The Origins and Evolution of Latino History
Author(s): Virginia Sánchez Korrol
Source: Magazine of History, Vol. 10, No. 2, Latinos in the United States (Winter, 1996), pp. 512
Published by: Organization of American Historians
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25163064
Accessed: 24/10/2009 10:22
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless
you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you
may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use.
Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at
http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=oah.
Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed
page of such transmission.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.
Organization of American Historians is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to
Magazine of History.
http://www.jstor.org
The
Latino
History
Virginia
am new. History made me. My
I
Aurora Levins Morales
"Child of the Americas"(l)
Spanish
pueblos,
Americas
As
among
thirty million
States,
matches
form
a
core
of
recent
relatively
some
a
union
arrivals,
that
long-time
U.S.
residents;
pre
English
ethnic
ing with Spanish speaking; aliens with
individuals
citizens; and documented
with undocumented
immigrants. As the
nation's fastest growing "minority," all
indicators point to a heightened sense of
across
ethnic
and
a collective
ing
national
lines,
consciousness
lines,
tive
histori
cal role in the U.S.
The
validation
of memory,
role in the U.S.
self-iden
and affirmation
tification, contestation,
as
centuries
spans
persons of Spanish
American heritage have always figured in
themaking of theUnited States of America.
before
the massive
migrations
and
immigra
tions of the present. The forgotten heritage
of Hispanics inwhat is now theUnited States
forms the focus of contemporary historical
and literary investigation (2).
theatrical works,
and
narratives,
sources
primary
gia,
Texas,
Carolina,
form
Arizona,
other
ex
earliest
the
South
Louisiana,
Missis
Missouri,
California,
Kansas,
sippi,
Arkansas,
islands.
panic Caribbean
a strong
web
of
and
Alabama,
and include as well
Nebraska,
the His
reveal
Sources
interconnec
regional
tions that linked the Hispanic Caribbean
and South and Central America with
U.S.
communities,
one point
~~
aiding
to another.
commercial,
major
from
migration
The founding
and
religious,
of
cul
tural sites?among
them the cities of
Los Angeles,
Santa Fe, St. Augustine,
San
one hundred years, the origins of a compre
hensive Latino/Hispanic
entity began well
and
travel
poetry,
civil,
musi
records,
m tant literature inwhat is today the United
States. A wealth of materials, including
oral traditions, chronicle multifaceted
life in colonial settlements from the six
teenth to the nineteenth centuries inwhat
are presently Florida, New Mexico, Geor
receptiv
across
Latinos
regardand
rich
a collec
regarding
consciousness
and
historical
ecclesiastical
cal compositions
prose,
lines and national
~~
and
diaries
chronicles,
administrative,
testimonials,
military,
and
ity among
speak
awareness and receptivity among Latinos
the nation's
awareness
dominantly from the Dominican Repub
lic and Central and South America, with
Spanish American
and
settlements,
villas,
presidios,
and missions
the
throughout
pre-date Jamestown by at least
fastest
all
growing
"minority/'
to a
indicators
point
sense
heightened
of
in the United
Hispanos
the
of
population
Korrol
?
Mexican
Americans/Chicanos,
and
Puerto Ricans, Cuban Americans,
their descendants, the oldest and largest
sub-groups
Sanchez
Viewed from another perspective, as Na
tive Americans, Latinos were there when
As
Plymouth Rock was just a pebble.
first language was spanglish.
Iwas born at the crossroads
and Iam whole.
of
Evolution
and
Origins
Antonio,
and
San
to
Juan?testify
the vitality of a period that set standards
for enduring socio-cultural institutions and
wove
the earliest
connecting
strands
among
Spanish Americans.
The nineteenth century brings into
focus the formation of peoplehood.
This
a
initiates
rich
of
docu
period
tapestry
OAH Magazine
of History
Winter
1996
5
from the regional presses that
bridged peripheral northern communities
inMexico
with the southern metropolis
mentation
City,
els,
or Havana,
or San
testimonios,
essays,
Juan,
to the
and
treatises
nov
of
political exiles. The first historical novel
ever written in the United States might
well have been Jicotencal,
penned by
in Philadelphia
in
Cuban Felix Varela
1826 (3). Along with other literary ef
forts, Varela's work serves to illustrate the
na
earliest ideas about Latin American
tionhood. It is significant also that the first
to emerge
Spanish language newspaper
El
from U. S. Hispanic
communities,
in New Orleans
in
Misisipi,
published
1808, initiated a long chain of periodicals
that afford the historian intimate glimpses
of
into the ethos of large communities
to
who
Americans
speak and
happened
write in Spanish (4).
By the time the Treaty of Guadalupe
terri
Hidalgo ceded half of the Mexican
Mexican
to
States
in
the
United
1848,
tory
heritage had become inextricably woven
'""""-"" "
____
into the historical fabric of the American
As they assessed their situa
Southwest.
tion in the "uneasy space that marked the
intersection of the cultures of Mexico and
the United States," Mexican Americans
struggled with issues of identity in the
decades following
1848 (5). Their con
cerns were expressed inwriting in dozens
of Spanish language newspapers that dot
in folkloric border
ted the Southwest,
corridos that extolled the virtues of folk
or Juan
heroes
like Gregorio
Cortez
Chacon, in the actions of rebels like Joaquin
and in
and Tiburcio Vasquez,
like Mariano Vallejo's
autobiographies
that served as a form of cultural resistance.
