STRESS AND COPING
Basics of psychology
07. 11. 2014.
Bernadett Bodor
bodor.bernadett@sph.unideb.hu
Department of Behavioural Sciences
Outline
 Definitions (stress, stressor, stress response)
 Stress provoking events, types of stressors
 Stress theories
 Psychological and psysiological reactions to stress. The effects of
stress on health
 Coping
 Stress management
STRESS
„the stress is the „salt of life”” (Hans Selye)
Definitions
 The stress refers to experiencing events that are perceived as
endangering one’s physical or psychological well-being. (Atkinson &
Hilgard, 2009)
 Hans Selye: “the non-specific response of the body to any demand
for change”http://www.stress.org
 A stressor is a chemical or biological agent, environmental
condition, external stimulus or an event that causes stress to an
organism. http://en.wikipedia.org
 Stress response: our reactions to the stressor
What is the stress? – Hans Selye
Austrian-Canadian endocrinologist of Hungarian origin (1907-1982)
 „The non-specific result of any demand upon the body, be the effect
mental or somatic.”
 Eustress
 positive stressful experience
 a state of physical and psychological well-being that is associated with
increased motivation and the acceptance of a challenge.
 Balance to produce an optimal level of arousal.
 Too little stress can be as harmful as too much.
 Stress can result from being over- or under-stimulated.
Jarry, 2002
What is the stress? – Lazarus & Folkman (1984)
 Cognitive-relational theory
 A relationship between a person and the environment that is
appraised by the person as taxing or exceeding his or her
resources and endangering his/her well-being.
 the continuous, reciprocal nature of the interaction between the
person and the environment
 Introducing the important notion of subjective appraisal
http://web.fu-berlin.de/gesund/publicat/ehps_cd/health/stress.htm
What is not true about the stress?
Misconceptions related to stress
 Myth 1: Stress is the same for everybody.
 Myth 2: Stress is always bad for you.
 Myth 3: Stress is everywhere, so you can't do anything about it.
 Myth 4: The most popular techniques for reducing stress are the best ones.
 Myth 5: No symptoms, no stress.
 Myth 6: Only major symptoms of stress require attention.
http://apa.org/helpcenter/stress-myths.aspx
Terminology - review
 Stress: is a condition in which the human system responds to changes in its normal
balanced state.
 Stressor: is any thing that is perceived as challenging, threatening or demanding.
 Eustress or positive stress: Manageable stress which can lead to growth and
enhanced competence.
 Distress or Negative stress: Uncontrollable, prolonged, or overwhelming stress is
destructive.
 Adaptation: is the change that takes place as a result of the response to a stressor.
 Coping: a balancing act between biological, psychological, and social process.
 Adaptive Coping Contribute to resolution of the stress response
 Maladaptive Coping –Strategies that cause further problems
 Active Coping – Actively seeking resolution to the stress
 Homeostasis: refers to a steady state within the body and various physiologic
mechanisms within the body respond to internal changes to maintain a relative
constancy in the internal environment.
http://www.currentnursing.com/nursing_theory/Selye's_stress_theory.html
STRESSORS
The stress-provoking events
Traumatic events
the most obvious source of stress
 rare, with great destruction of natural disasters (earthquake, flood)
 disasters caused by human activity(war, 9/11)
 catastrophic accident(car or plane crashs)
 physical assaults (rape, attempted murder)
Atkinson & Hilgard (2009)
The classification of stressors
Countless events create stress:
 Traumatic events outside the usual range of human experience
 Uncontrollable or unpredictable events
 Events that represent major changes in life circumstances
 Internal conflicts (Atkinson & Hilgard, 2009)
Based on original:
 Physical impacts
 Psychosocial stressor
 Holmes-Rahe Life Events
Scale
Based on duration of stressor’s
exposal:
 Acute stress
 Chronic stress
Life event
Holmes and
Rahe Life Events
Scale (1967)
Score of 300+: At risk of
illness.
Score of 150-299: Risk of
illness
is
moderate
(reduced by 30% from the
above risk).
Score <150: Only have a
slight risk of illness.
Atkinson & Hilgard, 2009
Life event
Life change units
Death of a spouse
100
Divorce
73
Marital separation
65
Imprisonment
63
Death of a close family member 63
Life change units
Change in responsibilities at work
29
Child leaving home
29
Trouble with in-laws
29
Outstanding personal achievement
28
Spouse starts or stops work
26
Beginning or end school
26
Change in living conditions
25
Revision of personal habits
24
Trouble with boss
23
Change in working hours or conditions
20
Change in residence
20
Personal injury or illness
53
Marriage
50
Dismissal from work
47
Marital reconciliation
45
Retirement
45
Change in health of family
member
44
Pregnancy
40
Change in schools
Sexual difficulties
39
20
Change in recreation
19
Gain a new family member
39
Change in church activities
19
Business readjustment
39
Change in social activities
18
Change in financial state
38
Minor mortgage or loan
17
Death of a close friend
37
Change in sleeping habits
16
Change to different line of work
36
Change in number of family reunions
15
Change in eating habits
15
Change in frequency of
arguments
35
Vacation
13
Major mortgage
32
Christmas
12
Foreclosure of mortgage or loan
30
Minor violation of law
11
Theories of stress
“Between stimulus and response there is a space. In that space is our
power to choose our response. In our response lies our growth and our
freedom.” (Viktor Frankl)
Development of stress theories
 Claude Bernard – „millieu intérieur”
 Walter Bradford Cannon
 Homeostasis
 „Fight and flight” response
 Hans Selye
 Conceptualized the physiology of stress: GAS – General Adaptation
Syndrome
 Organic disorder caused by chronic stress (enlarged adrenal glands,
lymph node and thymic atrophy, and gastric ulcerations)
Fight or flight response - Canon
„The fight-or-flight response (also called
the fight, flight, freeze, or fawn
response, hyperarousal, or the acute
stress response) is a physiological
reaction that occurs in response to a
perceived harmful event, attack, or
threat to survival.”
en.wikipedia.org
The G.A.S model
Hans Selye
Certain
bodily
changes
inevitably occurs, in case of
prolonged
and
repeated
stressors:
 Enlarged adrenal glands
 Shrunken lymph nodes
G. A. S.
 Stomach ulcers
Atkinson & Hilgard, 2009
Theory of Cognitive Appraisal - Lazarus
 What is Cognitive Appraisal?
 Primary Appraisal
 Secondary Appraisal
Psychological and physiological
reactions to stress
Physiological reactions
to acute stress – the
fight or flight response
A
stressful
situation

