Shannon Egli sdegli@dmacc.edu
(515) 210443
Office hours:
Monday 11:15-12:45 Bldg 1 Rm
238
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Some Saturdays 9:30-noon Bldg 1 Rm
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Every bump, groove, and hole has a name on your bones

• Superficial surfaces of bones reflect stresses on them
• There are three broad categories of bone markings
– Projections for muscle attachment
– Surfaces that form joints
– Depressions and openings

• Bones have characteristic surface markings
– Structural features adapted for specific functions
• There are two major types of surface markings:
– 1) Depressions and openings
• Allow the passage of blood vessels and nerves or form joints
– 2) Processes
• Projections or outgrowths that form joints or serve as attachment points for ligaments and tendons

• Allow blood vessels or nerves to pass through.
1) Meatus : (me - A- tus) Canal or tube

2) Fossa : shallow basin
3) Fissure : narrow, slit-like opening

4) Sinus : Cavity within a bone; filled with air and lined with mucous membranes
5) Foramen : Round or oval opening
Foramen Magnum

6) Sulcus , Groove or Furrow : a shallow depression

• 1) Condyle : Rounded articular projection
Condyle

• 2) Head : bony expansion on a narrow neck
• 3) Facet : smooth, nearly flat articular surface

• 4) Ramus : Armlike bar of bone

1) Crest : Narrow ridge of bone ( Line : smaller than a crest)
2) Epicondyle : Raised area on or above a condyle
ULNA

3) Tubercle : Small rounded projection
4) Tuberosity : large rounded or roughened projection
5) Trochanter : very large, blunt projection
(only on femur)
Proximal Tibia

6) Spine : Sharp, pointed projection
Thoracic Vertebrae

Projections
1) Condyle
2) Head
3) Facet
4) Ramus
5) Crest
6) Epicondyle
7) Tubercle
8) Tuberosity
9) Trochanter
10) Spine
Depressions
1) Meatus
2) Fossa
3) Fissure
4) Sinus
5) Sulcus or Groove or Furrow

Upper region

17

• Pectoral girdle
– Attaches the upper limbs to the trunk
• Pelvic girdle
– Attaches the lower limbs to the trunk
• Upper and lower limbs differ in function
– Share the same structural plan

Bones,
Part 2: lower Appendicular Skeleton

• Consists of the clavicle and the scapula
• Pectoral girdles do not quite encircle the body completely
– Medial end of each clavicle articulates with the manubrium and first rib
– Laterally—the ends of the clavicles join the scapulae
– Scapulae do not join each other or the axial skeleton

• Provides attachment for many muscles that move the upper limb
• Girdle is very light and upper limbs are mobile
– Only clavicle articulates with the axial skeleton
– Socket of the shoulder joint (glenoid cavity) is shallow
• Good for flexibility, bad for stability

Acromioclavicular joint
Scapula
PLAY Shoulder
(a) Articulated pectoral girdle
Figure 8.1a

• Extend horizontally across the superior thorax
• Sternal end articulates with the manubrium
• Acromial end articulates with scapula

Sternal (medial) end
Posterior
Anterior
Acromial (lateral) end
(b) Right clavicle, superior view
Acromial end
Trapezoid line
Anterior
Sternal end
Posterior
Conoid tubercle
Tuberosity for costoclavicular ligament
(c) Right clavicle, inferior view
Figure 8.1b, c

• Provide attachment for muscles
• Hold the scapulae and arms laterally
• Transmit compression forces from the upper limbs to the axial skeleton
PLAY Shoulder

• Lie on the dorsal surface of the rib cage
• Located between ribs 2–7
• Have three borders
– Superior
– Medial (vertebral)
– Lateral (axillary)
• Have three angles
– Lateral, superior, and inferior

Acromion Suprascapular notch Superior border
Coracoid process
Glenoid cavity
Superior angle
Lateral border
(a) Right scapula, anterior aspect
Subscapular fossa
Medial border
Inferior angle
Figure 8.2a

Suprascapular notch
Superior angle
Supraspinous fossa
Spine
Infraspinous fossa
Medial border
(b) Right scapula, posterior aspect
Lateral border
Acromion
Glenoid cavity at lateral angle
Figure 8.2b

Infraspinous fossa
Posterior
Supraspinous fossa
Acromion
Supraglenoid tubercle
Supraspinous fossa
Coracoid process
Subscapular fossa
Spine
Anterior
Infraspinous fossa
Glenoid cavity
Infraglenoid tubercle
Subscapular fossa
(c) Right scapula, lateral aspect
Inferior angle
Figure 8.2c