Viewed also through the lens of the landed
elite, novels like Maria Amparo Ruiz de
Burton's The Squatter and the Don testify
to a chaotic world of clashing Anglo and
Murrieta
Mexican
as
values
conclusion
(6).
On the other
late-nineteenth
and
century
side of
__
.
neared
its
the continent,
early-twentieth
and Puerto
tury Cuban
i i,
the
Rican
cen
political
Courtesy of HunterCollege, CUNY
exiles, joined by expatriates from South
and Central America, articulated an agenda
concerns in the Spanish
of working-class
language presses of southern Florida and
New York City. Confronting
oppressive
colonial structures and the economic dev
astation
11 ^____tf'4___f^
_ jfe
jiippMBBM-B.i.'.,?..A
DELBRONX "I
ii^H
__m^^^^^^^^^^^^^H
??- - ______-__._-_-_-,-__.-_...
mum^-'^m^tm^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^B^^^^mli^^^BKl^^^^^^^^^^M
the
ten-year
war,
extensions
of the
spearheaded
cigar industry in Tampa, Ybor
City, and New York City, providing the
that
locus for working-class
emigrations
twentieth
would continue into the
century.
Strategies of Antillean independence, radi
cal labor organizing, and even the seeds of
Puerto Rican feminism were sown; the
latter especially with the second edition
Mi
of Luisa Capetillo's
publication
Disecatacion
las
libertades
sobre
opinion:
de la mujer in Ybor City (7).
Under leaders like Jose Marti, Fran
cisco Gonzalez (Pachin) Marin, and Sotero
Figueroa, "The Bases of the Cuban Revo
lutionary Party" were written and ratified
by supportive groups in New York, New
and other revolu
Orleans, Philadelphia,
centers
throughout the Americas.
tionary
These ideologies were well known outside
and within exile communities
composed
of racially diverse work
predominantly
men
ing-class
... l|#__
by
wrought
Cubans
island's
views
on
the
and
women.
social
and
Progressive
economic
contra
found within their communities
appeared in the pages of Patria, the revo
lutionary organ, and others like El Latino
Americano or El Porvenir (8).
the Spanish Cuban Ameri
Following
canWar, focus shifted from independence
dictions
to internal community
concerns, includ
inmutual
of
workers
the
ing
organization
aid societies, unions, and other supportive
associations.
Women
emerged
promi
nently among the union ranks, and could
be found at the forefront of workers'
In New York, essayists?in
struggles.
____________________kJ__i___________________________
cluding Cuban Alberto O'Farrill, editor of
the weekly, Grdfico\ Puerto Rican Arturo
of the
Alfonso
Schomburg,
bibliophile
in
the
African
Americas;
experience
and Jesus
Bernardo Vega,
chronicler;
as well as
columnist
for
Justicia,
Colon,
Bronx
6
Hispanic
American
Registration
OAHMagazine ofHistory
Committee,
November
Winter 1996
1956.
their communi
other papers?defended
ties against American foreign and domes
In so doing, they
tic imperialism
(9).
followed a tradition set forth by leading
nineteenth-century Antillean thinkers who
lived and wrote in New York.
Included
the
among this group were Jose Marti,
tural affirmation and bilingual innovation
in their creative expression. Listed among
this group are Rodolfo "Corky" Gonzalez' s
Yo Soy Joaquin/1 Am Joaquin; Tomas
father of the Cuban independence,
and
Maria
de
of
educator
the
Hostos,
Eugenio
These intellectuals, in particu
Americas.
Rivera's
a concept
lar, supported
of Hispano-Ameri
can unity and were acutely aware of their
historical place within the Ibero-Ameri
can
family.
fifty years, a handful of pio
intellectuals,
writers, and other
neering
the condition
with
pensadores
grappled
and status of Latinos, especially Mexican
Americans.
Conditioned
by the political
tone and generation in which they were
produced, their contributions proposed to
Within
mediate,
validate,
fine theMexican
or Cuban
U.S.
and,
rede
ultimately,
Puerto Rican,
American,
In the produc
experience.
tion of new knowledge,
the academics
stereo
attempted to eradicate debasing
to confront
and
types
racism
and
discrimi
nation. Among the first scholars to fashion
aMexican American
identity were histo
rian Carlos E. Castaneda,
sociologist
George I. Sanchez, and folklorist Arthur I.
Cultural
Campa.
definition,
and
the
stirrings
colonialism,
sub-altern
status
concerning
farm
epic about Mexican
workers,
American
Rudolfo Anaya's validation of oral tradi
tion and the transmission of culture (13).
It is within this climate of provocative,
probing, and often militant activism that
Juan Gomez Quinones
issues his influen
essay
on
culture
and
resistance,
and
gender,
ethno-racial
and new
nary methods,
perspectives,
dynamics,
intergenerational
labor,
interdiscipli
categories
of analy
the demeaning,
they challenged
distorted, and monolithic
interpretations
of the U.S. Latino experience.
Scholars
mined
the sources documenting
the ori
And the Earth did not Part; Ernesto
Galarza's
ethnographic
autobiography,
Barrio Boy: The Story of a Boy's Accul
turation; and the classic, Bless Me Ultima,
tial
strong national connections,
sis,
la tierraf
trago
...ynoselo
elude
"On
Culture" (14). Today, these works are
viewed as foundational,
the first among
several building blocks preserving
and
shaping contemporary Latino ideology.
The onset of the 1970s and 1980s
propagated a generation of historians and
other academics schooled in the struggles
for civil rights in the turbulent 1960s and
influenced by the creative expression of
their communities.
