown bird of the open country
characterised by its clear warbling song whilst
hovering high in the air.
• Nests on the ground in crops and grassland up to
50 cm high. It is suggested sward length governs
the length of the breeding season, with unmanaged
set-aside creating the most favourable environment.
It is certain, though, that skylarks need access to
their nests via openings in the sward.
• 2–3 broods raised per season; 3–5 eggs per clutch.
(-58%)
• In winter they prefer stubbles, but make some use
of root crops, cereals and young leys.
• The decline of the skylark on farms has been related
to changing cropping patterns (including the switch
from autumn to spring sown cereals) and more
intensive grassland management.
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
51
CORN
BUNTING
Miliaria calandra
• A dull brown farmland bird, often nesting in cereal
crops, and in summer found in open farmland with
well-positioned song posts.
• First eggs (4–7 eggs per clutch) laid May to midJune and may occassionally continue breeding into
August or September – later than many other
species.
• Favours mixed cropping to provide a continuous
supply of food, especially for later broods.
(-80%)
• In winter they move into stubbles, root crops, fields
with weedy vegetation and cattle yards or stack
yards.
• They are now mainly confined to southern and
eastern England (where they are disappearing
rapidly), east Scotland and the Western Isles.
Diet
Most ground-nesting species feed on plant material and insects on the ground.
Skylarks take seeds and shoots including nettles, docks, knotgrass, fat-hen,
cruciferous species such as charlock, wild mustard, raddish and grasses
(including cereals). Insects include sawfly larvae, beetles, ants, aphids and
grasshoppers. Spiders are also taken. Chicks are entirely dependent on insects
in their first week, with sawfly larvae probably preferred when they are
available. The progressive increase in the spectrum and efficiency of
herbicides has severely depleted the weed populations on which both the
skylarks themselves and some of their insect food species feed.
The diet of the corn bunting is similar with caterpillars and harvestmen added
to the list of invertebrates, and a less marked preference for sawflies. Chicks
feed almost entirely on invertebrates but ‘milk’ from unripe cereals
supplements the diet later in the breeding season.
LAPWING
• Also known as the green plover or peewit.
Vanellus vanellus
• A black, green and white bird with a broad, blackish
chest band and a white underside; about 25–30 cm
long.
Adult lapwings feed mainly on earthworms, but they also take leatherjackets,
• Birds of open ground, including pastures, moors
and marshes; open mixed farmland preferred,
avoiding trees, hedges and surrounded fields smaller
than 5 ha.
species.
• They nest in spring-sown cereals, legumes, root
crops, rotational set-aside and grassland; will not
normally nest in winter-sown cereals or in
vegetation more than 15 cm high.
Cropped land
• An area of grassland near the nesting site is
especially important as a feeding site for the young.
• Keep winter stubbles untouched until spring.
(-62%)
• One brood per season, but will lay up to four
replacement clutches depending on supply of
earthworms for food.
• 3–4 eggs per clutch.
wireworms, small snails, slugs, beetles, spiders and harvestmen. Some seeds
are taken. Chicks have a similar diet making the lapwing a highly beneficial
Management guidelines
• Plan a mixed arable rotation including cereals and grassland.
• Maximise intervals between silage cuts.
• Leave some grass unmown until after July (corn bunting).
• Grow some spring-sown cereals and grass for hay.
• Undersow grass or grass/clover mixtures on mixed farms.
• Locate and mark nest sites to avoid when cultivating (lapwing).
52
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53
CORN
BUNTING
Miliaria calandra
• A dull brown farmland bird, often nesting in cereal
crops, and in summer found in open farmland with
well-positioned song posts.
• First eggs (4–7 eggs per clutch) laid May to midJune and may occassionally continue breeding into
August or September – later than many other
species.
• Favours mixed cropping to provide a continuous
supply of food, especially for later broods.
(-80%)
• In winter they move into stubbles, root crops, fields
with weedy vegetation and cattle yards or stack
yards.
• They are now mainly confined to southern and
eastern England (where they are disappearing
rapidly), east Scotland and the Western Isles.
Diet
Most ground-nesting species feed on plant material and insects on the ground.
Skylarks take seeds and shoots including nettles, docks, knotgrass, fat-hen,
cruciferous species such as charlock, wild mustard, raddish and grasses
(including cereals). Insects include sawfly larvae, beetles, ants, aphids and
grasshoppers. Spiders are also taken. Chicks are entirely dependent on insects
in their first week, with sawfly larvae probably preferred when they are
available. The progressive increase in the spectrum and efficiency of
herbicides has severely depleted the weed populations on which both the
skylarks themselves and some of their insect food species feed.
The diet of the corn bunting is similar with caterpillars and harvestmen added
to the list of invertebrates, and a less marked preference for sawflies. Chicks
feed almost entirely on invertebrates but ‘milk’ from unripe cereals
supplements the diet later in the breeding season.
LAPWING
• Also known as the green plover or peewit.
Vanellus vanellus
• A black, green and white bird with a broad, blackish
chest band and a white underside; about 25–30 cm
long.
Adult lapwings feed mainly on earthworms, but they also take leatherjackets,
• Birds of open ground, including pastures, moors
and marshes; open mixed farmland preferred,
avoiding trees, hedges and surrounded fields smaller
than 5 ha.
species.
• They nest in spring-sown cereals, legumes, root
crops, rotational set-aside and grassland; will not
normally nest in winter-sown cereals or in
vegetation more than 15 cm high.
Cropped land
• An area of grassland near the nesting site is
especially important as a feeding site for the young.
• Keep winter stubbles untouched until spring.
(-62%)
• One brood per season, but will lay up to four
replacement clutches depending on supply of
earthworms for food.
• 3–4 eggs per clutch.
wireworms, small snails, slugs, beetles, spiders and harvestmen. Some seeds
are taken. Chicks have a similar diet making the lapwing a highly beneficial
Management guidelines
• Plan a mixed arable rotation including cereals and grassland.
• Maximise intervals between silage cuts.
• Leave some grass unmown until after July (corn bunting).
• Grow some spring-sown cereals and grass for hay.
• Undersow grass or grass/clover mixtures on mixed farms.
• Locate and mark nest sites to avoid when cultivating (lapwing).
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53
• Give preference to narrow-spectrum insecticides to maintain vital food
supply, especially for young chicks. If the use of a broad-spectrum product
is unavoidable, take every care to minimise its impact by leaving unsprayed
crop margins and by eliminating drift.
• Give preference to narrow-spectrum herbicides, such as grassweed controls,
to maintain the host plants of insects on which chicks feed and to increase
the potential over-winter supply of seed in the ensuing stubble/set-aside.
• Graze grass intensively in late summer and autumn, then remove livestock
during lapwing breeding season.
• Reduce stocking levels where grazing in breeding season is unavoidable.
• Keep some unimproved pasture.
• Create beetle banks to provide invertebrate food supplies in the middle of
large fields, and nesting sites for some species (e.g. skylark).
Set-aside
• Use the wild bird cover option to create strips around or across fields.
supply under intensive management systems. The decline of this group has
occurred during a period of intensification of grain production, increasing
field size and an associated removal of hedgerows.
The grey partridge is the species where conservation bodies have the greatest
degree of certainty about the causes of population decline as a result of
detailed work carried out by the Game Conservancy Trust. Specific guidelines
on the management of field margins are published by the Game Conservancy
Trust who also provide a free on-farm advisory service.
The management of conservation headlands involves the selective reduction
of the use of pesticides in the 6m boundary of the field, together with careful
selection and use of products specific for the target pests in the body of the
field. This includes choosing weedkillers to control only those weeds that will
cause economic loss if left untreated (see section on arable flowers pp 71–76).
The aim is to encourage the growth of a number of broad-leaved weed species
which provide a valuable wildlife food source both directly (by providing plant
material, seeds and nectar) and indirectly by acting as hosts to insects and
other invertebrates.
Examples:
• Rotovate (with permission from MAFF) areas of rotational set-aside in
February to provide bare ground for nesting with an adjacent vegetated
area to provide food for adults and chicks (lapwing).
GREY
PARTRIDGE
• Delay mechanical or chemical treatments.
Perdix perdix
• Where grass weed control is necessary, use selective weedkillers in summer.
Uncropped land
• Predominantly a species of open lowland arable
land, especially cereals; also found in field margins
and grass.
• The nest is hollow, lined with grass and leaves and
concealed in vegetation under a bush or hedge, but
also in cereal crops, game cover and set-aside.
• Create 2–6m flower-rich margins around the boundary of fields
(conservation headlands, see pp 19 –21 and opposite).
• The decline in numbers is related to loss of both
nesting habitat and food supply.
• Keep some rough grass and cut every 2 –3 years.
(-82%)
Margin-nesting species
• A dull brown bird above and grey or cream below
with an orange face and usually a dark brown
‘horseshoe’ on the belly.
• Normally rears one brood per season but may lay
one or two replacement clutches.
• 10–20 eggs per clutch.
This group nests in the low vegetation at the field margin between the edge
of the crop and the field boundary. They also forage for food in this area.
They are therefore vulnerable to the loss of both nesting habitat and food
54
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
55
• Give preference to narrow-spectrum insecticides to maintain vital food
supply, especially for young chicks. If the use of a broad-spectrum product
is unavoidable, take every care to minimise its impact by leaving unsprayed
crop margins and by eliminating drift.
• Give preference to narrow-spectrum herbicides, such as grassweed controls,
to maintain the host plants of insects on which chicks feed and to increase
the potential over-winter supply of seed in the ensuing stubble/set-aside.
• Graze grass intensively in late summer and autumn, then remove livestock
during lapwing breeding season.
• Reduce stocking levels where grazing in breeding season is unavoidable.
• Keep some unimproved pasture.
• Create beetle banks to provide invertebrate food supplies in the middle of
large fields, and nesting sites for some species (e.g. skylark).
Set-aside
• Use the wild bird cover option to create strips around or across fields.
supply under intensive management systems. The decline of this group has
occurred during a period of intensification of grain production, increasing
field size and an associated removal of hedgerows.
The grey partridge is the species where conservation bodies have the greatest
degree of certainty about the causes of population decline as a result of
detailed work carried out by the Game Conservancy Trust. Specific guidelines
on the management of field margins are published by the Game Conservancy
Trust who also provide a free on-farm advisory service.
The management of conservation headlands involves the selective reduction
of the use of pesticides in the 6m boundary of the field, together with careful
selection and use of products specific for the target pests in the body of the
field. This includes choosing weedkillers to control only those weeds that will
cause economic loss if left untreated (see section on arable flowers pp 71–76).
The aim is to encourage the growth of a number of broad-leaved weed species
which provide a valuable wildlife food source both directly (by providing plant
material, seeds and nectar) and indirectly by acting as hosts to insects and
other invertebrates.
Examples:
• Rotovate (with permission from MAFF) areas of rotational set-aside in
February to provide bare ground for nesting with an adjacent vegetated
area to provide food for adults and chicks (lapwing).
GREY
PARTRIDGE
• Delay mechanical or chemical treatments.
Perdix perdix
• Where grass weed control is necessary, use selective weedkillers in summer.
Uncropped land
• Predominantly a species of open lowland arable
land, especially cereals; also found in field margins
and grass.
• The nest is hollow, lined with grass and leaves and
concealed in vegetation under a bush or hedge, but
also in cereal crops, game cover and set-aside.
• Create 2–6m flower-rich margins around the boundary of fields
(conservation headlands, see pp 19 –21 and opposite).
• The decline in numbers is related to loss of both
nesting habitat and food supply.
• Keep some rough grass and cut every 2 –3 years.
(-82%)
Margin-nesting species
• A dull brown bird above and grey or cream below
with an orange face and usually a dark brown
‘horseshoe’ on the belly.
• Normally rears one brood per season but may lay
one or two replacement clutches.
• 10–20 eggs per clutch.
This group nests in the low vegetation at the field margin between the edge
of the crop and the field boundary. They also forage for food in this area.
They are therefore vulnerable to the loss of both nesting habitat and food
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55
YELLOWH AM M E R
Emberizia
citrinella
• Sometimes called the Yellow Bunting.
Management Guidelines
• Easily recognisable by the brilliant yellow plumage
below, chestnut rump and white outer feathers of
the tail.
Cropped land
• A bird of heaths and open farmland, favouring scrub
and hedges or low trees adjacent to cereals and grass
fields.
• Feeds on the ground and nests in thick herbage
along field margins especially in ditch bank
vegetation as well as in hedges, scrub, small
plantations and paths or highways flanked by trees
or bushes.
(-5%)
BTO 1968-91 data
• In winter forms flocks with other buntings, finches
and tree sparrows.
• Create 2–6m flower-rich margins around the boundary of fields
(conservation headlands).
• Keep winter stubbles.
• Maximise intervals between silage cuts.