hypothalamus
controls
neuroendocrine systems:
the
two
•
the sympathetic system  increases
heart rate and dilates the pupils;
release
epinephrine
and
norepinephrine into the bloodstream
•
the adrenal-cortical system  CRF corticotropin-releasing factor (secreted
by the hypothalamus)  ACTH adrenocorticotropic
hormone
(secreted by pituitary gland)  adrenal
cortex (stimulate teh release of a group
of hormones - cortisol)  regulate
blood glucose levels
Physiological reactions to acute stress
The effects of stress on health
Consequence of chronic stress
 43% of all adults suffer harmful health effects from stress
 75% to 90% of all doctor's office visits are for stress-related complaints
 Stress can play a role in problems such as headaches, high blood pressure,
heart problems, diabetes, skin conditions, asthma, arthritis, depression, and
anxiety.
 Stress costs American industry more than $300 billion annually.
 The lifetime prevalence of an emotional disorder is more than 50%, often
due to chronic, untreated stress reactions.
http://www.webmd.com/balance/stress-management/effects-of-stress-on-your-body
The effects of stress on health
Consequence of chronic stress
• „The wear and tear on the body that results
from chronic overactivity of the physiological
response to stress is referred to as allostatic
load.”
• Stress may have a affect on health directly by
creating chronic overarousal of the sympathetic
division of the autonomic nervous system or the
adrenal-cortical or by impairing the immune
system.
Atkinson & Hilgard, 2009
The effects of stress
on health
Consequence of
chronic stress
• Psychophysiological disorder
• Development of
cardiovascular disorders
• Immune system
• Sexual dysfunction
• Health-related behaviors
(smoking, alcohol
consumption)
http://education-portal.com/academy/lesson/what-is-chronic-stress-symptoms-effects-quiz.html#lesson
The effects of stress on health
Psychophysiological disorder
 Physical disorders in which emotions are believed to play a central role.
 The common misconception: these are not really sick and do not need
medical attention
 The symptoms reflect physiological disturbances associated with tissue damage
and pain
 Asthma, hypertension, ulcers, colitis, rheumatoid arthritis, Irritable bowel
syndrome
Atkinson & Hilgard, 2009
Psychological response to stress
Consequences of stress
Cognitive Symptoms
•
•
•
•
•
•
Memory problems
Inability to concentrate
Poor judgment
Seeing only the negative
Anxious or racing thoughts
Constant worrying
Emotional Symptoms
•
•
•
•
•
•
Moodiness
Irritability or short temper
Agitation, inability to relax
Feeling overwhelmed
Sense of loneliness and isolation
Depression or general
unhappiness
http://www.helpguide.org/articles/stress/stress-symptoms-causes-and-effects.htm
Emotional responses to stress
 Frustration, anger, resentment, dissatisfaction with almost everything and everyone.
 Self-disturbance: shame, stigma feeling
 Lack of confidence, distrust, cynicism, jealousy.
 Apathy, lack of energy, fatigue.
 Fear: death or serious diseases (stroke, heart attack, cancer, HIV / AIDS), loss of controll.
 Unhappiness, neglect, emptiness, frustration, loss of interest, feelings of insecurity.
 Pang of conscience: for reasons unrealistic and / or unreasonable extent.
 Worry, anxiety, negative "premonition".
 Lethargy, grief, sadness feeling.
 Escape feeling, time pressure.
 Restlessness, irritability.
 Loss of appetite/increased appetite.
COPING
„the twin concept of stress”
Coping
 the process by which a person attempts to manage stressful
demands
Two major forms:
1. problem-focused coping
 A person focus on the specific problem or situation that has arisen,
trying to find some way of changing it or avoiding it in the future.