Intent on expanding
the boundaries of academic history to in
gins and evolutions of Latino communi
ties, unlocking a wide range of materials
to new interpretations, sometimes build
ing
often
upon?more
and
frontier,
contesting?the
cornerstones
intellectual
area
of borderlands,
Their
studies.
genera
tion questioned Anglo American
hege
mony over historical
interpretation and
their domination of the historical research
agenda (15). Not satisfied with merely
creating "knowledge for the sake of knowl
edge," their goals ranged from charting
courses
innovative
to "set
the record
and methods
straight,"
ing social histories
that served
to reconstruct
important
in and of
themselves.
The academic generation of the sev
enties and eighties sought to reconstruct
nineteenth-
and
twentieth-century
diaspora
Courtesy of HunterCollege, CUNY
self
^_
racism, ethnicity,
of U.S.
Hispanos
in other camps as well (10).
Identity and affirmation were at the
core of literary works written
in Latin
the
America,
Hispanic Caribbean, and the
United States. In this vein, the works of
Octavio Paz delve into theMexican psyche
both north and south of the Rio Grande.
The articles of Mario Suarez which estab
II concepts of a
lish post World War
Mexican American
identity are reflected
on the East Coast inPuerto Rican Bernardo
surfaced
(11). The decade of the
Vega's memoirs
sixties witnesses
the publications
of
en
Guillermo Cotto Thorner's
Tropico
Piri Thomas's
Down These
Manhattan,
Mean Streets, and Jesus Colon's A Puerto
Rican in New York and Other Sketches.
All works describe themigration and harsh
conditions
in the barrio hispano
(12).
Similar concerns emanated from Chicano
writers as they grappled with the bitter
ness
of
racism.
They
strove
toward
____________EK_ii %
^JUlI
_______H:_______________K__li'?'
w 1
sir
-i_________^________[':::
___________
League
iWf_____PMPII^^^^^^^^^^^B____.
It*Jilt:'J_F^11__11P11^
Si
?Jr__
of Puerto Rican Hispanics,
A ^M
_ii_i_l_Pwir___^_______________________H
T
1*
W^^^KSKSKKKKKl^^mm':'Wk
**^
?^
__^__________________________l
_______B
* * ^y*
j*^^^
^^SjP^
___.___
JM?"
_____
Brooklyn,
New
York.
cul
OAH Magazine of History
Winter 1996
7
on Latinos/Hispanos?Albert
cations
Camarillo's Latinos in the United States is
a case in point?to
appreciate the scope of
in all of their ethno-racial,
communities
Incor
class, and gendered complexities.
porating popular culture and written and
oral traditions, these
academics redefined
the parameters ofthe
new social history
in
and,
the
^^_^_
^^_^__^_^__.
^^^^^
^^^^^
?
^^?-
industry,
commercial
communities
Latinos,
^V^f^^^^^^^^^H^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^BB
|^^^n^^^^|9Kilii^^^':
leadership and insti
Examples
abound of the semi
nal work produced
by this generation,
bring
including the frontier
studies
of David
the inter
Weber;
generational focus of
where
stage
theirreality contrasted
the
and contested
dominant Anglo ex
perience and where
they interacted within
and across class lines
ethno-racial
and
riers,
with
parts
across
tional
na
was
and Latin
America
i II If IS^Klb
1iiifffifpPM^:
-
#v
-*^^^^^^^^^^HlML
^^^^HV^w^BrJi^^v
^B^^^B
^H^^^^^H
'^\^^^r
.-*^ ^^Bw
*^^^^^B1
I^^IH^^^BHHBI^^HH^^^^^^^^^^^^^H^^HHv^^K^^^^ft'
drawing
from
strengths
com
ponents of both. This
harvest of knowledge
has proceeded at an
impressive pace, yet
the corpus of this lit
erature
remains
pe
ripheral to the core of
i^f*
I 1114
IB
H^BBVnll^MiFS^^^^^^^HHH^
i il I *
f-f Iff rfM^^^M^^^
^I
?I^MP&MgBI
VV \-
iSViinfffllliia^^^l^
Kl^^H
BmBnlMfi*f
if
fe
?. - %\ fenfcK,
.J-^
,^^BB
filsftlllijlpr
i
^^^Ifll^^^^^^^fil^^lKsSflkji^r.Jf.JI^^^^^^^^RSsii^H^
tf
'
&,*
Li
( '
'
:1'^^*
'1:
V j
,-J&
TiL
"IK'?- "sS.
'
ema
scholarship
Chicana
conscious
culture,
ness,
and
interrela
with
tionship
American,
ies by Vicki Ruiz and
Sarah Deutsch; stud
ethnicity,
Flores;
teenth-century
nine
Cu
ban
community
studies of Gerald E.
the Puerto
Poyo;
cul
Hispanic
ethnic
studies, or from the
earliest departments
the
societ
non-Hispanic
Juan
oriented
Virgin
Mary's
float and girls during
in Mexican
and programs
American,
Chicano, or Puerto Rican Studies. One
need only peruse the bibliographic publi
8
nity studies of Rich
ard Griswold
del
Castillo
and Albert
and identity by Clara
E. Rodriguez
and
the
nates from academic
niches in American,
tural,
ciplinary analysis of
power and sexuality
in New Mexico;
the
commu
and
family
ies on race,
of
ground-breaking
or
interdis
Camarillo;
history.
Much
Latin
leader
Ram6n
ship;
Gutierrez's
boundaries.
both U.S.