• 30 bones form each upper limb
• Grouped into bones of the:
– Arm
– Forearm
– Hand

• Region of the upper limb between the shoulder and elbow
• Humerus
– The only bone of the arm
– Longest and strongest bone of the upper limb
– Articulates with the scapula at the shoulder
– Articulates with the radius and ulna at the elbow

• Humerus
– Many structures of the humerus provide sites for muscle attachment
– Other structures of the humerus provide articulation sites for other bones

Greater tubercle
Lesser tubercle
Intertubercular sulcus
Head of humerus
Anatomical neck
Head of humerus
Anatomical neck
Greater tubercle
Surgical neck
Radial groove
Deltoid tuberosity
Deltoid tuberosity
Lateral supracondylar ridge
Radial fossa
Capitulum
(a) Anterior view
Coronoid fossa
Medial epicondyle
Trochlea
Medial supracondylar ridge
Olecranon fossa
Medial epicondyle
(b) Posterior view
Lateral epicondyle
Trochlea
Figure 8.3a, b

Coronoid fossa
Humerus
Humerus Olecranon fossa
Capitulum
Medial epicondyle
Olecranon process
Lateral epicondyle
Head of radius
Radial tuberosity
Radius
(c) Anterior view at the elbow region
Trochlea
Coronoid process of ulna
Radial notch
Ulna
Medial epicondyle
Ulna
(d) Posterior view of extended elbow
Head
Neck
Radius
Figure 8.3c, d

• Formed from the radius and ulna
• Proximal ends articulate with the humerus
• Distal ends articulate with carpals
PLAY Elbow

• Radius and ulna articulate with each other
– At the proximal and distal radioulnar joints
• The interosseous membrane
– Interconnects radius and ulna
• In anatomical position; the radius is lateral and the ulna is medial

• Main bone responsible for forming the elbow joint with the humerus
• Hinge joint allows forearm to bend on arm
• Distal end is separated from carpals by fibrocartilage
• Plays little to no role in hand movement

Radial notch of the ulna
Head
Neck
Radial tuberosity
Olecranon process
Olecranon process
Trochlear notch
Coronoid process
Proximal radioulnar joint
Head of radius
Neck of radius
Interosseous membrane
Ulna
Interosseous membrane
Ulna
Radius
Styloid process of radius
(a) Anterior view
Ulnar notch of the radius
Head of ulna
Distal radioulnar joint
Styloid process of ulna
Ulnar notch of the radius
Head of ulna
Styloid process of ulna
(b) Posterior view
Radius
Styloid process of radius
Figure 8.4a, b

View
Olecranon process
Trochlear notch
Coronoid process
Radial notch
(c) Proximal portion of ulna, lateral view
Ulnar notch of radius
Articulation for lunate
Articulation for scaphoid
Styloid process
View
Head of ulna
Styloid process
(d) Distal ends of the radius and ulna at the wrist
Figure 8.4c, d

• Superior surface of the head of the radius articulates with the capitulum
• Medially—the head of the radius articulates with the radial notch of the ulna
• Contributes heavily to the wrist joint
– Distal radius articulates with carpal bones
– When radius moves, the hand moves with it

Coronoid fossa
Humerus
Humerus Olecranon fossa
Capitulum
Medial epicondyle
Olecranon process
Lateral epicondyle
Head of radius
Radial tuberosity
Radius
(c) Anterior view at the elbow region
Trochlea
Coronoid process of ulna
Radial notch
Ulna
Medial epicondyle
Ulna
(d) Posterior view of extended elbow
Head
Neck
Radius
Figure 8.3c, d

• Includes the following bones
– Carpus —wrist
– Metacarpals —palm
– Phalanges —fingers

• Forms the true wrist—the proximal region of the hand
• Gliding movements occur between carpals
• Composed of eight marble-sized bones

• Carpal bones
– Are arranged in two irregular rows
– Proximal row from lateral to medial
• Scaphoid, lunate, triquetral, and pisiform
– Distal row from lateral to medial
• Trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, and hamate
– A mnemonic to help remember carpals:
• Sally left the party to take Carmen home