• Give preference to narrow-spectrum insecticides to maintain vital food
supply, especially for young chicks. If the use of a broad-spectrum product
is unavoidable, take every care to minimise its impact by leaving unsprayed
crop margins and by eliminating drift.
• Where possible, avoid insect/slug control measures in autumn or winter.
Diet
• Create beetle banks to provide invertebrate food supplies in the middle of
Adult partridges feed on grass, cereal shoots and seeds of a wide variety of
large fields.
weed species, especially knotgrass, black bindweed, common hemp-nettle and
chickweed. Chicks leave the nest within hours of hatching and feed initially
Uncropped land
on insects, especially aphids, sawflies, ants and beetles, before gradually
incorporating plant material into their diet, favouring the seeds of annual
meadow grass, black bent and chickweed.
• Maintain hedges to maximum dimensions of 1.2m wide x 2m high.
• Cut hedges every 2–3 years.
• Create strips of standing grass along hedges.
• Leave 2m margin each side of hedge base.
• Avoid cutting ditch vegetation from April to August
Set-aside
• Use the wild bird cover option to create strips around or across fields.
• Delay mechanical or chemical treatments.
• Where grass weed control is necessary, use selective weedkillers in
Sawfly larvae
56
summer.
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
57
YELLOWH AM M E R
Emberizia
citrinella
• Sometimes called the Yellow Bunting.
Management Guidelines
• Easily recognisable by the brilliant yellow plumage
below, chestnut rump and white outer feathers of
the tail.
Cropped land
• A bird of heaths and open farmland, favouring scrub
and hedges or low trees adjacent to cereals and grass
fields.
• Feeds on the ground and nests in thick herbage
along field margins especially in ditch bank
vegetation as well as in hedges, scrub, small
plantations and paths or highways flanked by trees
or bushes.
(-5%)
BTO 1968-91 data
• In winter forms flocks with other buntings, finches
and tree sparrows.
• Create 2–6m flower-rich margins around the boundary of fields
(conservation headlands).
• Keep winter stubbles.
• Maximise intervals between silage cuts.
• Give preference to narrow-spectrum insecticides to maintain vital food
supply, especially for young chicks. If the use of a broad-spectrum product
is unavoidable, take every care to minimise its impact by leaving unsprayed
crop margins and by eliminating drift.
• Where possible, avoid insect/slug control measures in autumn or winter.
Diet
• Create beetle banks to provide invertebrate food supplies in the middle of
Adult partridges feed on grass, cereal shoots and seeds of a wide variety of
large fields.
weed species, especially knotgrass, black bindweed, common hemp-nettle and
chickweed. Chicks leave the nest within hours of hatching and feed initially
Uncropped land
on insects, especially aphids, sawflies, ants and beetles, before gradually
incorporating plant material into their diet, favouring the seeds of annual
meadow grass, black bent and chickweed.
• Maintain hedges to maximum dimensions of 1.2m wide x 2m high.
• Cut hedges every 2–3 years.
• Create strips of standing grass along hedges.
• Leave 2m margin each side of hedge base.
• Avoid cutting ditch vegetation from April to August
Set-aside
• Use the wild bird cover option to create strips around or across fields.
• Delay mechanical or chemical treatments.
• Where grass weed control is necessary, use selective weedkillers in
Sawfly larvae
56
summer.
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
57
Hedge-nesting species
Diet
These nest above ground in hedgerows and feed on fruits and seeds in
the hedge and surrounding vegetation. Management practices that remove
hedgerows obviously threaten this group, but loss of floral diversity in the
areas of the hedge bottom and the field margin also reduce food supply.
Linnets are predominantly seed eaters. Adults feed on small seeds found on
the ground or in low bushes. Species favoured include charlock, chickweed,
fat-hen, redshank, sorrel, thistle, mugwort, dandelion, some grasses, brassicas
and oilseed rape. However, the linnet has a catholic taste; one study showed
45 species of plant seeds in the diet. Unusually for seed-eaters, the chicks are
also fed entirely on seeds.
Examples:
LINNET
Carduelis
cannabina
• Smaller than sparrows but otherwise rather
similar; white patches in wings and tail.
Whitethroats feed mostly on seeds and berries but will take insects and unripe
grain in the breeding season.
• Grey/brown on the head and streaky underneath;
in summer the male is nearly crimson on the
forehead and chest.
Management Guidelines
• Found in loose colonies of breeding pairs in spring
but often in small flocks after breeding.
(-52%)
• A species of the open country, gorse heaths and
hills: in summer they favour farmland with gorse,
blackthorn and hawthorn; in winter they form
flocks on stubbles, root crops and fallow land.
They avoid large stands of tall trees.
• 2–3 broods per season; 4–6 eggs per clutch.
Cropped land
• Keep winter stubbles for feeding.
• Create 2–6m flower-rich margins around the boundary of fields
(conservation headlands).
Uncropped land
• Maintain some hedges 0.5 –2.0m high.
WHITET H ROAT
• A summer visitor distinguished from other
warblers by the conspicuous white throat.
• Leave gorse, hawthorn, blackthorn and bramble for nesting sites.
Sylvia communis
• Rusty brown above; the male has a grey cap
and a pink breast.
• Plant new hedges and field corners with these species.
• Frequents hedgerows, copses, brambles, briars
and clearings at the edge of woods.
Set-aside
• Opt for natural regeneration.
• Delay mechanical or chemical treatments.
Species nesting in non-crop areas
(-18%)
This group comprises the wide variety of birds that live on farms away
from the cropped areas, of which three examples are given below. They are
nevertheless vulnerable unless the farm has a planned wildlife management
policy. Practices designed to reduce the non-productive land on the farm can
BTO 1968-91 data
58
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Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
59
Hedge-nesting species
Diet
These nest above ground in hedgerows and feed on fruits and seeds in
the hedge and surrounding vegetation. Management practices that remove
hedgerows obviously threaten this group, but loss of floral diversity in the
areas of the hedge bottom and the field margin also reduce food supply.
Linnets are predominantly seed eaters. Adults feed on small seeds found on
the ground or in low bushes. Species favoured include charlock, chickweed,
fat-hen, redshank, sorrel, thistle, mugwort, dandelion, some grasses, brassicas
and oilseed rape. However, the linnet has a catholic taste; one study showed
45 species of plant seeds in the diet. Unusually for seed-eaters, the chicks are
also fed entirely on seeds.
Examples:
LINNET
Carduelis
cannabina
• Smaller than sparrows but otherwise rather
similar; white patches in wings and tail.
Whitethroats feed mostly on seeds and berries but will take insects and unripe
grain in the breeding season.
• Grey/brown on the head and streaky underneath;
in summer the male is nearly crimson on the
forehead and chest.
Management Guidelines
• Found in loose colonies of breeding pairs in spring
but often in small flocks after breeding.
(-52%)
• A species of the open country, gorse heaths and
hills: in summer they favour farmland with gorse,
blackthorn and hawthorn; in winter they form
flocks on stubbles, root crops and fallow land.
They avoid large stands of tall trees.
• 2–3 broods per season; 4–6 eggs per clutch.
Cropped land
• Keep winter stubbles for feeding.
• Create 2–6m flower-rich margins around the boundary of fields
(conservation headlands).
Uncropped land
• Maintain some hedges 0.5 –2.0m high.
WHITET H ROAT
• A summer visitor distinguished from other
warblers by the conspicuous white throat.
• Leave gorse, hawthorn, blackthorn and bramble for nesting sites.
Sylvia communis
• Rusty brown above; the male has a grey cap
and a pink breast.
• Plant new hedges and field corners with these species.
• Frequents hedgerows, copses, brambles, briars
and clearings at the edge of woods.
Set-aside
• Opt for natural regeneration.
• Delay mechanical or chemical treatments.
Species nesting in non-crop areas
(-18%)
This group comprises the wide variety of birds that live on farms away
from the cropped areas, of which three examples are given below. They are
nevertheless vulnerable unless the farm has a planned wildlife management
policy. Practices designed to reduce the non-productive land on the farm can
BTO 1968-91 data
58
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Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
59
seriously damage nesting habitats and food sources. Drainage of wet areas, tree
felling, and insensitive management of river, stream and ditch banks all
contribute to the general decline of these species.
L ITTLE OWL
Athene noctua
Examples:
RE E D
BUNTING
• Slimmer and longer-tailed than a sparrow, but
similar in size.
Emberizia
shoeniclus
• Characterised by black head and white collar that
becomes dulled by brown tips after the autumn
moult.
• As their name implies, they live in reed beds, but
they are also found in a range of other marshy and
waterside areas, and in some drier areas.
• On farms they can be found along the sides of
watercourses, ponds and lakes with tall upright
vegetation such as reeds, sedges, rushes or grass.
(-61%)
• Also found in drier rough grassland areas with
scattered hawthorn bushes and hedges, and even
in oilseed rape where they will nest.
• 2–3 broods per season; 3–6 eggs per clutch.
• In winter they feed in stubbles and root crops.
• Introduced but now found in England, Wales and
the Scottish Borders
• Smallest of the owls (about 22 cm); mottled cream
and grey-brown plumage.
• Hunts by day and has spread to farmland and
dunes as well as woodland.
• Nests in tree holes.
(-16%)
BTO 1968-91 data
Diet
The diet of this group is as varied as the species themselves. Adult reed
buntings feed on or near the ground on a variety of insects and seeds,
including goosefoot, chickweed, oilseed rape, meadowsweet, hawksbeard, sowthistle
and some grasses. The insect species, on which the chicks are initially fed
exclusively, include caterpillars, grasshoppers, spiders, mayflies and damsel
TREE
SPARROW
Passer
montanus
• Similar to house sparrow but smaller, with a
chestnut cap rather than grey and a partial white
collar with black bib and unmarked underside.
flies. Adult tree sparrows are mainly seed eaters but invertebrates are taken
• Generally found on farmland and near human
habitation.
include grasshoppers, caterpillars, aphids, flies, ants, beetles and spiders.
• Nests mainly in holes in trees (and in nesting
boxes).
caterpillars, flies, ants, bees and sawflies.
• 2–3 broods per season; 2–7 eggs (normally 5)
per clutch.
• In summer they favour well-spaced deciduous trees
in hedges or roadsides, isolated small woods, or
pollarded willows along slow-moving rivers and
ditches.
(-89%)
• In winter they move into stubbles (including
rotational set-aside where there has been natural
regeneration) and game cover.
during the breeding season. Seeds include goosefoot, knotgrass, bedstraw,
chickweed, plantains, nettles, some grasses and cereals. Insects in the diet
Chicks depend entirely on insects for the first week including beetles, aphids,
Little owls are voracious hunters and can kill birds as large as themselves.
However the majority of their diet consists of small mammals, insects and
worms.
Management Guidelines
Cropped land
• Give preference to narrow-spectrum insecticides to maintain insect food
60
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61
seriously damage nesting habitats and food sources. Drainage of wet areas, tree
felling, and insensitive management of river, stream and ditch banks all
contribute to the general decline of these species.
L ITTLE OWL
Athene noctua
Examples:
RE E D
BUNTING
• Slimmer and longer-tailed than a sparrow, but
similar in size.
Emberizia
shoeniclus
• Characterised by black head and white collar that
becomes dulled by brown tips after the autumn
moult.
• As their name implies, they live in reed beds, but
they are also found in a range of other marshy and
waterside areas, and in some drier areas.
• On farms they can be found along the sides of
watercourses, ponds and lakes with tall upright
vegetation such as reeds, sedges, rushes or grass.
(-61%)
• Also found in drier rough grassland areas with
scattered hawthorn bushes and hedges, and even
in oilseed rape where they will nest.
• 2–3 broods per season; 3–6 eggs per clutch.
• In winter they feed in stubbles and root crops.
• Introduced but now found in England, Wales and
the Scottish Borders
• Smallest of the owls (about 22 cm); mottled cream
and grey-brown plumage.
• Hunts by day and has spread to farmland and
dunes as well as woodland.
• Nests in tree holes.
(-16%)
BTO 1968-91 data
Diet
The diet of this group is as varied as the species themselves. Adult reed
buntings feed on or near the ground on a variety of insects and seeds,
including goosefoot, chickweed, oilseed rape, meadowsweet, hawksbeard, sowthistle
and some grasses. The insect species, on which the chicks are initially fed
exclusively, include caterpillars, grasshoppers, spiders, mayflies and damsel
TREE
SPARROW
Passer
montanus
• Similar to house sparrow but smaller, with a
chestnut cap rather than grey and a partial white
collar with black bib and unmarked underside.
flies. Adult tree sparrows are mainly seed eaters but invertebrates are taken
• Generally found on farmland and near human
habitation.
include grasshoppers, caterpillars, aphids, flies, ants, beetles and spiders.
• Nests mainly in holes in trees (and in nesting
boxes).
caterpillars, flies, ants, bees and sawflies.