U.S.
American
lines,
outcome
The
Garcia*s
on Mexican
study
counter
and/or
oceans,
T.
Mario
bar
state
structures.
tutional
ing them out of the
shadows and on to
center
incor
grass-roots
porating
that
interpretation
conferred agency on
U.S.
to
the
of diverse
perience
forging
process,
Latino
empowered
The
communities.
result was a historical
as union
agriculture,
organizers and as transmitters of culture;
from employment and labor history to the
politics of language;
Courtesy of HunterCollege, CUNY and from the
migra
tion/immigration ex
OAHMagazine ofHistory
procession.
the new knowledge
(16). Topics range
from exploration and settlement of north
ern New Spain to the work of women in
Winter1996
tion/immigration
Portes and of
Rican community by
Sanchez
Virginia
the
Korrol;
migra
studies of Alejandro
the Centro
de Estudios
Puertorriquenos;andbilingualismandpub
lie education
studies of Guadalupe
San
Jr. (17).
Miguel,
Until now, however, historical pro
duction has tended to promote primarily
the
very
foundational
necessary
recon
viewed
of Latino experiences,
from a North American
predominantly
In searching for elements of
perspective.
latinidad, scholars have tended to explore
struction
contemporary
U.S.
communities
ture
the
encompasses
Current
a
for
groundwork
narrative.
antecedents,
research
(19).
Others,
however,
argue
population"
It argues that the history of
boundaries.
Latinos forms an indivisible chapter sub
ject to its own universality and specificity,
and integral to our understanding of both
U.S. and Latin American history (18).
To speak then in terms of a collective
Latino/Hispanic
history that posits an in
half of the total Latino population,
rian George
J. Sanchez cautions
and
scholars
based
on migration
who
comprise
experience,
labor,
cultural
over
shared
legacy,
elements,
language,
customs,
attitudes,
and
and
traditions.
How
historians
frame
the
conversa
If the
tion on Latino history is vital.
danger of assuming affinity within and
across
this
enormously
complex
popula
a blurring
tion lies in over-generalization,
distinctions
and
total
of
homogenization
of the groups, the challenge to historians
a
histo
that a
Courtesy of HunterCollege, CUNY
i ri"
i
i
^
to conceptual
alike
It
ize an area of study in formation.
multicultural,
incorporates multilingual,
ethno
and interdisciplinary perspectives,
racial realities, and analytical categories
historical
the formation of identity. Referring spe
to cultural evolution among Mexi
well
expression,
and overall uniqueness within the broader
ethno-racial contours of this nation, but
each also proudly appropriates a common
cifically
can Americans,
creative
variations,
linguistic
citing
ingly on the side of difference,
centuries of regional disconnection
and
and
among U.S. Latinos,
discontinuity
point to the absence of a common history
as a case in point. Still others probe intra
group and generational dimensions chal
static
notions
of cultural
lenging
adaptation, contextual dualities, and hence
students
dorsement of an overarching Latino/His
panic ideal. Each group rightfully stakes
a nonnegotiable
claim to its own past,
overwhelm
trends on Latino historiography and litera
ture in the 1990s mark amove toward the
that Spanish American
history
premise
belongs to the Americas?
legitimately
that the concept of borderlands transcends
or academic
imaginary
geo-political
tegrated consciousness within the broader
framework of United States history invites
bipolaric model stressing "either cultural
or gradual acculturation
has
continuity
a full exploration of the
short-circuited
complex process of cultural adaptation"
(20). Such arguments cannot be ignored,
the tide
yet in spite of the contradictions,
toward en
appears to turn increasingly
gender,
or generational differences. Scholar Edna
Acosta Belen believes the "shorthand la
bel (Hispanic) is turning into a symbol of
cultural affirmation
and identity in an
society that traditionally has
alienating
been hostile and prejudicial to cultural and
racial differences, and unresponsive to the
and educational needs of a
socioeconomic
large segment of the Hispanic
exclud
ing the broader Latin American/Carib
to address
bean context and neglecting
Like stepping stones
Hispanic diversity.
to the past, the collective body of litera
comprehensive
national
variations,
LSf'
________________l
^ffn
______________
!__
so
J
_^_
*- *- -^
Jpit tr
________________ ___ _________
t^^B h
vj
u
/
*>
"ill
1
-^? __W__.
_?_*__________K
*?
____?!!?
*wm
_jL____^_______r% __^^^^^^fl^^tfi#^9B^BCiC\C9^H|j^^k
;\ iiy'
flHHv
cial class, gender, and identity. As it seeks
to reproduce the past in terms of an His
panic ethnic and national diversity, it ur
gently challenges us to search for common
ground among groups whose historical
entry into what is presently the United
States occurred at different times and was
conditioned by different circumstances.
we
the nomenclatures
Admittedly,
are
ascribe to this body of knowledge
paradoxical,
laden. The
regardless
HHI
__________________________
__________________________________&:
j^^^^^^^^^^^^^'^^^^^^KtMiL-ii^^^^^mS^^^^^^KKi^^^^^B
__^__^__^____^__H_x____P^__P____________9__B^
___R #1SP^
imprecise, and politically
terms Latino, Latina, His
American,
panic, Hispanic
Spanish
or Ibero-Americano
seek to
American,
embrace the totality of the U.S. experi
ence
_____________________________^___________________________________
of
class,
color,
Confederaci6n
General
Puertorriqueiia.
regional
OAH Magazine of History
Winter 1996
9
0
becomes how best to incorporate and bal
ance the nuances and variegated experi
ences of all Latinos, particularly of those
who figured centrally
in the historical
in
any given period, without
enterprise
distortion, or omission.
misappropriation,
to historian Gerald E. Poyo,
According
indeed
exist for collective
iden
grounds
he
which
describes as an "evolving
tity,
that by definition thrives on
phenomenon
the commonalities within the diverse Latin
American background groups." If identity is
understood as a continuum of shared experi
ence,
a
then
narrative
comprehensive
is
surely possible. What has been lacking until
now is the development of popular con
sciousness about an integrated past (21).