Phalanges
Distal
Middle
Proximal
Carpals
Hamate
Capitate
Pisiform
Triquetrum
Lunate
Ulna
5
4 3 2
1
(a) Anterior view of right hand
Sesamoid bones
Carpals
Trapezium
Trapezoid
Scaphoid
1
2 3 4
5
Metacarpals
Head
Shaft
Base
Carpals
Hamate
Capitate
Triquetrum
Lunate
Radius
Ulna
(b) Posterior view of right hand
Figure 8.6a, b

• Five metacarpals radiate distally from the wrist
• Metacarpals form the palm
– Numbered 1–5, beginning with the pollex (thumb)
– Articulate proximally with the distal row of carpals
– Articulate distally with the proximal phalanges

• Numbered 1–5, beginning with the pollex
(thumb)
• Except for the thumb, each finger has three phalanges
– Proximal, middle, and distal

49

50

Table 8.1 (1 of 2)

Bones,
Part 2: lower Appendicular Skeleton

• Attaches lower limbs to the spine
• Supports visceral organs
• Attaches to the axial skeleton by strong ligaments
• Acetabulum is a deep cup that holds the head of the femur
– Lower limbs have less freedom of movement
• Are more stable than the arm

• Consists of paired hip bones (coxal bones)
• Hip bones unite anteriorly with each other
• Articulates posteriorly with the sacrum
PLAY Hip

• A deep, basin-like structure
• Formed by:
– Coxal bones, sacrum, and coccyx

llium
Coxal bone
(os coxae or hip bone)
Pubis
Base of sacrum
Ischium
(a) Pelvic girdle
Sacrum
Coccyx
Pubic arch
Iliac fossa
Iliac crest
Sacroiliac joint
Anterior superior iliac spine
Sacral promontory
Anterior inferior iliac spine
Pelvic brim
Acetabulum
Pubic tubercle
Pubic crest
Pubic symphysis
PLAY Pelvis
Figure 8.8a

• Consists of three separate bones in childhood
– Ilium, ischium, and pubis
• Bones fuse, retain separate names to regions of the coxal bones
• Acetabulum
– A deep hemispherical socket on lateral pelvic surface

• Large, flaring bone
• Forms the superior region of the coxal bone
• Site of attachment for many muscles
• Articulation with the sacrum forms sacroiliac joint

• Forms posteroinferior region of the coxal bone
• Anteriorly—joins the pubis
• Ischial tuberosities
– Are the strongest part of the hip bone

• Forms the anterior region of the coxal bone
• Lies horizontally in anatomical position
• Pubic symphysis
– The two pubic bones are joined by fibrocartilage at the midline
• Pubic arch —inferior to the pubic symphysis
– Angle helps distinguish male from female pelves

Ilium
Ischium
Pubis
Tubercle of the iliac crest
Ilium
Ilium
Anterior gluteal line
Posterior gluteal line
Ala
Iliac crest
Iliac crest
Posterior superior iIiac spine
Posterior inferior iliac spine
Greater sciatic notch
Ischial body
Ischial spine
Lesser sciatic notch
Ischium
Ischial tuberosity
Ischial ramus
Anterior superior
Inferior iliac spine gluteal line
Anterior inferior iliac spine
Acetabulum
Anterior superior iliac spine
Anterior inferior iliac spine
Arcuate line
Superior ramus of pubis
Pubic tubercle
Pubic body
Pubis
(b) Lateral view, right hip bone
Inferior ramus of pubis
Articular surface of pubis (at pubic symphysis)
Inferior ramus of pubis
Body of the ilium
Ischial spine
Obturator foramen
Ischium
(c) Medial view, right hip bone
Iliac fossa
Posterior superior iliac spine
Posterior inferior iliac spine
Auricular surface
Ischial ramus
Figure 8.8b, c

• Bony pelvis is divided into two regions
– False (greater) pelvis —bounded by alae of the iliac bones
– True (lesser) pelvis —inferior to pelvic brim
• Forms a bowl containing the pelvic organs

midpelvis
Anterior abdominal wall
False pelvis
Pelvic brim, defining pelvic inlet
Symphyseal surface
True pelvis
Coccyx
Plane of pelvic outlet
(b) True and false pelves
Figure 8.9b

• Major differences between male and female pelves
– Female pelvis is adapted for childbearing
• Pelvis is lighter, wider, and shallower than in the male
• Provides more room in the true pelvis

Table 8.2 (1 of 2)

Table 8.2 (2 of 2)