• 2–3 broods per season; 2–7 eggs (normally 5)
per clutch.
• In summer they favour well-spaced deciduous trees
in hedges or roadsides, isolated small woods, or
pollarded willows along slow-moving rivers and
ditches.
(-89%)
• In winter they move into stubbles (including
rotational set-aside where there has been natural
regeneration) and game cover.
during the breeding season. Seeds include goosefoot, knotgrass, bedstraw,
chickweed, plantains, nettles, some grasses and cereals. Insects in the diet
Chicks depend entirely on insects for the first week including beetles, aphids,
Little owls are voracious hunters and can kill birds as large as themselves.
However the majority of their diet consists of small mammals, insects and
worms.
Management Guidelines
Cropped land
• Give preference to narrow-spectrum insecticides to maintain insect food
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61
• Use a desiccant rather than swathing oilseed rape where reed buntings are
thought to be nesting to provide extra days for chicks to fledge before
cutting the crop.
Examples:
HEDG EHOG
Erinaceous
europaeus
Uncropped land
• Create and maintain ponds with fringe vegetation (reed buntings).
• Cut river, stream and ditch banks in alternate years (reed buntings).
Hedgehogs are one of the most familiar British
mammals. Although they are mainly nocturnal
creatures, they are also active at dawn and dusk.
They play an important role by feeding extensively
on insects, slugs and worms. They live in ground
vegetation in woodland, hedge bottoms and the
sides of ditches.
• Retain boggy or marshy corners which have no other use (reed buntings).
• Create 2–6m flower-rich margins around the boundary of fields
(conservation headlands).
• Maintain some large, thick hedges (tree sparrows).
• Cut hedges on a rotation basis (tree sparrows).
H A RV E S T
MOUSE
Micromys minutus
• Pollard old and neglected trees that provide nesting sites (tree sparrows,
little owls).
• Provide nest boxes in areas where there are few natural nesting sites (tree
sparrows, owls).
Harvest mice are normally found south of a line
from the Humber to the Bristol Channel. They like
tall dense vegetation such as hedgerows and reedbeds.
Adults are small. They have small ears and a long tail
with a prehensile tip to help them climb plant stems.
They are light brown with a white front. They make
spherical nests, initially a few centimetres from the
ground but the nests slowly rise with the crop growth
to 30 to 60cm up in the vegetation.
They are in decline for reasons thought to include
earlier harvesting of winter wheat and the need for
long vegetation on field margins.
Set-aside
• Use the wild bird cover option to create strips around or across fields.
• Delay mechanical or chemical treatments.
BROWN
HARE
• Where grass weed control is necessary, use selective weedkillers in summer.
Lepus capensis
4.2 Small Mammals
Brown hares are usually seen singly and far out in
the open on grassland and, in spring, on cereal crops.
They rely on staying well away from cover so that no
predators can approach unobserved.
They are in decline in many parts of Britain, mainly
through loss of diversity in crop /habitat, through loss
of over-wintered stubbles and through fox predation.
Small mammals are an important element in the natural food chain,
particularly for predatory birds such as kestrels, owls and magpies. A wide
range of species live on farmland of which a few, such as rabbits, foxes, rats
and mink, are often undesirable pests. Others, such as hedgehogs, mice, voles
and shrews are largely inoffensive creatures that play a part by feeding on
insects, slugs, snails and woodlice as well as on vegetation, fruits and seeds.
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63
• Use a desiccant rather than swathing oilseed rape where reed buntings are
thought to be nesting to provide extra days for chicks to fledge before
cutting the crop.
Examples:
HEDG EHOG
Erinaceous
europaeus
Uncropped land
• Create and maintain ponds with fringe vegetation (reed buntings).
• Cut river, stream and ditch banks in alternate years (reed buntings).
Hedgehogs are one of the most familiar British
mammals. Although they are mainly nocturnal
creatures, they are also active at dawn and dusk.
They play an important role by feeding extensively
on insects, slugs and worms. They live in ground
vegetation in woodland, hedge bottoms and the
sides of ditches.
• Retain boggy or marshy corners which have no other use (reed buntings).
• Create 2–6m flower-rich margins around the boundary of fields
(conservation headlands).
• Maintain some large, thick hedges (tree sparrows).
• Cut hedges on a rotation basis (tree sparrows).
H A RV E S T
MOUSE
Micromys minutus
• Pollard old and neglected trees that provide nesting sites (tree sparrows,
little owls).
• Provide nest boxes in areas where there are few natural nesting sites (tree
sparrows, owls).
Harvest mice are normally found south of a line
from the Humber to the Bristol Channel. They like
tall dense vegetation such as hedgerows and reedbeds.
Adults are small. They have small ears and a long tail
with a prehensile tip to help them climb plant stems.
They are light brown with a white front. They make
spherical nests, initially a few centimetres from the
ground but the nests slowly rise with the crop growth
to 30 to 60cm up in the vegetation.
They are in decline for reasons thought to include
earlier harvesting of winter wheat and the need for
long vegetation on field margins.
Set-aside
• Use the wild bird cover option to create strips around or across fields.
• Delay mechanical or chemical treatments.
BROWN
HARE
• Where grass weed control is necessary, use selective weedkillers in summer.
Lepus capensis
4.2 Small Mammals
Brown hares are usually seen singly and far out in
the open on grassland and, in spring, on cereal crops.
They rely on staying well away from cover so that no
predators can approach unobserved.
They are in decline in many parts of Britain, mainly
through loss of diversity in crop /habitat, through loss
of over-wintered stubbles and through fox predation.
Small mammals are an important element in the natural food chain,
particularly for predatory birds such as kestrels, owls and magpies. A wide
range of species live on farmland of which a few, such as rabbits, foxes, rats
and mink, are often undesirable pests. Others, such as hedgehogs, mice, voles
and shrews are largely inoffensive creatures that play a part by feeding on
insects, slugs, snails and woodlice as well as on vegetation, fruits and seeds.
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63
WAT E R V O L E
Arvicola terrestris
Water voles are excellent swimmers. Water
is their natural environment but they can be
found on grassland. It is rat-sized and can be
confused with the brown rat. Rats have pointed
faces and greyish brown fur; water voles are
chocolate brown with a pinky-orange belly and
flanks. It needs good bankside cover.
FIELD VOLE
Clethrionomys spp.
Bank voles are mostly nocturnal and make shallow
runs in the cover of hedgerows and wooded country .
About 9cm long, adults have upper fur which is a
rich red-brown and under fur which is grey or cream.
Their ears and eyes are small and their tail of about
40 to 60% of the length of the body.
Populations of water voles have suffered badly
through field drainage and the loss of small wet
areas on farms, including ditches.
COMMON
S H RE W
Sorex araneus
castaneus
Bank voles and field voles both feed on herbage,
roots, bulbs, fruits and seeds, and occasionally insects
and snails. However they will also seek cereal and
grass seed.
The common shrew has a fine, toothed snout, is
about 7cm long with a tail almost as long as its body.
It has an almost black back, pale flanks and a grey
belly with a yellowish tinge. It can be heard
screaming loudly when it meets another one. Active
day and night, it also lives in hedge bottoms, but will
sometimes move into fields and pasture to hunt for
the insects, slugs and woodlice that make up most
of its diet.
Field voles, as the name implies, inhabit open country
provided there is sufficient herbage cover. However
they can also be found in hedgerows and woodland.
Active day and night, adults have rather shaggy fur,
greyish brown above, pure grey below. It has a blunt
face, small ears and a very short tail.
Management guidelines
Many small mammals will benefit from the measures taken to enhance bird
populations on farmland (see the birds section above), including the use of
conservation headlands.
Long-tailed field mice, also known as wood mice, are
often found on open farmland, in hedgerows and in
grassland. Up to 19cm long, they have a yellowish
brown back and a white front, often with an isolated
yellow chest patch. Mostly nocturnal, they have
Apodemus sylvaticus
burrows but may use an empty bird’s nest as a food
cache. It is active in winter and will bounce away
in a zig-zag fashion when disturbed.
LONG TAILE D
FIELD
M O US E
The management of conservation headlands involves the selective reduction
of the use of pesticides in the 6m boundary of the field, together with careful
selection and use of products specific for the target pests in the body of the
field. This includes choosing weedkillers to control only those weeds that will
cause economic loss if left untreated (see section on arable flowers pp 71–76).
The aim is to encourage the growth of a number of broad-leaved weed species
which provide a valuable wildlife food source both directly (by providing plant
material, seeds and nectar) and indirectly by acting as hosts to insects and
other invertebrates.
Wood mice eat many of the species that are known to increase in abundance
in conservation headlands and properly managed field margins and so their
populations can increase. This not only benefits the wood mouse population,
but also helps predators on arable farmland such as weasels and owls which
are likely to hunt in hedgerows and field margins.
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65
WAT E R V O L E
Arvicola terrestris
Water voles are excellent swimmers. Water
is their natural environment but they can be
found on grassland. It is rat-sized and can be
confused with the brown rat. Rats have pointed
faces and greyish brown fur; water voles are
chocolate brown with a pinky-orange belly and
flanks. It needs good bankside cover.
FIELD VOLE
Clethrionomys spp.
Bank voles are mostly nocturnal and make shallow
runs in the cover of hedgerows and wooded country .
About 9cm long, adults have upper fur which is a
rich red-brown and under fur which is grey or cream.
Their ears and eyes are small and their tail of about
40 to 60% of the length of the body.
Populations of water voles have suffered badly
through field drainage and the loss of small wet
areas on farms, including ditches.
COMMON
S H RE W
Sorex araneus
castaneus
Bank voles and field voles both feed on herbage,
roots, bulbs, fruits and seeds, and occasionally insects
and snails. However they will also seek cereal and
grass seed.
The common shrew has a fine, toothed snout, is
about 7cm long with a tail almost as long as its body.
It has an almost black back, pale flanks and a grey
belly with a yellowish tinge. It can be heard
screaming loudly when it meets another one. Active
day and night, it also lives in hedge bottoms, but will
sometimes move into fields and pasture to hunt for
the insects, slugs and woodlice that make up most
of its diet.
Field voles, as the name implies, inhabit open country
provided there is sufficient herbage cover. However
they can also be found in hedgerows and woodland.
Active day and night, adults have rather shaggy fur,
greyish brown above, pure grey below. It has a blunt
face, small ears and a very short tail.
Management guidelines
Many small mammals will benefit from the measures taken to enhance bird
populations on farmland (see the birds section above), including the use of
conservation headlands.
Long-tailed field mice, also known as wood mice, are
often found on open farmland, in hedgerows and in
grassland. Up to 19cm long, they have a yellowish
brown back and a white front, often with an isolated
yellow chest patch. Mostly nocturnal, they have
Apodemus sylvaticus
burrows but may use an empty bird’s nest as a food
cache. It is active in winter and will bounce away
in a zig-zag fashion when disturbed.
LONG TAILE D
FIELD
M O US E
The management of conservation headlands involves the selective reduction
of the use of pesticides in the 6m boundary of the field, together with careful
selection and use of products specific for the target pests in the body of the
field. This includes choosing weedkillers to control only those weeds that will
cause economic loss if left untreated (see section on arable flowers pp 71–76).
The aim is to encourage the growth of a number of broad-leaved weed species
which provide a valuable wildlife food source both directly (by providing plant
material, seeds and nectar) and indirectly by acting as hosts to insects and
other invertebrates.
Wood mice eat many of the species that are known to increase in abundance
in conservation headlands and properly managed field margins and so their
populations can increase. This not only benefits the wood mouse population,
but also helps predators on arable farmland such as weasels and owls which
are likely to hunt in hedgerows and field margins.
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65
4.3 Aquatic Life
Water on the farm may be flowing as rivers, streams and ditches, or it may
be more static as ponds, marsh or other wetland. In all its guises, water
supports a wide variety of plant and animal non-target species. However, the
advance of farming technology has left watercourses under increasing threat
of degradation from several causes. These include drainage, water abstraction,
contamination with fertilisers and pesticides and pollution by farm, domestic
and industrial wastes.
Quite a few plants and animals once native to the freshwater habitats of
Britain are now completely absent or are in rapid decline. Management to
preserve or rehabilitate aquatic wildlife habitats is therefore a matter of major
importance. Many of the aims are identical with those of other interests such
as sporting or recreational.
Streams and ditches are the habitat of a wide range of plants and animals,
corresponding in their occurrence to the speed of flow of the water. Freefloating plants, algae, mosses and liverworts can thrive in fast-flowing water,
while the static or slow moving water of ditches and dykes supports flowering
plants that can root in the substrate. On the marshy land bordering the water
a different vegetation zone exists and the whole comprises a wetland habitat
which itself is a haven for an abundance of plants, insects, birds and mammals.