What then, does itmean to be Latino/
consortium of Hispanic Archives; (4) grants
in-aidand fellowships for scholars; (5) a pub
lishing program; (6) a curriculum program;
and
issues
temporary
of
the present
(22).
Un
y Rodolfo
4.
5.
6.
2.
"Mexican American
Paredes,
Raymund
erature: An Overview,"
in Recovering,
Maria
Ruiz de Burton,
Amparo
and theDon, ed. RosauraSanchez
project
following
OAHMagazineofHistory
The Squatter
and Beatrice
Publico
ers,
of Mexican
Streets
A Puerto
Rican
inNew
(New
York:
International
See
1982).
(New
York and Other
also Edna Acosta
Publish
Belen
and
The Way
It
(Houston, Tex.: Arte
eds.,
Publico Press, 1994).
13.
Rudolfo
IAm Joaquin/Yo
'Corky" Gonzalez,
Bantam
1993). Seealso,
ering,
279-92.
Nancy
A. Hewitt
RosauraSanchez,
and Ana VandeWater,
Patriotas
Azize
Vargas,
y Obreras
La Mujer
of
trans. Evangelina
"La
of women.
including
by
these presses, which
appeared
San Antonio,
El Paso, Los Angeles,
1979).
15.
as
the role of women
explores
to these alternative
and contributors
rent research
See Clara Lomas,
'The Articulation
1915,"
inRecovering.
Nicolas Kanellos, "A Socio-Historic Study of
Hispanic Newspapers in theUnited States," in
G. Gutierrez,
toWhom?:
"Significant
and the History
of the
Americans
American
West,"
Western
Albert
Camarillo,
States
ed., Latinos
Barbara,
(Santa
Sarah Deutsch,
Class,
Frontier
Separate Refuge: Culture,
on an Anglo Hispanic
in the American
1880
Southwest,
1940 (New York: Oxford University Press,
1987); Vicki
L. Ruiz,
nery Lives: Mexican
Can
Cannery
Women,
Women,
Unionization,
and theCalifornia Food Processing Industry,
1930-1950 (Albuquerque:University of New
Mexico Press, 1987); Juan Flores, Divided
on Puerto
Garci2L,MexicanAmericans:
Americans:
in the United
ABC-CLIO,
No
History of Puerto Ricans inNew YorkCity
(Berkeley: University of California Press,
Mexican
Calif.:
and Gender
Borders:
1994), chapter 5.
T. Garia,
See Mario
Quar
1986).
17.
107-28. Seealso, VirginiaSanchez
Recovering,
to Community:
From Colonia
The
Konol,
Historical
terly (November 1993): 531.
16.
etc. Cur
David
Mexican
the
in Laredo,
"On Ciilture,"inA_W
ed JosephSommersandTomas
Ybarra
Cliffs, N J.: Prentice Hall,
(Englewood
Essays,
Frausto
FloresMagon brothers in 1905, isone example
of
1971).
Juan Gomez Quinones,
ernChicano Writers: A Collection of Critical
at large on
the emancipation
Boy:
Press,
14.
en la Lucha
published
Arte
Galarza,
1972); and Ernesto
The Story of a Boy's Accultura
tion (Notre Dame: University
of Notre Dame
these presses
but
organizations,
Regeneracion,
(Houston:
Vigil-Pinon
International,
Barrio
1910. Often,
tied into exile political
the community
y no
Rivera,...
Publico Press, 1987);Rudolfo Anaya, Bless
Me, Ultima (Berkeley:Tonatiuh/Quinto Sol
in Cuba,
or oppositional
presses
prolifer
as
ated throughout
the Southwest,
particularly
to the downfall of the Poifiriato
and
precursors
1972); Tomas
Books,
se lo trago la tierra/AndtheEarth did notPart,
Alternative
they also informed
amyriad of issues,
Winter 1996
Mean
Sanchez-Korrol,
Virginia
Was and Other Writings
Press,
American
These
consinPress,
were
10.
en Man
Tropico
Soy Joaquin: An Epic Poem (New York:
the Revolution
of the
the implementation
(1) an on-line data base;
programs:
Thorner,
Down
Sketches
of Gender in theMexican Borderlands, 1900
(2) a periodicals recovery program; (3) a
10
Arte
Colon,
(Rio Piedras:Editorial Cultural, 1985).
on
Cotto
Autobiography, (Madison:University ofWis
Yamila
the U.S. Hispanic
Literary Heri
such project A ten year enterprise
at the University
of Houston,
the
Texas,
focuses
Texas:
(Houston,
Lit
31.
at the
1921," unpublished
paper presented
on the History
of Latin Workers,
Symposium
theMeany Archives,
1993. See also,
February
9.
Guillermo
hattan (San Juan: Cordillera, 1960); Piri
Puerto Rico and the United States, 1898
Recovering
tage is one
based
12.