• Carries the entire weight of the erect body
• Bones of lower limb are thicker and stronger than those of upper limb
• Divided into three segments
– Thigh, leg, and foot

• The region of the lower limb between the hip and the knee
• Femur —the single bone of the thigh
– Longest and strongest bone of the body
– Ball-shaped head articulates with the acetabulum

Fovea capitis
Head
Lesser trochanter
Intertrochanteric line
Gluteal tuberosity
Linea aspera
Greater trochanter
Intertrochanteric crest
Lateral epicondyle
(b) Femur (thigh bone)
Patellar surface
Anterior view
Medial and lateral supracondylar lines
Intercondylar fossa
Medial condyle
Adductor tubercle
Medial epicondyle
Lateral condyle
Lateral epicondyle
Posterior view
Figure 8.10b

• Triangular sesamoid bone
• Imbedded in the tendon that secures the quadriceps muscles
• Protects the knee anteriorly
• Improves leverage of the thigh muscles across the knee

• Refers to the region of the lower limb between the knee and the ankle
• Composed of the tibia and fibula
– Tibia —more massive medial bone of the leg
• Receives weight of the body from the femur
– Fibula —stick-like lateral bone of the leg
• Interosseous membrane
– Connects the tibia and fibula
PLAY Knee

• Tibia articulates with femur at superior end
– Forms the knee joint
• Tibia articulates with talus at the inferior end
– Forms the ankle joint
• Fibula does not contribute to the knee joint
– Stabilizes the ankle joint

Figure 8.11a, b

Lateral condyle
Tibial tuberosity
Lateral condyle
Fibula articulates here
Line for soleus muscle
(d) Posterior view, proximal tibia
(c) Anterior view, proximal tibia
Fracture sites
(e) Fracture of both malleoli
Figure 8.11c
–e

• Foot is composed of
– Tarsus, metatarsus, and the phalanges
• Important functions
– Supports body weight
– Acts as a lever to propel body forward when walking
– Segmentation makes foot pliable and adapted to uneven ground

• Makes up the posterior half of the foot
• Contains seven bones called tarsals
• Body weight is primarily borne by the talus and calcaneus
• Trochlea of the talus
– Site of articulation with the tibia
• Other tarsals are:
– Cuboid and navicular
– Medial, intermediate, and lateral cuneiforms

• Consists of five small long bones called metatarsals
• Numbered 1–5 beginning with the hallux
(great toe)
• First metatarsal supports body weight

• 14 phalanges of the toes
– Smaller and less nimble than those of the fingers
– Structure and arrangement are similar to phalanges of fingers
– Except for the great toe, each toe has three phalanges
• Proximal, middle, and distal

Medial cuneiform
Intermediate cuneiform
Navicular
Phalanges
Distal
Middle
Proximal
1 2
3
4
5
Metatarsals
Lateral cuneiform
Cuboid
Tarsals
Talus
Trochlea of talus
Calcaneus
(a) Superior view
Figure 8.12a

Sustentaculum tali (talar shelf)
Intermediate cuneiform
First metatarsal
Navicular
Talus
Facet for medial malleolus
(b) Medial view
Medial cuneiform
Calcaneus
Calcaneal tuberosity
Figure 8.12b

Facet for lateral malleolus
Navicular Intermediate cuneiform
Lateral cuneiform
Talus
Calcaneus
(c) Lateral view
PLAY Bones of the Foot
Cuboid Fifth metatarsal
Figure 8.12c

• Foot has three important arches
– Medial and lateral longitudinal arch
– Transverse arch
• Arches are maintained by
– Interlocking shapes of tarsals
– Ligaments and tendons
– “Keystones” of arches
• Talus—medial longitudinal arch
• Cuboid—lateral longitudinal arch

Medial longitudinal arch
Transverse arch
Lateral longitudinal arch
(a) Lateral aspect of right foot
Figure 8.13a

Figure 8.13b

Table 8.3

• Bone fractures
• Hip dysplasia
– Head of the femur slips out of acetabulum
• Clubfoot
– Soles of the feet turn medially

• Growth of the appendicular skeleton
– Increases height
– Changes body proportions
• Upper/lower body ratio changes with age
– At birth, head and trunk are 1.5 times as long as lower limbs
– Lower limbs grow faster than the trunk
– Upper/lower body ratio of 1 to 1 by age 10

Figure 8.15

• Few changes occur in adult skeleton until middle age, when
– Skeleton loses mass
– Osteoporosis and limb fractures become more common