Management guidelines
Unlike most features of the farm, water is not normally self-contained. It
usually passes through and may be used down stream for a variety of purposes,
one of which may be purification for drinking water. Flowing water habitats and
wet areas on the farm are also ‘linear nature reserves’ which are important not
only in themselves, but because they serve as vital links between other habitats.
Management of watercourses on the farm therefore must
have a threefold objective:
1. Maintenance of the physical function of channelling excess water from
the land and off the farm.
2. Maintenance or enhancement of the water quality itself.
3. Preservation of the associated natural habitats to encourage the build-up
of non-target species.
Assessment of water quality using the invertebrate species composition as an
indicator is one of several parallel assessments used by the Environment
Agency in monitoring the state of our rivers. Using a computerised prediction
of the invertebrates that should be found in a clean river, watercourses are
graded on a six-point classification scheme, ranging from Very Good (grade a)
to Bad (grade f). Information on Biological Water Quality Monitoring is
available from the Environment Agency.
The water itself should contain large numbers of invertebrates including
mayfly nymphs (Ecdyonurus dispar), dragonfly (various species) and damselfly
(e.g. Lestes sponsa) nymphs, caddis fly (e.g. Phryganea grandis) larvae,
numerous water bugs, such as the water boatman (Corixa spp) and the riffle
beetle (Elmis aenea), and snails (e.g. Valvata piscinalis). A limited water fauna
probably indicates lack of oxygen or pollution. Submerged or floating plants
will include species like milfoil (Myriophyllum spp.) and starwort (Callitriche
spp.) while emergent plants at the edge will be a variety of reeds (e.g.
Phragmites communis), rushes (Juncus spp.) and flags (Iris pseudoacorus).
The first step is to survey all the water on the farm, seeking help and advice
from the local FWAG advisor where necessary. The survey should note the
condition of the water as well as the marginal areas. The small invertebrates
that live in water are a better general indicator of water quality than occasional
chemical analysis because these creatures do not move very far and their
populations reflect the pollution history of the water, rather than its quality
on a particular day. If the water is polluted, even for only a few minutes, some
or all of these animals may die and recovery may take several months.
Water beetle Rhantus exsoletus
66
Common darter Sympetum striolatum
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
67
4.3 Aquatic Life
Water on the farm may be flowing as rivers, streams and ditches, or it may
be more static as ponds, marsh or other wetland. In all its guises, water
supports a wide variety of plant and animal non-target species. However, the
advance of farming technology has left watercourses under increasing threat
of degradation from several causes. These include drainage, water abstraction,
contamination with fertilisers and pesticides and pollution by farm, domestic
and industrial wastes.
Quite a few plants and animals once native to the freshwater habitats of
Britain are now completely absent or are in rapid decline. Management to
preserve or rehabilitate aquatic wildlife habitats is therefore a matter of major
importance. Many of the aims are identical with those of other interests such
as sporting or recreational.
Streams and ditches are the habitat of a wide range of plants and animals,
corresponding in their occurrence to the speed of flow of the water. Freefloating plants, algae, mosses and liverworts can thrive in fast-flowing water,
while the static or slow moving water of ditches and dykes supports flowering
plants that can root in the substrate. On the marshy land bordering the water
a different vegetation zone exists and the whole comprises a wetland habitat
which itself is a haven for an abundance of plants, insects, birds and mammals.
Management guidelines
Unlike most features of the farm, water is not normally self-contained. It
usually passes through and may be used down stream for a variety of purposes,
one of which may be purification for drinking water. Flowing water habitats and
wet areas on the farm are also ‘linear nature reserves’ which are important not
only in themselves, but because they serve as vital links between other habitats.
Management of watercourses on the farm therefore must
have a threefold objective:
1. Maintenance of the physical function of channelling excess water from
the land and off the farm.
2. Maintenance or enhancement of the water quality itself.
3. Preservation of the associated natural habitats to encourage the build-up
of non-target species.
Assessment of water quality using the invertebrate species composition as an
indicator is one of several parallel assessments used by the Environment
Agency in monitoring the state of our rivers. Using a computerised prediction
of the invertebrates that should be found in a clean river, watercourses are
graded on a six-point classification scheme, ranging from Very Good (grade a)
to Bad (grade f). Information on Biological Water Quality Monitoring is
available from the Environment Agency.
The water itself should contain large numbers of invertebrates including
mayfly nymphs (Ecdyonurus dispar), dragonfly (various species) and damselfly
(e.g. Lestes sponsa) nymphs, caddis fly (e.g. Phryganea grandis) larvae,
numerous water bugs, such as the water boatman (Corixa spp) and the riffle
beetle (Elmis aenea), and snails (e.g. Valvata piscinalis). A limited water fauna
probably indicates lack of oxygen or pollution. Submerged or floating plants
will include species like milfoil (Myriophyllum spp.) and starwort (Callitriche
spp.) while emergent plants at the edge will be a variety of reeds (e.g.
Phragmites communis), rushes (Juncus spp.) and flags (Iris pseudoacorus).
The first step is to survey all the water on the farm, seeking help and advice
from the local FWAG advisor where necessary. The survey should note the
condition of the water as well as the marginal areas. The small invertebrates
that live in water are a better general indicator of water quality than occasional
chemical analysis because these creatures do not move very far and their
populations reflect the pollution history of the water, rather than its quality
on a particular day. If the water is polluted, even for only a few minutes, some
or all of these animals may die and recovery may take several months.
Water beetle Rhantus exsoletus
66
Common darter Sympetum striolatum
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
67
Armed with information from the survey, a long term water habitat
management plan should be created. The precise measures to be taken will
vary greatly from farm to farm and professional advice should be sought from
a FWAG advisor. However the general principles of water habitat management
are described in Section 2.
The larvae (caterpillars) of all butterflies hatch and live on plants and, often
through sheer numbers and inability to move great distances, one or two
species can have a devastating effect on the host vegetation. Where the host is
a crop of economic importance, (for example cabbage white butterflies on most
Brassica crops) stringent control measures are essential.
4.4 Butterflies and Moths
Habitat
Butterflies are one of the natural wonders of the countryside even if some
species are damaging pests. They belong to the insect order Lepidoptera and
in the UK there are 61 species, excluding rare migrants, which comprise a rich
diversity of colour, shape and form.
Examples:
BUTTERFLIES Most adult butterflies are relatively short-lived
(although some over-winter) and they vary hugely in
size and flying strength. They feed on nectar and
therefore need flowering vegetation.
Most people will be familiar with the sight of Peacocks and Red Admirals
crowding onto wild or cultivated Buddleia plants but these are the exception
because they can breed on farmland and then travel large distances to find
flowers.
Some species are woodland specialists while others favour members of the
grass family.
Just over half of the British species list have been recorded from arable field
margins, the majority of which breed there. Some species make use of field
margins as flight corridors, apparently in preference to overflying crops,
possibly because it is relatively more sheltered. Scientific studies have shown
that wind buffeting reduces the passage of individuals across an unsheltered
area whether crop, hedgerow gap or road or motorway.
Small copper butterfly
MOTHS
Butterflies are ubiquitous, but all depend on just one or two particular host
plant species on which the eggs are laid and the caterpillars feed. In addition
the adult butterflies require a plentiful nectar source and for most species of
butterfly this means flowering plants in close proximity to the host plant.
The 2000-plus species of moths are less conspicuous
than butterflies but are present in much larger
numbers on farmland. They are important not only in
their own right but as food for bats and as caterpillars
for small birds, especially in hedgerows.
Historically, farmland was a rich habitat for butterflies but this has become
impoverished with the removal of weeds and other flora from field margins.
However, changing the emphasis in the management of farmland, particularly
the permanent vegetation of the grassy field margin, provides a substantial
opportunity for the conservation of butterflies.
Management guidelines
Butterflies need shelter, a source of nectar on which to feed and host plants
on which to lay eggs. A grassy field margin with a stable and varied perennial
plant community is probably more important for butterflies than a
conservation headland although both together are best. Conservation
Angle shades moth
68
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69
Armed with information from the survey, a long term water habitat
management plan should be created. The precise measures to be taken will
vary greatly from farm to farm and professional advice should be sought from
a FWAG advisor. However the general principles of water habitat management
are described in Section 2.
The larvae (caterpillars) of all butterflies hatch and live on plants and, often
through sheer numbers and inability to move great distances, one or two
species can have a devastating effect on the host vegetation. Where the host is
a crop of economic importance, (for example cabbage white butterflies on most
Brassica crops) stringent control measures are essential.
4.4 Butterflies and Moths
Habitat
Butterflies are one of the natural wonders of the countryside even if some
species are damaging pests. They belong to the insect order Lepidoptera and
in the UK there are 61 species, excluding rare migrants, which comprise a rich
diversity of colour, shape and form.
Examples:
BUTTERFLIES Most adult butterflies are relatively short-lived
(although some over-winter) and they vary hugely in
size and flying strength. They feed on nectar and
therefore need flowering vegetation.
Most people will be familiar with the sight of Peacocks and Red Admirals
crowding onto wild or cultivated Buddleia plants but these are the exception
because they can breed on farmland and then travel large distances to find
flowers.
Some species are woodland specialists while others favour members of the
grass family.
Just over half of the British species list have been recorded from arable field
margins, the majority of which breed there. Some species make use of field
margins as flight corridors, apparently in preference to overflying crops,
possibly because it is relatively more sheltered. Scientific studies have shown
that wind buffeting reduces the passage of individuals across an unsheltered
area whether crop, hedgerow gap or road or motorway.
Small copper butterfly
MOTHS
Butterflies are ubiquitous, but all depend on just one or two particular host
plant species on which the eggs are laid and the caterpillars feed. In addition
the adult butterflies require a plentiful nectar source and for most species of
butterfly this means flowering plants in close proximity to the host plant.
The 2000-plus species of moths are less conspicuous
than butterflies but are present in much larger
numbers on farmland. They are important not only in
their own right but as food for bats and as caterpillars
for small birds, especially in hedgerows.
Historically, farmland was a rich habitat for butterflies but this has become
impoverished with the removal of weeds and other flora from field margins.
However, changing the emphasis in the management of farmland, particularly
the permanent vegetation of the grassy field margin, provides a substantial
opportunity for the conservation of butterflies.
Management guidelines
Butterflies need shelter, a source of nectar on which to feed and host plants
on which to lay eggs. A grassy field margin with a stable and varied perennial
plant community is probably more important for butterflies than a
conservation headland although both together are best. Conservation
Angle shades moth
68
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Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
69
headlands are designed to encourage the growth of a number of broad-leaved
weed species. The flowers are an important source of nectar for butterflies
and the plants themselves provide breeding sites.
It is important, however, that the headlands are not the sole source of
host plants for breeding because harvest would create a potential loss of
reproductive effort for the butterflies. The presence of suitable hosts in the
field margin and hedgerows is clearly an important element in butterfly
habitat management. This can be ensured by avoidance of herbicide or
insecticide drift into the hedge bottom – butterflies are particularly susceptible
to them – and the consideration of no-spray zones.
4.5 Honeybees (and other bees)
HONEYBEE
Apis mellifera
Honeybees are essential for the pollination of a
number of crops, especially oilseed rape and beans
and in orchards. In addition, they collect nectar from
other crops, such as clover, and from wildflowers. As
insects, they are particularly vulnerable if some
insecticides are used at times when crops or weeds
are in full flower.
to bees is also likely to have less effect on other similar beneficial arthropods,
although this should never be assumed unless the product label says so.
Pesticides that present a special hazard to bees have been classed as ‘harmful’,
‘dangerous’ or ‘extremely dangerous’ to bees and they carry specific label
warnings that must be followed. Normally this requires users to avoid
treatment of crops in flower, or in which bees are actively foraging, or when
flowering weeds are present. However, this system does not indicate the risk
to bees in practice. From 1996 a new classification scheme is being used that
more accurately reflects the actual danger to bees in the field. Such products
will be labelled ‘high risk to bees’.
As a general rule honeybees are best safeguarded by avoiding the use of
insecticides when crops and weeds are in flower. If this is unavoidable, choice
should be made from products that present a low hazard. In every case, local
beekeepers should be given as much warning as possible via the local spray
liaison officer.
Any measures, such as the provision of grassy field margins or conservation
headlands, designed to encourage a diversity of flowering plant life at the edge
of fields, will help to reverse the decline in bumblebees and other wild bees on
farmland.
4.6 Arable Flowers
The role of other wild bee species, such as bumblebees, as pollinators should
not be overlooked. They live in soil or hollow trees and feed on nectar and
pollen. It follows that they thrive where there is flowering vegetation, for
example in hedge bottoms, to provide these food sources.
Management guidelines
The main threat to bees arises from the use of insecticides. It is irresponsible
and unnecessary to use pesticides in such a way that endangers bees. All
pesticides are tested for toxicity to bees and, whilst it should never be assumed
that a product is totally ‘safe’ to bees, some present a considerably lower hazard
than others. As a general rule, it is also likely that a product with a low toxicity
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Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Wild flowers are not just an attractive adornment of the countryside. They
have an important place in the natural ecosystem. Floral diversity at field
margins provides refuge and food sources of nectar and pollen for insects as
well as plant material and seeds for birds and small mammals.