Thomas,
Independencia:
Morales,
Vega,Me/n0*>sojBernardo
trans. Juan
Andreu
Iglesias,
Flores (New York: Monthly Review Press,
1984).
Narratives:
Californio
"Nineteenth-Century
Bancroft Collection,"
TheHubertH.
inRecov
Endnotes
ed. Cesar
Vega,
Yoric: Alfred A. Knopf, 1967); and Jesus
Yours: The Formation
8.
appeared
107.
presses.
Getting Home Alive (Ithaca,N.Y.: Firebrand
Books, 1986), 50.
ter 1948. Bernardo
Arte
1992); andGenaro Padilla,My History, Not
7.
of articles
(Houston,Texas: Arte Publico Press, 1993),
editors
and Rosario
Tex.:
(Houston,
1995), xxxv.
s collection
Suarez'
and
Campa,
inArizonaQuarterly, Summer 1947andWin
Nicolas Kanellos, "A Socio-Historic Study of
Hispanic Newspapers in theUnited States," in
Pita
tive Latino past.
Levins Morales
J. Cortina
the U. S. Hispanic
Recovering
Literary Heri
and Genaro Padilla
tage, ed. Ramon Gutierrez
and syncretic culture, throughout Latin
America and among U.S. Latinos. It holds
the key to our understanding of a collec
Aurora
11. Mario
Press,
on Castaneda,
for background
Sanchez.
of
Felix Varela, Jicotencal, Edition de Luis Leal
Publico
the most
doubtedly,
pivotal
legacy
is
the process of Mestizaje?
throughout
the blending of Spanish, African, and in
American
and
digenous
peoples
cultures?so
intrinsic, from its beginnings
to the present, to the formation of indi
vidual identity, national consciousness,
1.
and disseminations
information.
3.
Hispanic inAmerican society at the cross
roads of the millennium?
How have we
and
created
persevered
community in two
world contexts? How have we dealt with
diversity within and across borders? How,
indeed, have we shaped the Americas?
The quest begins with what Genaro
M. Padilla refers to as the "Spanish colo
nial discourse of conquest, exploration,
and settlement," that took place between
1492 and the nineteenth century and marks
the earliest period in the documentation of
Latino history. It concludes with the con
(7) conferences
Leadership, Ideology, andldentity, 1930-1960
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989),
Essays
Rican
Identity
(Houston:Arte Publico Press, 1991);Mario T.
Leadership,
Ide
ology and Identity, 1930-1960 (New Haven:
YaleUniversity Press, 1989);RichardGriswold
del Castillo, La Familia: Chicano Families in
the Urban
Jesus
1846 (Stanford,Calif.: Stanford University
Press, 1991);History Task Force, Centro de
State."
(New York: Monthly Review Press, 1979);
Portes
Alejandro
Cuban
Journey:
and Robert
L. Bach,
and Mexican
Latino
Nationalism
in the Cuban
PuertoRicans:
Born
Americans
and
in The U.S.A.
J. Weber,
America
North
Korrol.
(San Francisco:
1987)
19.
20.
for conceptual
gard.
Edna Acosta
Belen
The Hispanic
(New York:
Praeger,
-.
A Puerto
Cortada,
History
TheNew
21.
Identity
of
Women."
159.
Gloria
Borderlands/La
Relations
With
Cuba
Oxford
University
Press,
1987.
Re
Press,
"Cubans
Mario
T. Mexican
Americans:
Leadership,
Ideology and Identity, 1930-1960. New Ha
-.
IntheTracks
Cultural
Studies
4
1989.
Press,
University
"La Frontera: The Border as Symbol
Reality inMexicanAn_ericanThought"_Vfed
fornia Press,
can Studies/Estudios
Frontera:
The
1985): 195-225.
Mexicanos
1 (Slimmer
Between
Mi
International
of California
University
1979.
Glenn.77ie
Hendricks,
Dominican
From
Diaspora:
theDominican Republic toNew YorkCity:
in Transition.
Villages
New
York:
College Press, 1974.
History Task Force, Centro
Teachers
de Estudios
Under Capi
New
PuertorriquefiosI^^rMigra/K??
talism: The Puerto Rican
Experience.
York:Monthly Review Press, 1979.
Kanellos, Nicolas.A History ofHispanic Theatre in
the United States: Origins to 1944. Austin:
of Texas
University
Adalberto
1990.
Press,
and James Petras. Puerto
Lopez,
Rico and
PuertoRicans:
Studies inHistory and Society.
Mass.:
1974.
Schenkman,
Cambridge,
Patricia Ne\son.Legacy
The
Limerick,
of Conquest:
Unbroken
Past of The American
West. New
York: W. W.
1987.
Norton,
Jose Jnside
Marti,
theMonster:
and American
onthe U.S.
Writings
Imperialism.
Eleanor
Randall,
Philip S. Foner,
trans. New
York:
Monthly Review Press, 1975.
Felix. With Open Arms: Cuban Mi
States. Totowa,
N.J.:
to the United
gration
Rowman andLMefield, 1988.
Monroy,
Thrown
Douglas.
Among
The
Strangers:
Making ofMexican Culture inFrontier Cali
fornia.
Berkeley:
University
ofCaliforniaPress,
1990.
David.
Montejano,
and Mexicans
Anglos
in the
Making of Texas, 1836-1986. Austin: Univer
sity of Texas
and
R. Pessar.
Griswold del Castillo, Richard. "SouthernCalifor
nia Chicano History: Regional Origins and
National Critique."Aztldn 19 (Spring 1988
90): 112-3.
The Los Angeles Barrio, 1850-1890: A
Social History. Berkeley: University of Cali
Masud-Piloto,
United
MmuelMexicanlmmigrationtothe
States: A Study of Human
and
Migration
New York: Dover,
1971.
Adjustment.
Garcia,
Berkeley:
1991.
gration.
(ed.)
Gamio,
(October 1990):248-56.
Anzaldua,
Dominican
ven: Yale
"ChicanoFeminism:
'the* Native
"Florida's
search Monographs,
1994.
Fagen, Richard R. and Richard A. Brody.
Ameri
The Chicanos
Occupied America:
toward Liberation.
San Francisco:
Norma.
and Patricia
Islands:
Publica
inExile: A Demographic Analysis." Social
Problems 11 (Spring 1964)389-401.
Canfield, 1972.
Alarcon,
York and Other
International
WashingtonHeights."NewYork:TheCUNY
Dominican
Studies
Institute, Dominican
Bibliography
Struggle
in New
York:
New Haven: Yale University
Press, 1975.
on the Hudson:
The
Duany,
Jorge. "Quisqueya
Transnational
of
Dominicans
in
Identity
Poyo,
'Thinking About U.S. Latino
and History," Texas Journal of Ideas,
Rodolfo.
Rican
Sherri
Two
Press,
V irgmi&RFromNeighbor
toStranger:
Dominguez,
The Dilemma
in the U.S.
of Caribbean
Peoples
17.
Acufia,
James W.
York:
13.
Padilla, "Recovering Mexican
can Autobiography,"
in Recovering,
Publico
Sarah JVb Separate Refuge: Culture, Class
on an
Frontier
in
Anglo-Hispanic
the American
1880-1940.
New
Southwest,
84.
Genaro
New
Grasmuck,
and Gender
History and Culture 15 (Fall/Winter 1992),
22.
Arte
1979.
Deutsch,
Los Angeles, 1900-1945 (NewYork: Oxford
1993),
Ed.
in the -.
During the Civil War." Florida Historical
Quarterly (July 1980):42-52.
and Barbara R. Sjostrom,
in the UnitedStates
Experience
Press,
States:
N J.: Prentice Hall,
Frausto.EnglewoodCliffs,
1982.
tions,
J. Smchezfiecoming
Mexican
Ameri
George
can: Ethnicity, Culture andldentity
inChicano
University
GeraldE.
Tex.:
Houston,
Sketches.
Lute,
Spinster/Aunt
in this re
frameworks
1988),
in the United
1993.
75 (September 1988): 393-416; and Gloria
Ai)23idu2i,Borderlands/LaFrontera:
California,
Harvard Uni
Mass.:
"Cubans
of
Issues, 1979.
Study of Human
Jesus. The Way ItWas and Other Writings.
Ed. Edna Acosta Belen and Virginia
Sanchez
Colon,
phy in Transition: Implications for United
Mestiza
and Southern
InModern
Juan. "On Culture."
Quifiones,
Chicano Writers: A Collection of Critical
2ft$^$.EdJc?ephSomm^
World Arena. Philadelphia: Institute for the
in
Frontier
Spanish
(New Haven: Yale University
of American
versity
Lourdes.
toAmerican
Relations."
Impact on U.S.-Cuban
Martin Weinstein.
Cuba
Revolutionary
The
Journal
Gomez
Society:
Barrios
Their
for
1992).
See Gerald E. Poyo and Gilberto M. Hinojosa,
"Spanish Texas and Borderlands
Historiogra
States History,"
Barbara
Cambridge,
1979.
Press,
Press,
18.
Pueblos
Migration,
Cultural Change in theDominican Republic.
New York: ColumbiaUniversity Press, 1991.
(Summer
in a Changing
Chicanos
1848-1930.
Casals,
Educational Equality in Texas, 1910-1981
(Austin:University ofTexas Press, 1987);and
David
Albert
in Santa
Commu
the Campaign
Contemporary
From Mexican
(Boston:Unwyn Hyman, 1989);Guadalupe
San Miguel, "Let Them All Take Heed":
Mexican
Marxism
of a Transnational
and
Development
The Making
Eugenia.
Community:
Roots,
John. The Transplanted:
A History
inUrban America.
Immigrants
Bloomington:
Indiana University
1986.
Press,
nitiesoftheUnitedStates, 7545-7595(Durham,
N.C: Duke University Press, 1989);Clara E.
Rodriguez,
The
Bodnar,
Camarillo,
The Mexicans
of El
Immigrants:
1880-1920.
New Haven: Yale Univer
sity Press, 1981.
George,
1982):27-43.
in
Immigrants
the United States (Berkeley: University of
CalifomiaPress, 1985);GeraldE. Poyo, "Witfi
All andFor theGood ofAll": TheEmergence
of Popular
"Cuban Miami:
Development andEveryday Life of anEmigre
Enclave in theUnited StatesNational Security
Migration
Rican Experience
Dessert
Paso,
Lourdes.
Arguelles,
Under
Puertorriquenos,
The Puerto
Capitalism:
-.
Spinsters/Aunt
Appel, John. "The Unionization of Florida
War With
Cigarmakers and theCoring of the
HARR
36
38-49.
1956):
(February
Spain."
Came,
Away: Marriage,
in New Mexico,
1500
Estudios
San Francisco:
1987.
Lute,
Went
and Power
Sexuality
When
Gutierrez,
Mothers
New Mestiza.
of NotreDamePress,
University
1984); Ramon
the Corn
to the Present
1948
Southwest,
(NotreDame:
Morales
Carrion,
and
1987.
Puerto
Cultural
Norton,
Padilla,
Press,
Arturo.
Felix.
History.
New
Rico:
A Political
York:
W.
W.
1974.
Latino Ethnic
OAH Magazine of History
Consciousness.
Winter 1996
Notre
11
-^^
of American
The Organization
Thirteenth
of Notre Dame
Ind.: University
Dame,
Focus
Press,
Historians
Annual
on Teaching
Day
1985.
Perez, Louis A., Jr. "Cubans
inTampa: From Exiles
1892-1901."
Florida Histori
to Immigrants,
cal Quarterly 57 (October 1978): 129-40.
and Robert
Portes, Alejandro
ney: Cuban
United
L. Bach.
and Mexican
States.
fornia Press,
Latin
Jour
in the
Immigrants
Berkeley:
1985.
of Cali
University
The Organization of American Historians will hold its 1996 Annual Meeting, March 28
31, at the Palmer House Hilton in Chicago, Illinois. An exciting part of the Annual
Meeting will be the Thirteenth Annual Focus on Teaching Day, which will include infor
mative sessions on teaching American history at the primary and secondary levels of
education. Itwill be held on Saturday, March 30, 1996. Junior and senior high school
teachers
not want
will
to miss
this
valuable
Poyo, GeraldE.WithAllandforthe GoodofAll: The
Nationalism
in the
Emergence
of Popular
Cuban Communities
of the U.S., 1848-1898.
North
Durham,
Duke
Carolina:
March
University
-andGilbertoHinojosa.
and
Texas
"Spanish
Borderlands Historiography in Transition:
for United
Implication
States History."
Jour
nalofAmericanHistorylS (September, 1988).
Clara
Rodriguez,
USA.
E.
Boston:
Octavio
Romano,
of
Sociology
Distortion
Puerto
Ricans:
Born
in the
1989.
Unwyn Hyman,
I. V. "The Anthropology
the Mexican-Americans:
of Mexican-American
East
Romo,
Barrio
Austin:
A Prototype
and
History."i_7
Renato.
Ruiz,
Analysis.
Vicki
Cannery
Mexican
fornia
Program.
L.
Woman,
Food
University
Albuquerque:
1987.
Sanchez
Korrol,
Lives:
Women/Cannery
and The Cali
Unionization
Processing
munity: The History
York City. Berkeley:
Press, 1994.
Saragoza,
Alex
Admission
Industry, 1930-1950.
ofNew Mexico
Press,
M.
From
Colonia
of Puerto
Ricans
University
"Recent
Chicano
to Com
inNew
Day
of California
Vega,
1988-90):
Bernardo.
Memoirs
Cesar
Andreu
Placement
Resource
Center
in U.S.
History
of our SPECIAL
OFFER
are $35
Memberships
per year.
for Focus on Teaching Day is $15 for preregistration and $20 for on-site reg
includes
registrants
Annual
all OAH
are also welcome
on Saturday.
sessions
Meeting
to take advantage
of our exhibit
on Teaching
on Saturday.
Focus
hall
If you are unable to attend the 1996 Focus on Teaching Day, be sure to subscribe to the
Historiogra
to theMagazine
is a valuable
The Magazine
lesson
plans
and
informative
resource
articles.
for
teachers
A one-year
of history.
subscription
is $20 for members and $25 for nonmembers.
of Bernardo
Vega. Ed.
Trans.
Juan
Flores.
Iglesias.
New York:Monthly Review Press, 1984.
chairs
the
Korrol
Sanchez
Virginia
Rican
Puerto
Studies
Department
of
at Brooklyn
City University
College,
of New York. She is author of From
The History
to Community:
Colonia
in New York City,
of Puerto Ricans
For more information on the 1996 Focus on Teaching Day, OAH Annual Meeting, or the
OAH Magazine of History, please print your name and address below and send to: Orga
nization of American Historians, 112North Bryan Street, Bloomington, IN 47408-4199.
Iwould like information on:_
Name:_
Address:_
A revised second edition
1917-1948.
was published
of
by the University
last year.
Press
California
12
Educator
History
OAH Magazine
of History.
Each
issue includes
useful
phy:An InterpretiveEssay."Aztldn 19 (Spring
1-77.
Advanced
istration.
Admission
Virginia.
On-Line
Become a new member of the OAH in the History Educator membership category and
you will be admitted into the 1996 Focus on Teaching Day for FREE! Along with becom
ing a member of the OAH, you will receive our quarterly publications, the OAH Maga
zine of History and the OAH Newsletter. You will also receive the Annual Meeting
and Truth: The Remaking
Boston:
Beacon
Press,
Culture
of Social
1989.
information.
Focus on Teaching Day Sessions
early and take advantage
Register
Los Angeles:
History
of a
of
Texas
Press,
University
1983.
Rosaldo,
and
The
Grito (Fall 1986).
Ricardo.
ideas
Teaching the Vietnam War
Teacher ProfessionalDevelopment and theRole of College andUniversity Faculty
"Do a Paper" isNot Enough: The Writing Process inHistory Courses
Students as Historians: Teaching Historical Research Skills to Secondary and
College Students
The OAH and theTeaching of History toUndergraduates
Using Historical Simulations in Secondary and Post-Secondary Classrooms
1989.
Press,
30,1996
of
exchange
OAH Magazine
of History
Winter
City:_State:_Zip:_
MAG/V10N2
1996
J