2. emotion-focused coping
 A person focus on alleviating the emotions associated with the stressful
situation, even if the situation itself cannot be changed.
Atkinson & Hilgard, 2009
The problem-focused coping
 define the problem
 generate alternative solutions and weigh the costs and benefits of
the alternatives
 choose between alternative solutions and then act upon your
choice
You can change something about yourself instead of changing the
environment.
Atkinson & Hilgard, 2009
The emotion-focused coping
 prevent one’s negative emotions from overwhelming oneself
 making oneself unable to take action to solve one’s problems
 behavioral strategies:
 using alcohol or other drugs, venting anger, and seeking emotional support from
friends
 cognitive strategies
 temporarily setting the problem aside
 reducing the threat by changing the meaning of the situation
 involve reappraising the situation
Atkinson & Hilgard, 2009
Reactive, Anticipatory, Preventive, and Proactive
Coping
 Reactive coping:
 an effort to deal with an ongoing
stressful encounter or one that has
already happened.
 Aim: compensation for or acceptance
of harm or loss
 Anticipatory coping
 an
effort
to
deal
imminent/upcoming threat
with
 Aim: manage this perceived risk
Schwarzer & Luszczynska (2008)
Reactive, Anticipatory, Preventive, and Proactive Coping
By Ralf Schwarzer (2008)
 Proactive coping:
 an effort to build up general resistance
resources that result in less strain in the
future (minimizing the severity of the
impact of potential distress) and an
overall reduced risk of stressful events
 Preventive coping
 an effort to build up general resources
that
facilitate
promotion
toward
challenging goals and personal growth
Schwarzer & Luszczynska (2008)
STRESS MANAGEMENT
Managing stress
 To reduce the effects of stress on the
body and the mind
 Seeking social support
 Behavioural techniques
 Biofeedback
 Relaxation training
 Exercise
 Cognitive behaviour therapy
Atkinson & Hilgard, 2009
Stress management strategies
 Stress management strategy #1:
Avoid unnecessary stress
 Stress management strategy #2:
Alter the situation
 Stress management strategy #3:
Adapt to the stressor
 Stress management strategy #4:
Accept the things you can’t change
 Stress management strategy #5:
Make time for fun and relaxation
 Stress management strategy #6:
Adopt a healthy lifestyle
http://www.helpguide.org/articles/stress/stress-management.htm
Suggested video
Kelly McGonigal: How to make stress your friend
http://www.ted.com/talks/kelly_mcgonigal_how_to_make_stress_your_friend
Kitten Therapy: The Prescription for Stress 
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=35T8wtmTbVg#t=173
Thank you for your attention!
Suggested reading
 Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Fredrickson, B. L., Loftus, G. R., Wagenar, W. A. (2009).
Atkinson and Hilgrard’s Introduction to Psychology, 15th ed. London: Cengage.
 Schwarzer & Luszczynska (2008). Reactive, Anticipatory, Preventive and Proactive
Coping: A theoretical Distinction. The Prevention Researcher. 15 (4).
http://www.tpronline.org/download-free-article.cfm?id=522

http://www.stress.org/what-is-stress/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stressor

Jarry, J. L. (2002). Stress and Coping [PowerPoint slides]. Retrieved from
http://www.med.uottawa.ca/courses/epi6181/images/Jarry_Stress_Slides.ppt

www.web.fu-berlin.de/gesund/publicat/ehps_cd/health/stress.htm

http://apa.org/helpcenter/stress-myths.aspx

http://www.currentnursing.com/nursing_theory/Selye's_stress_theory.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response

http://www.webmd.com/balance/stress-management/effects-of-stress-on-your-body

http://www.helpguide.org/articles/stress/stress-management.htm