The modernisation of British agriculture, in particular the developments
of the last 50 years, has had a profound effect on the diversity of flowering
plants to be found in and around arable fields. Climatic change could greatly
influence both crops and weeds, even more than agriculture has in recent
times. Lists of the most damaging weeds and rare species will continually
need to be updated.
Some species, such as corn crowfoot (Ranunculus arvensis), have become
very rare, whilst others, for example lamb’s succory (Arnoseris minima) and
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
71
headlands are designed to encourage the growth of a number of broad-leaved
weed species. The flowers are an important source of nectar for butterflies
and the plants themselves provide breeding sites.
It is important, however, that the headlands are not the sole source of
host plants for breeding because harvest would create a potential loss of
reproductive effort for the butterflies. The presence of suitable hosts in the
field margin and hedgerows is clearly an important element in butterfly
habitat management. This can be ensured by avoidance of herbicide or
insecticide drift into the hedge bottom – butterflies are particularly susceptible
to them – and the consideration of no-spray zones.
4.5 Honeybees (and other bees)
HONEYBEE
Apis mellifera
Honeybees are essential for the pollination of a
number of crops, especially oilseed rape and beans
and in orchards. In addition, they collect nectar from
other crops, such as clover, and from wildflowers. As
insects, they are particularly vulnerable if some
insecticides are used at times when crops or weeds
are in full flower.
to bees is also likely to have less effect on other similar beneficial arthropods,
although this should never be assumed unless the product label says so.
Pesticides that present a special hazard to bees have been classed as ‘harmful’,
‘dangerous’ or ‘extremely dangerous’ to bees and they carry specific label
warnings that must be followed. Normally this requires users to avoid
treatment of crops in flower, or in which bees are actively foraging, or when
flowering weeds are present. However, this system does not indicate the risk
to bees in practice. From 1996 a new classification scheme is being used that
more accurately reflects the actual danger to bees in the field. Such products
will be labelled ‘high risk to bees’.
As a general rule honeybees are best safeguarded by avoiding the use of
insecticides when crops and weeds are in flower. If this is unavoidable, choice
should be made from products that present a low hazard. In every case, local
beekeepers should be given as much warning as possible via the local spray
liaison officer.
Any measures, such as the provision of grassy field margins or conservation
headlands, designed to encourage a diversity of flowering plant life at the edge
of fields, will help to reverse the decline in bumblebees and other wild bees on
farmland.
4.6 Arable Flowers
The role of other wild bee species, such as bumblebees, as pollinators should
not be overlooked. They live in soil or hollow trees and feed on nectar and
pollen. It follows that they thrive where there is flowering vegetation, for
example in hedge bottoms, to provide these food sources.
Management guidelines
The main threat to bees arises from the use of insecticides. It is irresponsible
and unnecessary to use pesticides in such a way that endangers bees. All
pesticides are tested for toxicity to bees and, whilst it should never be assumed
that a product is totally ‘safe’ to bees, some present a considerably lower hazard
than others. As a general rule, it is also likely that a product with a low toxicity
70
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Wild flowers are not just an attractive adornment of the countryside. They
have an important place in the natural ecosystem. Floral diversity at field
margins provides refuge and food sources of nectar and pollen for insects as
well as plant material and seeds for birds and small mammals.
The modernisation of British agriculture, in particular the developments
of the last 50 years, has had a profound effect on the diversity of flowering
plants to be found in and around arable fields. Climatic change could greatly
influence both crops and weeds, even more than agriculture has in recent
times. Lists of the most damaging weeds and rare species will continually
need to be updated.
Some species, such as corn crowfoot (Ranunculus arvensis), have become
very rare, whilst others, for example lamb’s succory (Arnoseris minima) and
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
71
bur-parsley (Caucalis platycarpos) have disappeared completely. In total some
25 arable species are now classified as ‘Nationally Scarce’.
for controlling them, but the decisions are not easy because they depend on
the species present and the population. Out of the many plant species found in
our countryside, especially on chalk soils, a relatively small number (see box
on pp 72) are responsible for the sort of problems listed above and then
usually only if they are present in large numbers.
Whilst it would be wrong to attribute sole blame for the decline in species
diversity to the use of herbicides, there is no doubt that broad-spectrum
products of an ever increasing efficiency have played a significant part.
Nevertheless, it is modern farming systems as a whole, including close
cultivation and fertiliser misapplication as well as herbicide use, spray drift
and deliberate treatment of hedge bottoms, that have caused a gradual switch
to invasive weedy species.
Some examples of rare arable species:
C O R N B U T T E R C U P Ranunculus arvensis
Wild plants in field margins provide refuge and food sources for a wide range of insects, birds and
small mammals.
Weeds are opportunist species and they cause losses in a variety of ways: by
directly competing for light, water, air and nutrients; by physically growing
Characteristically inhabits poor, lime-deficient,
heavy soils mainly in the south-west Midlands.
Germinates in autumn; flowers late May – June.
over or up the crop; by impeding harvest machinery; by contamination and by
creating a soil seed bank to threaten later crops. All of these are sound reasons
Some of the most damaging farmland weeds:
C O R N G R O M W E L L Buglossoides arvense
Chalky, clay soils in the South Midlands and parts
of SE England. Germinates mainly in autumn but
can occur in spring crops; flowers late May – July.
Wild-oat Avena fatua
Black-grass Alopecurus myosuroides
Common couch Elymus repens
Cleavers Galium aparine
Mayweeds Matricaria spp.
Common chickweed Stellaria media
Knotgrass Polygonum aviculare
Redshank Polygonum persicaria
Common Poppy Papaver rhoeas
Common Hemp-nettle Galeopsis tetrahit
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Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
C O R N F L O W E R Centaurea cyanus
Loamy soils but now very uncommon. Recorded
in only four arable fields in southern England
between 1986 and 1992. Germinates mainly in
autumn; flowers early June – July. Also found in
stubbles.
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
73
bur-parsley (Caucalis platycarpos) have disappeared completely. In total some
25 arable species are now classified as ‘Nationally Scarce’.
for controlling them, but the decisions are not easy because they depend on
the species present and the population. Out of the many plant species found in
our countryside, especially on chalk soils, a relatively small number (see box
on pp 72) are responsible for the sort of problems listed above and then
usually only if they are present in large numbers.
Whilst it would be wrong to attribute sole blame for the decline in species
diversity to the use of herbicides, there is no doubt that broad-spectrum
products of an ever increasing efficiency have played a significant part.
Nevertheless, it is modern farming systems as a whole, including close
cultivation and fertiliser misapplication as well as herbicide use, spray drift
and deliberate treatment of hedge bottoms, that have caused a gradual switch
to invasive weedy species.
Some examples of rare arable species:
C O R N B U T T E R C U P Ranunculus arvensis
Wild plants in field margins provide refuge and food sources for a wide range of insects, birds and
small mammals.
Weeds are opportunist species and they cause losses in a variety of ways: by
directly competing for light, water, air and nutrients; by physically growing
Characteristically inhabits poor, lime-deficient,
heavy soils mainly in the south-west Midlands.
Germinates in autumn; flowers late May – June.
over or up the crop; by impeding harvest machinery; by contamination and by
creating a soil seed bank to threaten later crops. All of these are sound reasons
Some of the most damaging farmland weeds:
C O R N G R O M W E L L Buglossoides arvense
Chalky, clay soils in the South Midlands and parts
of SE England. Germinates mainly in autumn but
can occur in spring crops; flowers late May – July.
Wild-oat Avena fatua
Black-grass Alopecurus myosuroides
Common couch Elymus repens
Cleavers Galium aparine
Mayweeds Matricaria spp.
Common chickweed Stellaria media
Knotgrass Polygonum aviculare
Redshank Polygonum persicaria
Common Poppy Papaver rhoeas
Common Hemp-nettle Galeopsis tetrahit
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Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
C O R N F L O W E R Centaurea cyanus
Loamy soils but now very uncommon. Recorded
in only four arable fields in southern England
between 1986 and 1992. Germinates mainly in
autumn; flowers early June – July. Also found in
stubbles.
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
73
P H E A S A N T ’ S - E Y E Adonis annua
Chalky, loamy soils in SE England. Germinates
in spring or autumn sown crops; flowers mid June
– mid July. Also found in stubbles.
M O U S E TA I L Myosurus minimus
A low to short plant which bears single, inconspicuous, whitish flowers in
May. Fruit a long slender, mouse-tail like seed pod. Leaves thin and strapshaped form a rosette at the base of the plant. Characteristic of heavy clay
soils that get waterlogged in winter. Found mainly in New Forest, Wilts,
Dorset, Somerset. Exclusively autumn germinating; flowers May.
R E D H E M P- N E T T L E Galeopsis angustifolium
S H E P H E R D ’ S - N E E D L E Scandix pecten-veneris
Occurs in rotations dominated by winter cereals
in East Anglia and central southern England. Now
becoming more common again and can be a
serious pest. Germinates almost entirely in
autumn; flowers late May – June.
B R OA D - L E AV E D S P U R G E
Euphorbia platphyllos
Similar to the more familiar sun spurge but can grow
to 80cm high. Peculiar greenish-yellow flowers clustered
in a head on an unbranched stem. Leaves short and
pointed. Large globular fruits are covered in warts and
expel seeds explosively when ripe. Isolated sites on
heavy lime-rich soils in the south of England.
Germinates mainly in autumn; flowers June – July.
Also found in stubbles.
C O R N PA R S L E Y Petroselinum segetum
A slender, spreading plant growing as tall as the
crop. It is related to carrot and parsnip and has numerous
tiny, greenish-white flowers borne on a much branched stem. Leaves
confined to base of plant and symetrically divided into broad lobes like
those of the parsnip. Mainly on heavy soils and lime-rich sandy soils near
the sea along the coast in south-west and southern England. Germinates in
early autumn; flowers July – September.
R E D H E M P- N E T T L E Galeopsis angustifolium
Small plant with large pinkish-red flowers and long pointed, toothed
leaves with short bristles. Seed-leaves are large and oval with backward
pointing teeth. Lime-rich soils, mainly chalk in mid-Hampshire and
south-east England. Germinates in spring; flowers July – September. Also
found in stubbles.
74
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Small plant with large pinkish-red flowers and long pointed, toothed leaves
with short bristles. Seed-leaves are large and oval with backward pointing
teeth. Lime-rich soils, mainly chalk in mid-Hampshire and south-east
England. Germinates in spring; flowers July – September. Also found in
stubbles.
L E S S E R S N A P D R A G O N O R W E A S E L’ S S N O U T
Misopates orontium
Large, pink flowers resemble those of the garden snapdragon. Plant grows
to a maximum of 40cm tall, with narrow, pointed, dull green leaves. Free
draining acidic soils, chiefly sands and gravel but also sometimes stony
clays mainly in south and west England. Germinates in spring; flowers late
June – August.
Management guidelines
Whilst endangered species should form the primary focus for conservation
measures, management practices for the protection of farm plant life should
have a wider perspective. In fact many common arable weeds have a high value
in the diet of many invertebrates and birds.
Conservation of endangered species and a general enrichment of the arable
flora can be achieved without compromising overall productivity and
profitability. Wild plants in farmland should be regarded as ‘target species’
only if they cause economic damage to the crop being grown or if they would
threaten ensuing crops.
Identification and assessment of weed problems in growing crops is important.
Decisions about weed control and herbicide selection should be driven by a
general policy to contain the pernicious species below damaging thresholds
rather than a blanket elimination of all non-crop plants. Early timing with a
low dose of a product specifically targeted at the pernicious species present not
only saves cost, but also allows the uncompetitive constituents of the ground
flora to survive.
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
75
P H E A S A N T ’ S - E Y E Adonis annua
Chalky, loamy soils in SE England. Germinates
in spring or autumn sown crops; flowers mid June
– mid July. Also found in stubbles.
M O U S E TA I L Myosurus minimus
A low to short plant which bears single, inconspicuous, whitish flowers in
May. Fruit a long slender, mouse-tail like seed pod. Leaves thin and strapshaped form a rosette at the base of the plant. Characteristic of heavy clay
soils that get waterlogged in winter. Found mainly in New Forest, Wilts,
Dorset, Somerset. Exclusively autumn germinating; flowers May.
R E D H E M P- N E T T L E Galeopsis angustifolium
S H E P H E R D ’ S - N E E D L E Scandix pecten-veneris
Occurs in rotations dominated by winter cereals
in East Anglia and central southern England. Now
becoming more common again and can be a
serious pest. Germinates almost entirely in
autumn; flowers late May – June.
B R OA D - L E AV E D S P U R G E
Euphorbia platphyllos
Similar to the more familiar sun spurge but can grow
to 80cm high. Peculiar greenish-yellow flowers clustered
in a head on an unbranched stem. Leaves short and
pointed. Large globular fruits are covered in warts and
expel seeds explosively when ripe. Isolated sites on
heavy lime-rich soils in the south of England.
Germinates mainly in autumn; flowers June – July.
Also found in stubbles.
C O R N PA R S L E Y Petroselinum segetum
A slender, spreading plant growing as tall as the
crop. It is related to carrot and parsnip and has numerous
tiny, greenish-white flowers borne on a much branched stem. Leaves
confined to base of plant and symetrically divided into broad lobes like
those of the parsnip. Mainly on heavy soils and lime-rich sandy soils near
the sea along the coast in south-west and southern England. Germinates in
early autumn; flowers July – September.
R E D H E M P- N E T T L E Galeopsis angustifolium
Small plant with large pinkish-red flowers and long pointed, toothed
leaves with short bristles. Seed-leaves are large and oval with backward
pointing teeth. Lime-rich soils, mainly chalk in mid-Hampshire and
south-east England. Germinates in spring; flowers July – September. Also
found in stubbles.
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Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Small plant with large pinkish-red flowers and long pointed, toothed leaves
with short bristles. Seed-leaves are large and oval with backward pointing
teeth. Lime-rich soils, mainly chalk in mid-Hampshire and south-east
England. Germinates in spring; flowers July – September. Also found in
stubbles.
L E S S E R S N A P D R A G O N O R W E A S E L’ S S N O U T
Misopates orontium
Large, pink flowers resemble those of the garden snapdragon. Plant grows
to a maximum of 40cm tall, with narrow, pointed, dull green leaves. Free
draining acidic soils, chiefly sands and gravel but also sometimes stony
clays mainly in south and west England. Germinates in spring; flowers late
June – August.
Management guidelines
Whilst endangered species should form the primary focus for conservation
measures, management practices for the protection of farm plant life should
have a wider perspective. In fact many common arable weeds have a high value
in the diet of many invertebrates and birds.
Conservation of endangered species and a general enrichment of the arable
flora can be achieved without compromising overall productivity and
profitability. Wild plants in farmland should be regarded as ‘target species’
only if they cause economic damage to the crop being grown or if they would
threaten ensuing crops.
Identification and assessment of weed problems in growing crops is important.
Decisions about weed control and herbicide selection should be driven by a
general policy to contain the pernicious species below damaging thresholds
rather than a blanket elimination of all non-crop plants. Early timing with a
low dose of a product specifically targeted at the pernicious species present not
only saves cost, but also allows the uncompetitive constituents of the ground
flora to survive.
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
75
If an endangered species is present, recognition is important. Some of the most
threatened are described briefly on pp 73–75 but more detailed descriptions
and guidance can be found in the Game Conservancy Trust publication Field
Guide to Rare Arable Flowers.
Cropped land
• Create conservation headlands.
• Avoid herbicide spray drift from the main body of the crop.
• Use target-specific herbicides.
• Maintain a grassy bank at the field boundary with non-weedy herbaceous
species.
Uncropped land
• Avoid fertiliser or herbicide application, either directly or by drift, into the
hedge bottom.
The extent to which they are able to control pest populations is difficult to
quantify, and the effects measured in research have been variable. Certainly
there are clear cases of some pests held entirely in check by natural enemies,
and others where this patently is not the case. To some extent the process is
self-limiting. If there is a specific host preference, populations of pest and
predator follow each other in cyclical sequence and the rate of increase of the
former may well outstrip the latter. Nevertheless, natural predators do much
to hold lighter infestations in check and delay or reduce the need for other
control measures.
Ladybirds are a familiar and visible platoon of nature’s army, but they
represent a tiny proportion of the total force. For example, on aphids alone,
it is estimated that there could be over 600 predatory or parasitic species.
Because of this diversity, it is neither possible nor necessary to consider
individual species and the main groups are briefly described below.
Examples:
Set-aside
GROUND
BEETLES
• Allow natural regeneration on rotational set-aside.
Carabidae
• Lightly cultivate in October or early November.
• Delay cutting as long as possible; certainly until August.
• Sow flower mixtures on the outer 6m to benefit conservation headlands
later.
• Make full use of derogations for conservation purposes (for example,
permission to cultivate, depending on species present).
4.7 Predatory Insects and Spiders
The collective term ‘predatory arthropods’ embraces a host of species living
in soil or on the ground in field margins and in hedgerow vegetation. They
are an extremely diverse group and come from virtually all the orders of
insects as well as the spiders and mites. They form a largely unseen, and
certainly infrequently recognised, army whose food sources are the pest species
that cause farmers so much trouble. They themselves are also essential food
sources for birds and mammals.
76
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
L ACEWING S
Chrysopids
Ground beetles are mostly nocturnal, living on, rather
than under, the ground. They are important general
predators and both adults and larvae feed on aphids,
slugs and other prey. Bembidion lampros is one of
the most important aphid predators in UK, but it
has been estimated that over 600 aphid-eating species
can be found in UK cereal fields. Ground beetles
overwinter in field boundary habitats, in hedgerows
and strips of perennial vegetation at the base of
fences, hedges or walls whence they re-disperse into
new crops in the spring. Ploughing or spraying too
close to hedge bottoms can significantly reduce the
suitable habitats for these organisms.
Lacewings are readily recognisable as adults in which
form they often overwinter. The adults are nonpredatory but the larvae are valuable because they are
equipped with powerful piercing and sucking mouth
parts which they use to prey on aphids and other
small soft insects such as whiteflies, caterpillars
and mites. They also eat insect eggs.
The adults need growing vegetation on which to feed
and lay their eggs.
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
77
If an endangered species is present, recognition is important. Some of the most
threatened are described briefly on pp 73–75 but more detailed descriptions
and guidance can be found in the Game Conservancy Trust publication Field
Guide to Rare Arable Flowers.
Cropped land
• Create conservation headlands.
• Avoid herbicide spray drift from the main body of the crop.
• Use target-specific herbicides.
• Maintain a grassy bank at the field boundary with non-weedy herbaceous
species.
Uncropped land
• Avoid fertiliser or herbicide application, either directly or by drift, into the
hedge bottom.
The extent to which they are able to control pest populations is difficult to
quantify, and the effects measured in research have been variable. Certainly
there are clear cases of some pests held entirely in check by natural enemies,
and others where this patently is not the case. To some extent the process is
self-limiting. If there is a specific host preference, populations of pest and
predator follow each other in cyclical sequence and the rate of increase of the
former may well outstrip the latter. Nevertheless, natural predators do much
to hold lighter infestations in check and delay or reduce the need for other
control measures.
Ladybirds are a familiar and visible platoon of nature’s army, but they
represent a tiny proportion of the total force. For example, on aphids alone,
it is estimated that there could be over 600 predatory or parasitic species.
Because of this diversity, it is neither possible nor necessary to consider
individual species and the main groups are briefly described below.
Examples:
Set-aside
GROUND
BEETLES
• Allow natural regeneration on rotational set-aside.
Carabidae
• Lightly cultivate in October or early November.
• Delay cutting as long as possible; certainly until August.
• Sow flower mixtures on the outer 6m to benefit conservation headlands
later.
• Make full use of derogations for conservation purposes (for example,
permission to cultivate, depending on species present).
4.7 Predatory Insects and Spiders
The collective term ‘predatory arthropods’ embraces a host of species living
in soil or on the ground in field margins and in hedgerow vegetation. They
are an extremely diverse group and come from virtually all the orders of
insects as well as the spiders and mites. They form a largely unseen, and
certainly infrequently recognised, army whose food sources are the pest species
that cause farmers so much trouble. They themselves are also essential food
sources for birds and mammals.
76
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
L ACEWING S
Chrysopids
Ground beetles are mostly nocturnal, living on, rather
than under, the ground. They are important general
predators and both adults and larvae feed on aphids,
slugs and other prey. Bembidion lampros is one of
the most important aphid predators in UK, but it
has been estimated that over 600 aphid-eating species
can be found in UK cereal fields. Ground beetles
overwinter in field boundary habitats, in hedgerows
and strips of perennial vegetation at the base of
fences, hedges or walls whence they re-disperse into
new crops in the spring. Ploughing or spraying too
close to hedge bottoms can significantly reduce the
suitable habitats for these organisms.
Lacewings are readily recognisable as adults in which
form they often overwinter. The adults are nonpredatory but the larvae are valuable because they are
equipped with powerful piercing and sucking mouth
parts which they use to prey on aphids and other
small soft insects such as whiteflies, caterpillars
and mites. They also eat insect eggs.
The adults need growing vegetation on which to feed
and lay their eggs.
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
77
H O VE R F L I E S
Syrphidae
There are nearly 250 species of hoverflies found
in Britain. The adults play an important role as
pollinators but their main significance lies in the
voracious consumption of aphids by the larvae.
Eggs are laid near aphid colonies to facilitate this
predation. Hoverflies live in the vegetation at the
base of hedges and along field boundaries.
MITES
Acarina
As with all specific predators their value lies more in
hastening the reduction of an established infestation
rather than preventing its build up. Even so, it is not
clear whether a localised ‘sink’ for hoverflies around
a field margin necessarily results in significant aphid
reduction on a farm scale. Clearly flowering strips
should not only be large enough to attract hoverflies,
but they should be spread around the farm because
there is evidence to suggest that hoverflies do not
readily cross breaks in vegetation cover.
Over the last 10 years apple growers have enjoyed
the benefit of natural control of the fruit tree red
spider mite by the predatory Typhlodromid mite which
consistently keeps the pest to non-damaging levels
without the need for spraying. It is estimated that the
mite is the main means of controlling red spider in
over two-thirds of British orchards.
WASPS
LADYBIRDS
Coccinellids
SPIDERS
Arachnids
78
Few people would fail to recognise the familiar red
wing cases with black spots of the adult ladybird,
although there are, in fact, many different species.
Both adults and larvae are predatory, especially on
aphids, but also on scale and other insects. This is
useful because the adults can fly considerable
distances before laying eggs, which ensures good
spatial distribution. One ladybird larva will eat
350–400 aphids during its development.
Spiders are a large and diverse group, but they are
increasingly recognised as the dominant predators of
most terrestrial communities and important general
predators of crop pests. The main species in Britain
of significance for pest control are the money spiders
(Linyphiidae), and the wolf spiders (Lycosidae). Money
spiders are often visible when they balloon on silken
threads from hedgerows to the top of crop plants.
Experiments in cereals have shown that populations
of up to 30 aphids per square metre can be controlled.
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Typically mites are very small (less than 2mm) and
therefore difficult to see with the naked eye. Mites are
a large order, only a few of which are predatory. Some
are important predators of crop damaging spider
mites, and they are increasingly being used as
biological agents for this pest in glasshouses.
Phytoseiulus persimilis has been used for red spider
mite control since 1969.
Hymenoptera
Parasitic wasps attack a number of crop pests,
including aphids, caterpillars and orange blossom
midge of wheat, and lay their eggs inside them.
The eggs hatch and kill the host by feeding on it.
Parasitised aphids can be easily recognised because
they are left as a hard mummified shell. In Britain
there are about 5,500 species, of which around 75
(for example Aphidius ervi), specialise in attacking
aphids.
The mechanisms by which the wasps are attracted
to aphids have been studied at the Institute of Arable
Crops Research at Rothamsted. The aims of the work
are to conserve and increase natural populations of
wasps on farmland, and to develop ways of
manipulating wasp populations to make them more
efficient. The work has found that parasitic wasps
find their hosts mainly by detecting chemicals,
including sex pheromones, originating from the
aphids and the plants they have colonised. The hope
is that it may be possible to develop synthetic
chemical lures to attract the wasps into field margin
strips when they are leaving crops in the autumn. In
this way a reservoir of wasps would be ready to
emerge alongside the crop in the following spring to
coincide with the aphid invasion.
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
79
H O VE R F L I E S
Syrphidae
There are nearly 250 species of hoverflies found
in Britain. The adults play an important role as
pollinators but their main significance lies in the
voracious consumption of aphids by the larvae.
Eggs are laid near aphid colonies to facilitate this
predation. Hoverflies live in the vegetation at the
base of hedges and along field boundaries.
MITES
Acarina
As with all specific predators their value lies more in
hastening the reduction of an established infestation
rather than preventing its build up. Even so, it is not
clear whether a localised ‘sink’ for hoverflies around
a field margin necessarily results in significant aphid
reduction on a farm scale. Clearly flowering strips
should not only be large enough to attract hoverflies,
but they should be spread around the farm because
there is evidence to suggest that hoverflies do not
readily cross breaks in vegetation cover.
Over the last 10 years apple growers have enjoyed
the benefit of natural control of the fruit tree red
spider mite by the predatory Typhlodromid mite which
consistently keeps the pest to non-damaging levels
without the need for spraying. It is estimated that the
mite is the main means of controlling red spider in
over two-thirds of British orchards.
WASPS
LADYBIRDS
Coccinellids
SPIDERS
Arachnids
78
Few people would fail to recognise the familiar red
wing cases with black spots of the adult ladybird,
although there are, in fact, many different species.
Both adults and larvae are predatory, especially on
aphids, but also on scale and other insects. This is
useful because the adults can fly considerable
distances before laying eggs, which ensures good
spatial distribution. One ladybird larva will eat
350–400 aphids during its development.
Spiders are a large and diverse group, but they are
increasingly recognised as the dominant predators of
most terrestrial communities and important general
predators of crop pests. The main species in Britain
of significance for pest control are the money spiders
(Linyphiidae), and the wolf spiders (Lycosidae). Money
spiders are often visible when they balloon on silken
threads from hedgerows to the top of crop plants.
Experiments in cereals have shown that populations
of up to 30 aphids per square metre can be controlled.
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Typically mites are very small (less than 2mm) and
therefore difficult to see with the naked eye. Mites are
a large order, only a few of which are predatory. Some
are important predators of crop damaging spider
mites, and they are increasingly being used as
biological agents for this pest in glasshouses.
Phytoseiulus persimilis has been used for red spider
mite control since 1969.
Hymenoptera
Parasitic wasps attack a number of crop pests,
including aphids, caterpillars and orange blossom
midge of wheat, and lay their eggs inside them.
The eggs hatch and kill the host by feeding on it.
Parasitised aphids can be easily recognised because
they are left as a hard mummified shell. In Britain
there are about 5,500 species, of which around 75
(for example Aphidius ervi), specialise in attacking
aphids.
The mechanisms by which the wasps are attracted
to aphids have been studied at the Institute of Arable
Crops Research at Rothamsted. The aims of the work
are to conserve and increase natural populations of
wasps on farmland, and to develop ways of
manipulating wasp populations to make them more
efficient. The work has found that parasitic wasps
find their hosts mainly by detecting chemicals,
including sex pheromones, originating from the
aphids and the plants they have colonised. The hope
is that it may be possible to develop synthetic
chemical lures to attract the wasps into field margin
strips when they are leaving crops in the autumn. In
this way a reservoir of wasps would be ready to
emerge alongside the crop in the following spring to
coincide with the aphid invasion.
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
79
ROVE
BEETLES
Staphylinids
Rove beetles are one of the largest families of beetles
and very easy to recognise because they have very
short wing covers that expose most of their abdominal
segments. When disturbed they often carry their
abdomen pointing upwards as a defence mechanism.
They are general predators including aphids as part
of a more varied diet.
Others
Numerous other arthropod species probably assist in the predation of pests.
Host specific predators, such as ladybirds, parasitic wasps and hoverflies, are
more easily identified and studied. Being almost totally reliant on their target
host as a food source, it follows that their population increase lags behind that
of the pest. Therefore they have limited value in preventing pest build-up in a
crop unless their population can be stimulated in advance by creating a noncrop environment where both the target pest and the predator can thrive
between cropping seasons. This is the strategy being investigated for parasitic
wasps and aphids (see above), but the principle of adopting a management
strategy to encourage the presence and survival of predatory arthropods in
close proximity to crops is universally applicable.
On the other hand general predators, such as ground beetles and spiders, are
useful because they remain active even when the pests species are absent, and
are available in numbers when the first pests arrive. Some of the main groups
have been described above, but there are probably many more. For example
some species of bugs (e.g. Anthocoris spp.) are predatory while others, such as
the grass feeding bugs (Stenodemini), are an important dietary element of
ground feeding bird chicks such as the grey partridge. Many general predatory
arthropods have not been identified and most have not been studied.
Management guidelines
lack the dense ground cover that will shelter and support beneficial insects
and spiders. Moreover, for target specific predators, their populations
inevitably rise and fall with the presence or absence of the crop and its pests
unless an alternative source of the food species is available nearby.
For general predators, too, there is a need for shelter for overwintering and
a continuing food supply, which can include nectar and pollen from flowering
weeds. This in turn improves their reproductive capacity and hastens
population build-up. In general, therefore, management practices to encourage
predatory arthropods should focus on creating the right physical environment
in terms of ground vegetation and increasing floral diversity along field
boundaries. Curbing the desire for over-management and for tidiness will
do a lot to encourage the build up of beneficial species.
These requirements need to be considered across the whole farm because many
of the predators do not fly and there is evidence that some of them do not
readily cross large breaks in vegetation cover. In a few cases research has
demonstrated specific host preferences. For example, hoverflies thrive when
a strip of Phacelia tanacetifolia is grown at the field margin.
Given the right conditions, overwintering populations of predatory insects and
spiders in field boundaries can be built up to over 1000 per square metre so
that they are ready to move into crops in the spring.
Very large fields can pose problems because it can take predators several weeks
to reach the centre, and here mid-field refuges, or ‘beetle banks’ may be
considered. Overwintering stubbles may also have a role to play in helping
movement of the ground predators.
Management practices to encourage predatory arthropod populations are
shown below.
Cropped land
• Avoid ploughing too close to hedge bottoms.
• Adopt reduced/minimum tillage techniques where possible.
• Bale and cart straw where possible
All the species described here live naturally in the ground vegetation of
cropped and non-cropped areas of the farm. Modern field boundaries often
• Create flower-rich conservation headlands.
80
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
81
ROVE
BEETLES
Staphylinids
Rove beetles are one of the largest families of beetles
and very easy to recognise because they have very
short wing covers that expose most of their abdominal
segments. When disturbed they often carry their
abdomen pointing upwards as a defence mechanism.
They are general predators including aphids as part
of a more varied diet.
Others
Numerous other arthropod species probably assist in the predation of pests.
Host specific predators, such as ladybirds, parasitic wasps and hoverflies, are
more easily identified and studied. Being almost totally reliant on their target
host as a food source, it follows that their population increase lags behind that
of the pest. Therefore they have limited value in preventing pest build-up in a
crop unless their population can be stimulated in advance by creating a noncrop environment where both the target pest and the predator can thrive
between cropping seasons. This is the strategy being investigated for parasitic
wasps and aphids (see above), but the principle of adopting a management
strategy to encourage the presence and survival of predatory arthropods in
close proximity to crops is universally applicable.
On the other hand general predators, such as ground beetles and spiders, are
useful because they remain active even when the pests species are absent, and
are available in numbers when the first pests arrive. Some of the main groups
have been described above, but there are probably many more. For example
some species of bugs (e.g. Anthocoris spp.) are predatory while others, such as
the grass feeding bugs (Stenodemini), are an important dietary element of
ground feeding bird chicks such as the grey partridge. Many general predatory
arthropods have not been identified and most have not been studied.
Management guidelines
lack the dense ground cover that will shelter and support beneficial insects
and spiders. Moreover, for target specific predators, their populations
inevitably rise and fall with the presence or absence of the crop and its pests
unless an alternative source of the food species is available nearby.
For general predators, too, there is a need for shelter for overwintering and
a continuing food supply, which can include nectar and pollen from flowering
weeds. This in turn improves their reproductive capacity and hastens
population build-up. In general, therefore, management practices to encourage
predatory arthropods should focus on creating the right physical environment
in terms of ground vegetation and increasing floral diversity along field
boundaries. Curbing the desire for over-management and for tidiness will
do a lot to encourage the build up of beneficial species.
These requirements need to be considered across the whole farm because many
of the predators do not fly and there is evidence that some of them do not
readily cross large breaks in vegetation cover. In a few cases research has
demonstrated specific host preferences. For example, hoverflies thrive when
a strip of Phacelia tanacetifolia is grown at the field margin.
Given the right conditions, overwintering populations of predatory insects and
spiders in field boundaries can be built up to over 1000 per square metre so
that they are ready to move into crops in the spring.
Very large fields can pose problems because it can take predators several weeks
to reach the centre, and here mid-field refuges, or ‘beetle banks’ may be
considered. Overwintering stubbles may also have a role to play in helping
movement of the ground predators.
Management practices to encourage predatory arthropod populations are
shown below.
Cropped land
• Avoid ploughing too close to hedge bottoms.
• Adopt reduced/minimum tillage techniques where possible.
• Bale and cart straw where possible
All the species described here live naturally in the ground vegetation of
cropped and non-cropped areas of the farm. Modern field boundaries often
• Create flower-rich conservation headlands.
80
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
81
• Choose pesticides with lower risk to non-target species where more than
one product is available.
• Create grassy mid-field refuges, or ‘beetle banks’.
• Tolerate low infestations of broad-leaved weeds.
Uncropped land
• Avoid spray drift or fertiliser application into hedge bottoms.
• Leave some areas of natural vegetation on the farm.
Set-aside
• Manage field margins and hedge bottoms as in arable fields.
Management guidelines
Organic matter on the soil surface, such as plant trash or manure, increases
earthworm populations by providing a food source, insulation and increasing
winter survival. Conversely, mechanical disturbance, such as ploughing or
rotovating, or soil compaction by heavy machinery, can severely reduce their
numbers.
There is some evidence that a few pesticides applied at full recommended
rates may have some impact on earthworms, but cultivations and crop choice
are the major limiting factors on populations.
Practices that promote earthworm populations include mixed farming with
extensive grasslands and widespread use of well-rotted manure. Minimum
tillage, correct tyre pressures and other measures to reduce soil damage and
compaction are all helpful.
• Rotate summer cutting round the field to create a mosaic of habitats.
4.9 Soil Fauna
4.8 Earthworms
Earthworms play an important, though largely unquantified, role in
maintaining soil health. Although they are not essential for a productive soil,
the presence of an active and abundant population is thought to be beneficial.
In top fruit orchards, they are valued ‘hygienists’ because they decompose
diseased leaves and fruit rapidly.
E ARTHWORM Earthworms incorporate organic matter by pulling
leaves, straw and other organic material down into
Lumbricidae
the soil where they feed on the decaying residues.
They fragment the material and distribute it through
the soil. Worm casts are left on the surface and
consist of a mixture of organic matter, mineral matter
and lime. One estimate of the quantity of worm casts
on a healthy soil is 25 tonnes per hectare.
Earthworm channels in the soil facilitate water and
air movement.
82
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
The soil’s microflora comprises a myriad of organisms collectively
contributing to the maintenance of a healthy soil. It has been estimated that
there are one billion bacteria, one thousand metres of fungi and thousands of
micro-organisms and algae in a thimbleful of healthy soil, or one tonne of
microbial life in every hectare of soil.
Soil fauna have an important role to play in the physical and chemical
maintenance of the soil system, and are themselves vital components of the
food chain, and the nutrient and organic matter cycles. Soils with balanced
populations of invertebrates, especially those involved with the breakdown of
organic matter, are both ecologically and economically self-sustaining.
Management guidelines
Management regimes which encourage and support soil fauna populations are
beneficial environmentally and financially. In general these are concerned with
maintenance of soil structure, a plentiful supply of organic matter, such as
plant remains, and the avoidance of soil pollution.
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
83
• Choose pesticides with lower risk to non-target species where more than
one product is available.
• Create grassy mid-field refuges, or ‘beetle banks’.
• Tolerate low infestations of broad-leaved weeds.
Uncropped land
• Avoid spray drift or fertiliser application into hedge bottoms.
• Leave some areas of natural vegetation on the farm.
Set-aside
• Manage field margins and hedge bottoms as in arable fields.
Management guidelines
Organic matter on the soil surface, such as plant trash or manure, increases
earthworm populations by providing a food source, insulation and increasing
winter survival. Conversely, mechanical disturbance, such as ploughing or
rotovating, or soil compaction by heavy machinery, can severely reduce their
numbers.
There is some evidence that a few pesticides applied at full recommended
rates may have some impact on earthworms, but cultivations and crop choice
are the major limiting factors on populations.
Practices that promote earthworm populations include mixed farming with
extensive grasslands and widespread use of well-rotted manure. Minimum
tillage, correct tyre pressures and other measures to reduce soil damage and
compaction are all helpful.
• Rotate summer cutting round the field to create a mosaic of habitats.
4.9 Soil Fauna
4.8 Earthworms
Earthworms play an important, though largely unquantified, role in
maintaining soil health. Although they are not essential for a productive soil,
the presence of an active and abundant population is thought to be beneficial.
In top fruit orchards, they are valued ‘hygienists’ because they decompose
diseased leaves and fruit rapidly.
E ARTHWORM Earthworms incorporate organic matter by pulling
leaves, straw and other organic material down into
Lumbricidae
the soil where they feed on the decaying residues.
They fragment the material and distribute it through
the soil. Worm casts are left on the surface and
consist of a mixture of organic matter, mineral matter
and lime. One estimate of the quantity of worm casts
on a healthy soil is 25 tonnes per hectare.
Earthworm channels in the soil facilitate water and
air movement.
82
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
The soil’s microflora comprises a myriad of organisms collectively
contributing to the maintenance of a healthy soil. It has been estimated that
there are one billion bacteria, one thousand metres of fungi and thousands of
micro-organisms and algae in a thimbleful of healthy soil, or one tonne of
microbial life in every hectare of soil.
Soil fauna have an important role to play in the physical and chemical
maintenance of the soil system, and are themselves vital components of the
food chain, and the nutrient and organic matter cycles. Soils with balanced
populations of invertebrates, especially those involved with the breakdown of
organic matter, are both ecologically and economically self-sustaining.
Management guidelines
Management regimes which encourage and support soil fauna populations are
beneficial environmentally and financially. In general these are concerned with
maintenance of soil structure, a plentiful supply of organic matter, such as
plant remains, and the avoidance of soil pollution.
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
83
5
Getting
Help,
Advice and
Information
84
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Publications from the Game Conservancy Trust
5.1 Advice
This guide gives enough detail to take farmers and their advisers a long way
towards improving their wildlife awareness and management. However, to get
the best advice for local circumstances there are many organisations and
publications where advice is freely and willingly available. Following the
various Codes of Good Agricultural Practice provides a sound basis for
management for the protection of non-target species.
The Farming and Wildlife Advisory Group (FWAG) exists to provide farmers
and landowners with the best independent technical advice and practical
guidance on the enhancement of landscape, heritage and wildlife. It advises on
farm practices and techniques for environmental improvement via a network
of qualified local advisors through its recent Landwise initiative.
The Game Conservancy Trust provides a free on-farm advisory service on the
management of field margins covering the whole of mainland Britain.
Linking Environment and Farming (LEAF) provides guidance and help
by example to farmers wishing to develop viable agricultural practices
sympathetic to the environment. It does this by arranging visits to LEAF
farms and encouraging the uptake of Integrated Farm Management by
adopting published guidelines. It also produces the LEAF Audit which
provides an invaluable management tool to assess a farm’s environmental
performance in the context of all the other farm’s decision-making and
operations.
Many of the practical measures outlined here for the management of
conservation headlands and field margins have been developed by the Game
Conservancy Trust and summarised in a range of fact sheets and leaflets.
• Game, Set-aside and Match, A Guide to Set-aside Management for Game
• Guidelines for the Management of Field Margins
• Field Guide to Rare Arable Flowers
Publications from RSPB
• Farmland Bird Management Guideline Sheets – a series of free sheets which
can be requested singly or as sets on lowland or upland birds. Species
covered are: grey partridge, lapwing, skylark, linnet, corn bunting, reed
bunting and tree sparrow on lowland farms and curlew, redshank, snipe,
lapwing, black grouse, twite and ring ouzel on upland farms.
• A Management Guide to Birds of Lowland Farmland – a priced publication
produced to accompany the free guideline sheets and primarily intended for
advisors.
• Farming and Wildlife: A Practical Management Handbook – a priced
publication produced in 1994 with the help of many farm conservation
advisers.
The British Agrochemicals Association, its member companies and its
distributor associate members are able to provide advice on Integrated Crop
Management (ICM) and wildlife-related aspects of ICM.
In addition to the above, numerous other organisations, for example English
Nature and Scottish Natural Heritage, can offer guidance on specific
environmental issues.
Other useful publications
• Managing Set-aside Land for Wildlife
Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, published by The Stationery Office
• Integrated Crop Management
British Agrochemicals Association/LEAF/ATB-Landbase/Sainsburys
5.2 Information
• Birds on Lowland Farms
Peter Lack, published by The Stationery Office
Most of the organisations mentioned in these guidelines produce supportive
literature. Some examples are quoted below and can be obtained by contacting
the organisations directly. A list of addresses is included at the end.
• The Quality of Rivers in England and Wales
86
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
The Environment Agency
87
Publications from the Game Conservancy Trust
5.1 Advice
This guide gives enough detail to take farmers and their advisers a long way
towards improving their wildlife awareness and management. However, to get
the best advice for local circumstances there are many organisations and
publications where advice is freely and willingly available. Following the
various Codes of Good Agricultural Practice provides a sound basis for
management for the protection of non-target species.
The Farming and Wildlife Advisory Group (FWAG) exists to provide farmers
and landowners with the best independent technical advice and practical
guidance on the enhancement of landscape, heritage and wildlife. It advises on
farm practices and techniques for environmental improvement via a network
of qualified local advisors through its recent Landwise initiative.
The Game Conservancy Trust provides a free on-farm advisory service on the
management of field margins covering the whole of mainland Britain.
Linking Environment and Farming (LEAF) provides guidance and help
by example to farmers wishing to develop viable agricultural practices
sympathetic to the environment. It does this by arranging visits to LEAF
farms and encouraging the uptake of Integrated Farm Management by
adopting published guidelines. It also produces the LEAF Audit which
provides an invaluable management tool to assess a farm’s environmental
performance in the context of all the other farm’s decision-making and
operations.
Many of the practical measures outlined here for the management of
conservation headlands and field margins have been developed by the Game
Conservancy Trust and summarised in a range of fact sheets and leaflets.
• Game, Set-aside and Match, A Guide to Set-aside Management for Game
• Guidelines for the Management of Field Margins
• Field Guide to Rare Arable Flowers
Publications from RSPB
• Farmland Bird Management Guideline Sheets – a series of free sheets which
can be requested singly or as sets on lowland or upland birds. Species
covered are: grey partridge, lapwing, skylark, linnet, corn bunting, reed
bunting and tree sparrow on lowland farms and curlew, redshank, snipe,
lapwing, black grouse, twite and ring ouzel on upland farms.
• A Management Guide to Birds of Lowland Farmland – a priced publication
produced to accompany the free guideline sheets and primarily intended for
advisors.
• Farming and Wildlife: A Practical Management Handbook – a priced
publication produced in 1994 with the help of many farm conservation
advisers.
The British Agrochemicals Association, its member companies and its
distributor associate members are able to provide advice on Integrated Crop
Management (ICM) and wildlife-related aspects of ICM.
In addition to the above, numerous other organisations, for example English
Nature and Scottish Natural Heritage, can offer guidance on specific
environmental issues.
Other useful publications
• Managing Set-aside Land for Wildlife
Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, published by The Stationery Office
• Integrated Crop Management
British Agrochemicals Association/LEAF/ATB-Landbase/Sainsburys
5.2 Information
• Birds on Lowland Farms
Peter Lack, published by The Stationery Office
Most of the organisations mentioned in these guidelines produce supportive
literature. Some examples are quoted below and can be obtained by contacting
the organisations directly. A list of addresses is included at the end.
• The Quality of Rivers in England and Wales
86
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
The Environment Agency
87
• How to Manage Your Set-aside Land for Specific Environmental Objectives
Published by MAFF
• Conservation Grants for Farmers
A free leaflet published by MAFF
British Agrochemicals Association
4 Lincoln Court, Lincoln Road, Peterborough PE1 2RP
Tel: 01733 349225. Fax: 01733 562523
Countryside Commission
John Dower House, Crescent Place, Cheltenham, Gloucester GL50 3RA
Tel: 01242 521381. Fax: 01242 584270
5.3 Grants and Finance
Countryside Council for Wales (CCW)
Plas Penrhos Ffordd Penrhas, Bangor, Gwynedd LL57 2LQ
Tel: 01248 370444. Fax: 01248 355782
The following bodies/organisations offer financial assistance and grants for
English Nature
Northminster House, Peterborough PE1 1UA
Tel: 01733 455000. Fax: 01733 568834
specific environmental activities
• Government Agriculture Departments – agri-environment incentive
schemes. Specific schemes are operated by each country (England,
Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland)
• Forestry Commission (Woodland Grant Scheme, Farm Woodland Premium
Environment Agency local Offices are listed in Yellow Pages
Scheme)
Farming and Rural Conservation Agency (FRCA)
(an executive agency of MAFF)
Nobel House, 17 Smith Square, London SW1P 3JR
Tel: 0171 238 5432. Fax: 0171 238 5588
• English Nature
• Scottish Natural Heritage
Fertiliser Manufacturers Association
Greenhill House, Thorpe Road, Peterborough PE3 6GF
Tel: 01733 331303. Fax: 01733 332909
• Countryside Council for Wales
• Countryside Commission
FWAG (Farming & Wildlife Advisory Group)
National Agricultural Centre, Kenilworth, Warwickshire CV8 2RX
Tel: 01203 696699. Fax: 01203 696760
• National Park Authorities
• Local Authorities
Forestry Commssion
231 Corstophine Road, Edinburgh EH12 7AT
Tel: 0131 334 0303. Fax: 0131 339 3047
5.4 Addresses
ADAS
Oxford Spires Business Park, The Boulevard Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1NZ
Tel: 01865 842742. Fax: 01865 845055
BASIS (Registration) Limited
2 St John Street, Ashbourne, Derbyshire DE6 1GL
Tel: 01335 343945. Fax: 01335 346488
88
The Environment Agency
Rivers House, Waterside Drive, Aztec West, Almondsbury, Bristol BS12 4UD
Tel: 01454 624400. Fax: 01454 624409
Or, for General Enquiries Tel: 0645 333111
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
The Game Conservancy Trust
Burgate Manor, Fordingbridge, Hampshire SP6 1EF
Tel: 01425 652381. Fax: 01425 655848
HMSO
49 High Holborn, London WC1V 6HB
Tel: 0171 873 9090
Post orders to:
HMSO Publications Centre, PO Box 276, London SW8 5DT
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
89
• How to Manage Your Set-aside Land for Specific Environmental Objectives
Published by MAFF
• Conservation Grants for Farmers
A free leaflet published by MAFF
British Agrochemicals Association
4 Lincoln Court, Lincoln Road, Peterborough PE1 2RP
Tel: 01733 349225. Fax: 01733 562523
Countryside Commission
John Dower House, Crescent Place, Cheltenham, Gloucester GL50 3RA
Tel: 01242 521381. Fax: 01242 584270
5.3 Grants and Finance
Countryside Council for Wales (CCW)
Plas Penrhos Ffordd Penrhas, Bangor, Gwynedd LL57 2LQ
Tel: 01248 370444. Fax: 01248 355782
The following bodies/organisations offer financial assistance and grants for
English Nature
Northminster House, Peterborough PE1 1UA
Tel: 01733 455000. Fax: 01733 568834
specific environmental activities
• Government Agriculture Departments – agri-environment incentive
schemes. Specific schemes are operated by each country (England,
Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland)
• Forestry Commission (Woodland Grant Scheme, Farm Woodland Premium
Environment Agency local Offices are listed in Yellow Pages
Scheme)
Farming and Rural Conservation Agency (FRCA)
(an executive agency of MAFF)
Nobel House, 17 Smith Square, London SW1P 3JR
Tel: 0171 238 5432. Fax: 0171 238 5588
• English Nature
• Scottish Natural Heritage
Fertiliser Manufacturers Association
Greenhill House, Thorpe Road, Peterborough PE3 6GF
Tel: 01733 331303. Fax: 01733 332909
• Countryside Council for Wales
• Countryside Commission
FWAG (Farming & Wildlife Advisory Group)
National Agricultural Centre, Kenilworth, Warwickshire CV8 2RX
Tel: 01203 696699. Fax: 01203 696760
• National Park Authorities
• Local Authorities
Forestry Commssion
231 Corstophine Road, Edinburgh EH12 7AT
Tel: 0131 334 0303. Fax: 0131 339 3047
5.4 Addresses
ADAS
Oxford Spires Business Park, The Boulevard Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1NZ
Tel: 01865 842742. Fax: 01865 845055
BASIS (Registration) Limited
2 St John Street, Ashbourne, Derbyshire DE6 1GL
Tel: 01335 343945. Fax: 01335 346488
88
The Environment Agency
Rivers House, Waterside Drive, Aztec West, Almondsbury, Bristol BS12 4UD
Tel: 01454 624400. Fax: 01454 624409
Or, for General Enquiries Tel: 0645 333111
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
The Game Conservancy Trust
Burgate Manor, Fordingbridge, Hampshire SP6 1EF
Tel: 01425 652381. Fax: 01425 655848
HMSO
49 High Holborn, London WC1V 6HB
Tel: 0171 873 9090
Post orders to:
HMSO Publications Centre, PO Box 276, London SW8 5DT
Arable Wildlife: Protecting Non-target Species
89
A R A B L E
W I L D L I F E :
Arable
Wildlife
Sponsor:
British
Agrochemicals
Association
Protecting
Non-target Species
P R O T E C T I N G
N O N - T A R G E T
S P E C I E S
Sponsor:
British
Agrochemicals
Association
This publication is supported by:
This publication
is supported by: