Basic Introduction to US Company Law: Overview of types of Corporate Entities & Incorporation in the US vs. the EU Patrick J. O’Malley, Esq. Università dell’ Insubria & Università degli Studi di Milano Summer school, Como, July 2008 ©Patrick J. O’Malley 2008 A bit about myself US attorney-at-law & Solicitor in Engliand & Wales Focus on international capital markets work Also, corporate and VC investments Work in Providence, Spain, Boston, Palm Beach, London and Milan Main work w Freshfields Bruckhaus Deringer LLP Now, independent int’l legal consultant & law prof: To date, 9 countries on 4 continents for universities, professional training bodies and corporations General Points • Please, if you are not familiar with certain terms used in class or in these slides, do not hesitate to ask me to explain. You (& your colleagues) will get much more out of class. • Also let me know when points mentioned are of use to you in your day to day work or study- or you have specific questions! • I can spend time on it when you ask me or, if more complicated, I can deal with it later on. For follow-up questions • If you have additional questions, I can be contacted at the following email(s): • patrick.omalley@interpresas.com • Cc to patrick.omalley1971@gmail.com • An overview of the types of corporate entities – Introduction to the US company law system – Country-by-country overview, main focus on US • The “European company”, the Societas Europaea or SE • Freedom of establishment considerations: a look at the US system and key European Court of Justice case law GOALS • Goal of this module is to give non-lawyers (who may be working in business in the future) an introduction to the corporate law systems in the US (and, if time permits, certain European jurisdictions). • Goal also to clarify what types of company forms exist and what it takes to set up a new company in the various jurisdictions (especially useful for future entrepreneurs or those working internationally) • Basic comparative philosophical differences between US law (and to a certain extent English law) and various European legal systems will be highlighted Country by Country Overview • • • • • • United States France England & Wales Germany Italy Poland Comparative Law Methodology • Beware of comparing specific points (i.e. Creditors rights) without taking into account whole legal system • Realise various legal systems have base/radical philosophical differences (e.g. France vs UK/US re: “freedom”) • Legal systems also result from local history, culture, politics and language • Often, “false friends” or different terminology: “notary”, “liability”, “responsibility”, “enjoin”, etc. Key corporate law terms • Certificate/Articles of Incorporation and Bylaws • Limited liability • Share/stock • Share capital (minimum) • Board of Directors • Shareholders/Stockholders • Management / Officers • Other stakeholders (employees, creditors, the community, etc.) Key corporate law terms • • • • • • • • Merger Tender offer Auditors Annual accounts Directors meetings Shareholders meetings Worker participation Commercial / Company register Corollary areas of company law • Close overlap with “securities law”, together = “corporate governance” • However, need to be attentive to related areas, such as: – Intellectual Property Law (EU & national, US) – Tax Law – Labour Law (US, EU & national) – Commercial Law (national, US (UCC), EU & int’l [WTO]): including sanctions) – Contracts Law – Tort Law (multi-jurisdictional: plaintiff & defendent) – Environmental Law (US, EU & national) General Sources of US Law • Main sources groups: constitutional law, administrative law, statutory law, & the common law • US Constitution Supremacy Clause establishes Constitution, Federal Statutes, and US treaties as "the supreme law of the land.“ • Constitution is highest form of law in US legal system. State judges are required to uphold it, even if state laws or Constitutions conflict with it. Specific Sources of US Company Law • • • • • • • • • Federal & State Constitutions State corporate law statutes Common law principles State and federal courts case law Special federal and state statutes (i.e. for banking, insurance, public utilities) Federal and state securities laws* Other federal laws (e.g. federal FCPA) Treaties & international instruments (WTO, ILO) Stock market listing rules: NYSE, NASDAQ etc. 13 Key point: US federalism • Interplay between local state and federal (national) laws & regulations • A question of federalism that has developed since 1789 and our Constitution • We will consider in more detail throughout the course • Key in understanding the US in general, not just corporate law (all aspects of life affected) The idea & identity of the Company • Ownership interests in the company – Shareholders – other stakeholders • Employees • Creditors • the community • the nation The idea & identity of the Company • Legal Personality – First by royal decree, then by parliament, etc. – For endeavors to further well-being (hospitals, charities/almshouses, then trading companies, then more private businesses- aiming for profit) – key CIVIC role originally • Limited Responsibility – Ultimately, public policy to favor growth The idea & identity of the Company • The principle of agency – Actions of others recognized through entity (company an agent of SHs, managers/employees agents of the co) • The principle of partnership: duties Fundamental assumptions of corporate law • Voluntary, private, contractual entities • Broad powers to earn profit in any legal way, and wherever, they wish to • Primary obligation of mgmt is to SHs • Let’s try to represent this graphically Evolution of views of corporation: US • Artificial Entity View: most of 19 th c.- artificial construct based in positive law of the state, not individual initiative (move from general chartering to general incorporation laws)view of corp form for general welfaresuspicion/hostility of its use by private entreprenuers • Natural Entity Theory – early 20 th c.: corp really a creation of private initiative, not artificially from state power – sum of individuals actions (less ultra vires) The idea & identity of the Company Ownership interests in the company ◦ Shareholders ◦ Other stakeholders Employees Creditors the Community the Nation Ultimately, corporate law tries to order & protect the above from company/mgmt The Agency Problem (Mgmt vs. SHs) US CORPORATE & SECURITIES LAW Historical development of US law generally: Brief overview of the US legal system and how corporate law fits in to the whole Federal / state legal dichotomy 19th century US industrial development led to innovations in corporate law Convergence – worldwide influence Direct effect of US laws worldwide – the role of the US capital markets and M&A activity 21 Basic Attributes, Objectives & conduct of the US corporation • Enabling statute. – Delaware's General Corporation Law (DGCL), like most general laws of incorporation, is an enabling statute • philosophy underlying it is that public good is advanced by provision of inexpensive mechanism allowing all individuals to achieve benefits the corporate form provides through establishing management & governance terms that appear advantageous to those designing the organization. In re Ford Holdings, Inc. Preferred Stock, 698 A.2d 973 (Del. Ch. 1997). 22 Basic Attributes, Objectives & conduct of the corporation in US • PERSONALITY: Corporation is artificial being created by law and acting under authority of law for designated purposes and being artificial and the mere creature of the law, it can only act by its officers and agents. Joseph Greenspon's Sons Iron & Steel Co. v. Pecos Valley Gas Co., 34 Del. 567, 156 A. 350 (1931). 23 Basic Attributes, Objectives & conduct of corporation in US • With same status as if created by special act. – Corporations organized under the general corporation law have the same legal status as if they had been created by a special act of the General Assembly. State ex rel. Cochran v. Penn - Beaver Oil Co., 34 Del. 81, 143 A. 257 (1926). • Corporation is entity distinct from its stockholders. Bird v. Wilmington Soc'y of Fine Arts, 28 Del. Ch. 449, 43 A.2d 476 (1945). • Even if there is only 1 stockholder. – The fact that 1 person owns all of the stock of a corporation does not make such person and the corporation 1 and the same person. Martin v. D.B. Martin Co., 10 Del. Ch. 211, 88 A. 612 (1913). • But this fiction should be ignored when used as a shield for fraudulent or other illegal acts. Martin v. D.B. Martin Co., 10 Del. Ch. 211, 88 A. 612 (1913). 24 Powers of a corporation: DGCL § 122. Specific powers Every corporation created under this chapter shall have power to: • (1) Have perpetual succession by its corporate name, unless a limited period of duration is stated in its certificate of incorporation; • (2) Sue and be sued in all courts and participate, as a party or otherwise, in any judicial, administrative, arbitrative or other proceeding… • (3) Have a corporate seal… • (4) Purchase, receive, take by grant, gift, devise, bequest or otherwise, lease, or otherwise acquire, own, hold, improve, employ, use and otherwise deal in and with real or personal property, or any interest therein, wherever situated, and to sell, convey, lease, exchange, transfer or otherwise dispose of, or mortgage or pledge, all or any of its property and assets, or any interest therein, wherever situated; • (5) Appoint such officers and agents as the business of the corporation requires and to pay or otherwise provide for them suitable compensation; • (6) Adopt, amend and repeal bylaws; • (7) Wind up and dissolve itself in the manner provided in this chapter; • (8) Conduct its business, carry on its operations and have offices and exercise its powers within or without this State; • (9) Make donations for the public welfare or for charitable, scientific or educational purposes, and in time of war or other national emergency in aid thereof; 25 • • • • • • • • (10) Be an incorporator, promoter or manager of other corporations of any type or kind; (11) Participate with others in any corporation, partnership, limited partnership, joint venture or other association… (12) Transact any lawful business which the corporation's board of directors shall find to be in aid of governmental authority; (13) Make contracts, including contracts of guaranty and suretyship, incur liabilities, borrow money at such rates of interest as the corporation may determine, issue its notes, bonds and other obligations, and secure any of its obligations by mortgage, pledge or other encumbrance of all or any of its property, franchises and income… (14) Lend money for its corporate purposes, invest and reinvest its funds… (15) Pay pensions and establish and carry out pension, profit sharing, stock option, stock purchase, stock bonus, retirement, benefit, incentive and compensation plans, trusts and provisions for any or all of its directors, officers and employees, and for any or all of the directors, officers and employees of its subsidiaries; (16) Provide insurance for its benefit on the life of any of its directors, officers or employees, or on the life of any stockholder for the purpose of acquiring at such stockholder's death shares of its stock owned by such stockholder. .... OVERVIEW OF DELAWARE CORPORATIONS History & Development of Corporate Law in the US • The preeminence of Delaware corporate law: reasons for such a role The First State, post- independence from GB Problems w legislature (2/3 time spent on incorporations & divorces, corruption) Finally 1897 General Corporation Law (copy of NJ statute) Competition w New Jersey (1896 1st modern liberal corporation statute, W Wilson in 1913 lost pre eminence) 20th century roller- coaster 27 The preeminence of Delaware corporate law: reasons for such a role • Today: over 575,000 business entities domiciled in DE • 58% of the Fortune 500 • Half of co’s traded on the NYSE and the NASDAQ* • 68% of IPOs on US exchanges • Over 95,000 new LLC’s and corps formed annually 28 WHY DELAWARE? • General Corporation Law – DE Bar committee constant updating work for real life problems w DE Corporation Law Council* and DE legislature (2/3 vote) • Court of Chancery – Rare example of US specialized court – Incredible compendium of case law • Responsive State Gov’t – Secretary of State (w private efficient private agencies- CSC*) • DE Division of Corporations* 29 WHY DELAWARE? cont’d • The above lead to –Flexible and modern corporate law statutes –Worldwide respected courts –Business-friendly government & services –Best US corporate law expertise 30 Incorporation in the US Remember, • US corporate law largely province of the states • Federal law totally silent until Depression era Securities Act of 1933 • Corp governed for corp law purposes by law of state of incorporation, regardless of business operations 31 Corporate Form in US • Agency issues – Dichotomy bt SHs and Directors / mgmt: Apparent authority of principal. – Principal could not deny the validity of the sale - leaseback where he had apparent authority to bind the lessee because he served as president, sole director, and sole shareholder of a corporation. Carriage Realty P'ship v. AllTech Auto Auto., Inc., 2001 Del. Ch. LEXIS 144 (Nov. 27, 2001) – DE and other state corp law focused on maximizing managers power and decisional efficiency (federals step in to limit this) 32 US state competition • Theories of state competition – The Race for the Bottom (but fails to account for market forces) – The Race for the Top (e.g. positives of DE law efficiency, but fails to account for antitakeover measures) – The Race for Predictability & Stability (but what about a federal corp law system, in order to truly maximize SH value?) 33 US state competition • Wish to maximize incorporations focuses on corporate decision makers, not SH value • Tempered by wish to avoid federal intervention • What about resident SHs’ interests (e.g. NY)? difficult bx giving priority would just mean their state law would NOT apply, as others go to DE, etc. • No coincidence then that DE has small SH base (ergo smaller political impact) 34 Length & Costs to Incorporate • Common law systems US & UK provide for a relatively simple & expedited process • content of articles/bylaws, type & severity of controls on relevant documentation, & legal fees are relatively minor & not very burdensome • generally, protect investors & stakeholders via ex post litigation rather than ex ante controls on lawfulness of articles/bylaws Overview of Capital Requirements In US no significant differences re: minimum legal capital among states; Virtually no states require minimum legal capital & rules re: formation of corporate capital are not particularly rigorous Practice point: Let’s take a look at online incorporation services: http://www.form-a-corp.com/ http://www.incorp.com/where-to-incorporate.aspx http://www.bizfilings.com/products/flash/compare/i ndex.html Overview of Capital Requirements: EU In Europe situation is quite different Second Directive on legal capital, implemented by all EU states, requires corp (public ones) to provide for min legal capital of €25,000, which shall consist of "assets capable of economic assessment“ Several States impose even higher min capital requirement Re: closely-held, non-listed corps, significant comparative differences exist Overview of Capital Requirements: EU In contrast to most in EU, UK follows common law approach providing for very low level of min legal capital, &, generally, quite lax in related rules re: formation of legal capital • Differences create significant room for regulatory arbitrage, especially for smaller firms incorporating for the first time • Some SHs prefer to incorporate in a state with lower capital requirements even if they are operating exclusively in other jurisdictions • EU incorporation • Most countries adhere to the “siège réel” (“real seat”) view of incorporation • Others (UK, Eire, DK, NL) hold a more open incorporation theory EU incorporation • Is fear of a “DE race to the bottom” justified? – Labor unions – Political systems – Courts Can harmonization work? However, the costs of current system to EU efficiency are there (cannot truly take advantage of open market). UNITED STATES - SOLE PROPRIETORSHIP Simplest form of business entity. It is a form in which individual conducts business in his/her own name or under trade name rather than a separate legal business entity PROS: no requirement to register sole proprietorship w state (unless you are using a trade name, in which case, register it to protect from use by others) no double taxation applicable. The sole proprietor is taxed at his or her individual tax rate for profits earned in business, under his/her individual name & social security number on his/her individual tax return. No business entity level tax no corporate formalities to conduct or maintain Sole proprietors have complete control over their business CONS: no limitation of personal liability for sole proprietor- means that liabilities, debts, & judgments against business can attach to personal assets of sole proprietor including personal bank accounts, cars, & homes UNITED STATES – Partnership / Joint Venture Form of business enterprise in which 2 or more “individuals” (or entities) participate for profit. Individuals can be deemed to be in a partnership even if they have not entered into formal partnership agreement. Absent partnership agreement, state laws govern rights & responsibilities of partners, such as requiring that each partners share equally in profits. Joint venture : type of temporary partnership organized to carry out particular business enterprise Often referred to as “General Partnership” Be careful how you work together with others UNITED STATES – Partnership / Joint Venture PROS: no formal requirement to register partnership w state (although recommended) no double taxation applicable to partnership. Partnerships are pass- through entities- each partner is taxed at his/her individual tax rate for their share of profits earned in business, under his/her individual name & social security number no business entity level tax, although partnership is considered separate entity from each partner, however partnership should file informational federal return corporate formalities not mandatory to conduct or maintain All partners can act on behalf of partnership. UNITED STATES – Partnership / Joint Venture CONS: no limitation of personal liability for partners- thus, if someone sues business & wins, they can attach judgment against personal assets of each partner, including their personal bank accounts, car, and home. Partners are financially liable for the actions of their partners, which means that someone can sue the partnership for the conduct of one of the partners in his role as a partner in the business and the assets of not only that partner, but all partners can be attached to satisfy judgment All partners can act on behalf of partnership. UNITED STATES – Limited Partnership LP An entity formed under state law by 2 or more “individuals” associated for the purpose of conducting business for profit. Consists of 1 or more limited partners & at least 1 general partner (general partners can be corporations in order to further limit personal liability) PROS: personal liability of limited partners limited to their capital contribution to LP no double taxation. LPs are pass-through entities, which means that each limited or general partner is taxed at his/her individual tax rate for their share of profits earned in business, under his/her individual name & social security number. no business entity level tax, but LP should file informational federal return. corporate formalities are not mandatory to conduct or maintain. UNITED STATES – Limited Partnership LP CONS: no limitation of personal liability for general partners of LP, which means that if someone sues business & wins, they can attach a judgment against personal assets of general partner(s) including personal bank accounts, car, & home General partners are financially liable for actions of their partners, which means that someone can sue partnership for conduct of one of partners in his role as partner & assets of not only that partner, but all of general partners can be attached to satisfy judgment Limited partners can’t participate in management of LP UNITED STATES – Limited Liability Partnership LLP Entity formed under state law by 2 or more “individuals” associated for purpose of conducting business for profit. Partners in LLP are generally personally liable for their own wrongful acts & acts of those they directly supervise However, their personal assets are protected from claims involving wrongful acts of another partner PROS: personal liability of partners is limited to their contribution of LLP capital unless they or someone they directly supervise acted wrongfully no double taxation. LLPs are pass-through entities, which means that each partner is taxed at his/her individual tax rate for their share of profits earned in business, under his/her individual name. There is no business entity level tax, but LLP should file informational federal return corporate formalities are not mandatory to conduct or maintain LLP All partners can participate in management & conduct business of LLP CONS: Some states limit types of enterprises that can be formed as LLP UNITED STATES – Limited Liability Company LLC • Entity formed by 1 or more individuals under state law. Owners called members (not shareholders) & it is treated as partnership for federal tax purposes • PROS: • personal liability of LLC member is limited to their contribution of LLC capital, meaning that if someone sues business & wins, they can attach a judgment against capital contribution of member(s), but not personal assets of member(s) (unless corporate veil is pierced) • generally no double taxation. For federal tax purposes, single-member LLCs are disregarded as entities separate from their member(s) & multiple-member LLCs treated as partnerships (pass-through entities) for federal tax purposes unless LLC has more than 2 of the 4 characteristics that define corporations: limited liability to the extent of assets; continuity of life; centralization of mgmt; & free transferability of ownership interests, THEN it will be treated as corporation UNITED STATES – Limited Liability Company LLC If satisfies requirements to be disregarded or treated as a pass-through entity, member(s) is taxed at his/her individual tax rate for their share of profits earned, under his/her individual name, & there is no business entity level tax. LLC should file informational federal tax return corp formalities not mandatory to conduct/maintain LLC LLC members can manage business LLCs can have 1 member or multiple members CONS: Because of its relatively new form in most states, common law applicable to LLCs is not as established as w partnerships & corporations. Thus, principles such as “piercing the corporate veil” are less defined & predictable when applied to LLCs In addition to income taxes, LLC members must pay self-employment taxes if they have earned more than $400 from business during tax year (rate of self-employment taxes is approximately 15%) UNITED STATES – S Corporation • Corp organized under state law that has elected to be treated as a “subchapter S corporation” under federal tax law, subject to special requirements for obtaining & maintaining status • PROS: • personal liability of an S corp SH is limited to their contribution of capital to the S corp, meaning that if someone sues business & wins, they can attach a judgment against capital contribution of SH(s), but not personal assets of SH(s) (unless corp veil is pierced) • no double taxation. S corps are pass-through entities if applicable federal tax rules are followed (e.g., earnings and profits of S corps must be distributed to SHs annually as dividends) • no business entity level tax, but S corporation must file informational federal return (Form 1120S) • S corporation SHs can participate in mgmt of business UNITED STATES – S Corporation SHs can receive portion of their income as salary (it must be reasonable salary) & any additional income above salary will not be subject to self-employment taxes (a savings of over 15%) CONS: corporate formalities to conduct & maintain, such as organizational & annual meetings, corporate minutes, etc. All income must be distributed annually to SHs Specific rules must be followed in order to maintain S corp status: An S corp must be domestic corporation & not an ineligible corporation (includes a financial institution, most insurance cos, etc.) S corp cannot have more than 100 SHs S corp cannot have SH who is not individual (certain narrow exceptions apply) S corporation cannot have nonresident alien as SH S corporation cannot have more than 1 class of stock US – C Corporation (Regular corporation) corporation is a business entity organized under state law for purpose of making a profit. Can be closely held (1 or a small no. of SHs) or publicly traded (shares are sold on public market). SHs of corp elect directors (for Board of Directors) & officers (President, Vice President, Secretary, etc.) to manage corp’s business PROS: personal liability of corp SH limited to their contribution of capital to corp, meaning that if someone sues business & wins, they can attach a judgment against assets of corp, which include capital contribution of SH(s), but not personal assets of SH(s) (unless corporate veil pierced) Corp SHs can participate in mgmt of business as directors, officers, or employees US – C Corporation (Regular corporation) Cost of benefits to employees deductible Due to recent changes in tax law, dividends distributed to corporate SHs taxed at capital gain rates (generally, 15%) CONS: double taxation applicable to corporations. Corp taxed on its earnings & profits at business entity level. Plus, when profits distributed to SHs as dividends, those dividends are taxed at individual SH level on individual's tax return There are corporate formalities to conduct & maintain, such as organizational & annual meetings, corporate minutes, etc. US – DHC – Delaware Holding Company DE intangible holding company strategy is technique used to obtain savings in state corporate income taxes on investment & certain types of passive income. Strategy has been under attack by various state taxing authorities & legislatures Typically, strategy involves transfer of assets generating nonoperating or portfolio income (patents, patent applications, trademarks, trade names, stocks, bonds, notes) to a DE holding company subsidiary (DHC) Also applicable to other states (e.g. Nevada) not imposing corporate income tax Income from these investments considered as being received in DE & not subject to DE corporate income tax & may not be taxable in other states Additionally, parent company may benefit from deduction for state corporate income tax purposes in a "separate return" state for royalties, interest or other payments made to DHC for use of transferred assets US – DHC – Delaware Holding Company strategy is supported, in part, by DE law provision exempting from DE corp income tax, any corp whose activities in DE confined to maintenance & mgmt of its intangible investments & collection & distribution of income from such investments "Intangible investments" include, without limitation, investments in stocks, bonds, notes and other debt obligations (including debt obligations of affiliated corporations), patents, patent applications, trademarks, trade names and similar types of intangible assets. US – DHC – Delaware Holding Company • If corp undertakes any other business, tax exemption lost • there must be a very significant business connection between the DHC & State of Delaware to prevent parent's state of incorporation from asserting taxes against DE sub • In recent cases, state departments of revenue have assessed taxes on parent companies related to the income of DHCs when there were significant connections to the assessing state & insufficient connections to DE • These states argue that parent companies are using empty corp shells, engaging in sham transactions, & using other ruses to make it appear as if parent has separated itself legally from its DHC subsidiary US – DHC – Delaware Holding Company In order to improve chances that tax-free status of DHC not challenged, parent co should consider following to establish sufficient connection to DE: • Locate physical office in DE from which corporate activities are directed • Execute all IP licensing agreements & related contracts in DE • Maintain its original books, records, & contracts in DE • Use stationary & business cards with DE address • Establish DE bank account • Obtain DE tax identification numbers • Withhold DE income tax from salaries of all DHC officers & employees • File and pay payroll taxes in DE • Use DE mailing address & telephone number • Have all officers & employees of DHC perform their duties in DE, even if only on part-time basis • Hold board of directors meetings in state UNITED STATES – Nonprofit Corporation Entity formed under state law for socially beneficial, not-for-profit, purpose that has elected & been qualified to be treated as exempt from federal taxation due its social purpose PROS: personal liability of nonprofit organization organizers is limited to their contribution of capital to organization, meaning that if someone sues business & wins, they can attach a judgment against capital contribution of organizer(s), but not personal assets of organizer(s) (unless corp veil pierced) exempt from federal and state taxation CONS: corporate formalities to conduct & maintain, such as organizational & annual meetings, corporate minutes, etc. Tax-exempt status must be applied for on both federal & state level Specific rules must be followed in order to maintain nonprofit organizational status FRANCE Société Anonyme (SA)- best-known form-- can be private co or public co- we will consider private first 2 or 3 organ structure: SH meeting & BOD, or SH meeting, Mgmt Board and Supervisory Board, similar to German system (the latter optional) Minimum 7 natural or legal persons to form; need formal recording of formation Minimum Euro 37k share capital Different classes of share permitted Transfer by simple agmt (subject to by-laws) FRANCE Société Anonyme (SA)- private version, cont’d Stock exchange listing not possible Sole liability of the company; in principle SHs not liable beyond capital contributions thereto Employee co-determination: only state co or if employees own more than 3% Amendment of articles of association, capital increase/decrease only by extraordinary general meeting of SH (w 2/3 majority); changes to be registered w commercial register FRANCE • Société Anonyme (SA)- private version, cont’d • Cross-border merger currently impractical • Cross-border transfer of seat required unanimous consent of SHs; co dissolved unless convention exists btw France & new host country FRANCE Société par actions simplifiée (SAS) This is a new, simplified type of co, created by law of Jan. 3, 1994 Main advantage is its flexibility re: setting mgmt powers (apart this, functions as an SA) Recommended vehicles for creating joint ventures (JVs) in France or when planned to be held 100% by parent co No prescribed structure, except for appointment of of a “chairman”; certain key decisions must be adopted collectively by SHs Need 1 or more natural or legal persons to form; need formal recording of formation FRANCE • Société par actions simplifiée (SAS) • Registration mandatory w commercial register • Has own legal personality • Minimum Euro 37k share capital • Stock exchange listing not possible • Sole liability of co; SHs not liable in theory beyond capital contributed to co. • No complusory employee codetermination FRANCE • Société par actions simplifiée (SAS) • To amend by-laws, increase/decrease share capitla majority rule set in by-laws; changes registered w commercial register • Cross-border mergers currently impractical • Same other general considerations as w SA FRANCE Société à responsabilité limitée (SARL) Does not acquire full legal existence & cannot enter into contracts in own name May be created w 1 SH, in which case it is an EURL (Entreprise unipersonelle à responsabilité limitée) Sole liability of the company (key consideration to use it) Mandatory registration with trade & company register 2 organ structure: SH meeting & manager(s) No minimum share capital No employee co-determination FRANCE • Société à responsabilité limitée (SARL) • ¾ supermajority to amend articles or vary share capital FRANCE Société Anonyme (SA)- public version (Listed) 2 or 3 organ structure: SH meeting & BOD, or SH meeting, Mgmt Board & optional Supervisory Board Need 7 or more natural or legal persons to form; need formal recording of formation Registration mandatory with companies/commercial register SA has its own separate legal identity Minimum share capital of Euro 225k FRANCE Société Anonyme (SA)- public version Different classes of shares permitted; transfer of shares by simple agmt Listing on a stock exchange possible Sole liability of SA, SHs not liable beyond shares Employee co-determination: compulsory only in state cos or if they own 3% or more of share (when an issue?) To amend articles of association or vary capital, need 2/3 majority of extraordinary general meeting (SHs) FRANCE • Société Anonyme (SA)- public version • Such amendments must be registered w commerical register • Cross-border merger currently impractical • Cross-border transfer of seat requires unanimous SH consent, but SA dissolved unless convention in place FRANCE – other business entities • Below types are relatively rare: • General partnership (Société en nom collectif – SNC) • Limited partnership (Société en commandite) • Société en participation • Economic Interest Grouping (Groupment d’intérêt Economique – GIE) ENGLAND & WALES • Incorporated companies come in 3 forms: – Companies limited by shares (most important) – Companies limited by guarantee – used mainly for sports clubs and non-profit making entities – Unlimited companies – no limit on the liability of the members; gen not used, but sometimes in certain tax-efficient corporate structures • Companies limited by shares come in 2 forms: – Public companies – All others limited by shares not public (“private” companies) ENGLAND & WALES • Shelf companies can be, & often are, purchased (especially w time constraints) • These shelf cos have not traded & exist only to save time & administration issues relating to incorporating new cos • Generally cost about £1,250 • Transaction can be done in several hours, so long as you can provide new directors (Ds) & SHs willing to take transfer of subscriber shares ENGLAND & WALES • Public limited company (Plc) • Structure includes SHs meeting & a Board of Directors (BOD) • Minimum 2 SHs to form • Minimum 2 directors (Ds), plus company secretary to have certain qualifications (prior public co sec’y role, solicitor/barrister, certified accountant or someone Ds believe has necessary prior experience in general) • Public limited company (Plc) • Need to file w Companies House details of Ds, Secretary, initial SHs and any new share issuances, plus annual returns & accounts must be filed • Minimum share capital of £50k (of which £12,500 must be paid up) • Company must have authority to issue new shares • Statutory pre-emption rights on issue (can be disapplied) Public limited company (Plc) Can list a Plc on stock market Limited liability of SHs; personal liability of Ds for breach of fiduciary duty or wrongful or fraudulent trading or certain violations of Companies Act 1985 No employee co-determination Need SH resolution to amend articles of association (by-laws) & to increase capital, but Ds can issue new shares if duly authorised Capital cannot be repaid to SHs except in very limited circumstances • Public limited company (Plc) • Cross-border merger not possible (compare to Delaware, US corp law) • Cross-border transfer of seat not possible ENGLAND & WALES Ltd / Limited = private limited liability co Structure includes SH & Board of directors (BOD) Need at least 1 SH, at least 1 director (D) & a company secretary Must provide details of all Ds & secretary to Companies House; mandatory notification of share issues, annual return & accounts to be filed (but small co exemptions) Practical internet law sources exercise: Companies House, EU Lex website, SEC & NYSE (French US listed cos), AMF websites Ltd / Limited cont’d No minimum share capital Company must have authority to issues shares Statutory pre-emption rights on issue of new shares Cannot list on stock market Limited liability of SHs Personal liability for Ds for breach of fiduciary duties, wrongful or fraudulent trading or certain violations of the Companies Act 1985 No employee co-determination • Ltd / Limited co. Cont’d • To amend articles of association or effect capital increase/decrease, need SH approval • Directors can issue new shares is authorised to do so • Capital generally cannot be repaid • Cross-border mergers not possible • Not possible to effect cross-border transfer of seat ENGLAND & WALES • Ordinary partnerships - 2 or more people carry on business together to make a profit – – – – No separate legal personality Take business decisions together Share ownership of assets Share responsibility for debts & obligations w NO LIMITS – Such liability JOINT & SEVERAL – Easy to form & unwind – Subject the Partnership Act of 1890 ENGLAND & WALES • Limited partnerships (LPs) – At least 1 general partner (who has UNLIMITED LIABILITY & sole responsibility for management (mgmt) of partnership and 1 or more limited partners – Limited partners’ liability limited to extent of capital contribution but no right to participate in mgmt) – Subject to Limited Partnerships Act 1907 Limited liability partnerships – LLPs Created by the Limited Liability Partnership Act 2000 Key feature is that it combines the organisational flexibility & (for many purposes) tax status of a partnership w corporate personality & limited liability for its members Very common amongst large professional services organisations: Law firms, accounting firms, etc. ENGLAND & WALES • European Economic Interest Groupings (EEIGs) • Rare in the UK, but they offer an alternative format for joint venture nonprofit making entities • Also exist other organisations, including indutrial and provident societies and friendly societies, often used for “not-forprofit” ventures ENGLAND & WALES • LP/LLP (Limited partnership w a limited liability company as general partner) • Overseas companies: can establish presence in GB either by opening a branch or establishing a place of business there • A branch is a part of a company used to conduct business on behalf of co, performing functions not merely ancillary or incidental to business • If not enough activities to justify a branch, establish “place of business” ENGLAND & WALES • 2 different registration regimes for branches & places of business GERMANY – System of commercial business forms • Sole proprietorship (Einzelkaufman) • Partnerships (Personengesellschaften) • Public & private limited liability companies/corporations (Kapitalgesellschaften) • Branches (Zweigniederlassung) GERMANY The Stock Corporation (Aktiengesellschaft AG) 3 organ structure: general meeting of SHs, BOD & Supervisory Board 1 or more natural or legal persons to form; fromal recording of formation Minimum Euro 50k share capital (req’d by EU Directive) Different classes of shares admitted; transfer by simple agmt Listing on a stock exchange possible Sole liability of AG, SHs not liable in principle for more The Stock Corporation (Aktiengesellschaft - AG) cont’d Employee co-determination: supervisory board w 1/3 employee reps if more than 500 employees; up to ½ if more than 2000 employees Amendment to articles of association (bylaws) or variance of share capital by SH resolution, to be registered w commercial register Cross-border merger not currently possible Cross-border transfer of seat not possible either; deemed a liquidation GERMANY • The Limited Liability Company (GmbH – Gesellschaft mit bescrankter Haftung) – key form in Germany for most small/medium businesses • 2 organ structure: SH meetings & Mgmt Board; Supervisory Board optional, but employee co-determination may make it mandatory • 1 or more natural or legal persons to form, formal recording of formation • Registration mandatory • Has own legal personality The Limited Liability Company – GmbH Minimum share capital of Euro 25k Equal rights for all SHs if uniform shareholdings Transfer of shares by notarial agmt Listing on a stock exchange not possible Sole liability of GmbH; in principle SHs not liable for more than contribution Employee co-determination: Mandatory supervisory board w 1/3 employee reps if more than 500 employees; up to ½ if more than 2000 employees • The Limited Liability Company – GmbH • Need notarial SH resolution to amend articles of association (by-laws) or to vary share capital, to be registered w commercial register • Cross-border merger currently not possible • Cross-border transfer not possible; deemed a liquidation GERMANY • Limited Partnership with Share Capital (KG a.A. – Kommanditgesellschaft mit Aktien) • GmbH & Co. KG (Limited Partnership with a Limited Liability Company as General Partner) – Basis is a typical limited partnership KG – Kommanditgesellschaft) ITALY The Joint Stock Corporation (SpA – Società per Azioni) 3 organ structure: SH meeting, BOD & Board of Statutory Auditors; alternative systems of corporate governance 1 or more natural or legal persons to form; need formal recording Mandatory registration w commercial register Has own legal personality Minimum legal capital of Euro 120k The Joint Stock Corporation (SpA – Società per Azioni) Different classes of shares admitted; transfer by simple agmt Listing on a stock market possible Sole liability of the SpA; SHs not liable beyond investment No employee co-determination To amend articles of association (by-laws) or vary share capital, need notarial SH resolution, to be registered w commercial register Cross-border merger possible (Lottomatica/GTECH) • The Joint Stock Corporation (SpA – Società per Azioni) • Possible for cross-border transfer of seat, but co may lose its Italian nationality ITALY • Partnership Limited by Shares (Sapa – Società in accomandita per azioni) • Has 2 classes of SHs: general partners (soci accomandatori), who are jointly & severably liable for all obligations and are co’s Ds, and limited partners (soci accomandanti), liable only up to capital subscribed & who cannot be Ds • Form seldom used • Other agircultural companies & cooperatives also exist ITALY Limited Liability Company (Srl – Società a responsabilità limitata) 2 organ structure (SH meeting & BOD); Board of Statutory Auditors optional, but mandatory if capital equal to or greater than Euro 120k 1 or more natural or legal persons to form it; formal recording of formation Registration mandatory w commercial register (companies’ register of local chamber of commerce, industry & artisanry) Srl has own legal personality (compare to French Sarl) • Limited Liability Company (Srl – Società a responsabilità limitata) • Minimum share capital of Euro 10k • Rights proportionate to quotaholding (“quotas” not “shares”) • Transfer of quotas by simple agmt • Cannot list on stock market • Sole liability of Srl; in principle SHs not liable • No employee co-determination • Limited Liability Company (Srl – Società a responsabilità limitata) • Amendment of articles of association, capital increase/decrease by notarial SH resolution, to be registered w commercial register • Cross-border merger is possible • As is cross-border transfer of seat (but may lose Italian nationality) ITALY Branches of foreign companies Art. 2508 of Civil Code provides for possibility of foreign cos establishing 1 or more branches in Italy Need to file various co documents (minutes of SH meeting approving branch, appointment of branch manger, address, memorandum & articles of association) w notary, who registers them w commercial companies register Docs become public in Italy Branch is not a separate entity from parent co (liable 100%) POLAND • Limited Liability Company (sp. Z o.o. – spolka z ograniczona odpowiedzialnoscia) • The basic type of incorporated co in Poland • Note on shelf companies – possible to acquire, but often prior traders need due diligence, not regulated by Polish Commercial Companies Code • 2 or 3 organ structure: SH meeting & mgmt board mandatory, supervisory board only mandatory when more than 25 SHs & share capital exceeds PLN 500k • Limited Liability Company - sp. Z o.o. Cont’d • 1 or more natural or legal persons to form • Sole SH sp.Zo.o. cannot establish another sole SH sp.Zo.o.; need to formally record formation • Registration mandatory w Commercial Register • Has own legal personality • Minimum share capital of PLN 50k (app. Euro 13.3k) • Listing on stock exchange not possible • Equal rights of SHs in principle Limited Liability Company - sp. Z o.o. Cont’d Transfer of shares by agmt w signatures certified by notary Sole liability of sp.Zo.o.; in principle SHs not liable No mandatory employee co-determination Amendment of articles of association, capital increase/decrease by notarial SH resolution, to be filed (registered) w register court Cross-border merger not possible Cross-border transfer of seat not possible- deemed to be a liquidation POLAND Joint Stock Company (S.A. – spolka akcyjna) 3 organ structure: general meeting of SHs, BOD and Supervisory Board (wide German influence) 1 or more natural or legal persons to form, except that a sole SH sp.Zo.o. Cannot establish an SA Registration w commercial register mandatory SA has own legal personality Minimum PLN 500k share capital (appr. Euro 133k) Different classes of shares permitted, transfer shares by simple agmt POLAND Joint Stock Company (S.A. – spolka akcyjna) Listing on a stock exchange possible Sole liability of SA, SHs not liable beyond contributions No mandatory employee co-determination To change articles or invrease/decrease share capital, need notarial Sh resolution, to be reigistered w register court (version of commercial register) Cross-border mergers & transfer of seat not possible (latter = liquidation) Practice point: Articles of Association • Let’s take a look at the Articles of Association (Statut, by-laws) of a French SA • We will consider certain clauses more carefully when dealing w issues later in class • What strikes you as interesting, or strange, in the document? • Are there terms that you are unfamiliar w or would like explained in more detail? EUROPEAN COMPANY – SOCIETAS EUROPAEA (SE) • Available since Oct. 2004, became reality 35 yrs after first proposed (political agmt reached in Dec. 2002) • Gives cos operating in more than 1 Member State option of being established as a single co under EU law & able to operate throughout EU w 1 set of rules • Also provides for a unified mgmt & reporting system rather than all the different national law of each state where they have subsidiaries (subs) • Prospect of reduced administrative costs & legal structure adapted to internal mkt as a whole Societas Europaea • Statute allows cos incorporated in different EU Member States (States) to merge or form a holding company or joint subsidiary while avoiding legal & practical constraints due to 27 different legal systems • Registered office of SE designated in statutes must be place where it has its central administration, that is to say its true centre of operations. SE can easily transfer its registered office w/i EU w/o dissolving the company in one State in order to form new one in another State EUROPEAN COMPANY – SOCIETAS EUROPAEA (SE) 2 or 3 organ structure: general meeting of SHs plus (i) a onetier BOD (1 admin organ) or (ii) a two-tier board (1 supervisory organ & 1 mgmt organ) Formation (4 possibilities): 1) Merger into SE: available only to public limited cos from different EU States; 2) set up Holding SE: available to public & private limited cos w their registered offices in different EU States or having subs or branches in EU States other than that of their registered office 3) set up Subsidiary SE: available under same circumstances to any legal entities governed by public or private law; 4) transformation into SE: conversion of a public company previously incorporated under nat’l law Formation formalities governed by national laws of state where SE is registered Societas Europaea – Mgmt Options Under two-tier system, SE is managed by a Mgmt board. A member or members of Mgmt board have power to represent co in dealings w 3d parties & in legal proceedings They are appointed & removed by supervisory board. No person may be member of both Mgmt board & supervisory board of same company at same time. However, supervisory board may appoint one of its members to exercise functions of member of Mgmt board in event of absence due to holiday, & function of person concerned as member of supervisory board suspended temporarily Under one-tier system, SE is managed by an administrative (Admin) board. A member or members of Admin board have power to represent co in dealings w 3d parties & in legal proceedings. Under one-tier system Admin board may delegate mgmt power to 1 or more of its members. Societas Europaea miscellaneous Taxes: SE is treated same as any other multinational, that is, it is subject to tax regime of national legislation applicable to co & its subs SEs are subject to taxes & charges in all EU States where their administrative centres are. Thus their tax status is not perfect as there is still no adequate harmonisation at EU level Winding - u p, liquidation, insolvency & suspension of payments are in large measure to be governed by national law An SE which transfers its registered office outside EU must be wound up on application of any person concerned or any competent authority EUROPEAN COMPANY – SOCIETAS EUROPAEA (SE) • Registration & publication in commercial register mandatory: registration & completion of liquidation of an SE must be disclosed in “Official Journal of the European Communities” • Every SE must be registered in state where it has its registered office, in register designated by law of that state • SE has its own legal personality • Minimum share capital of Euro 120k • For share transfers and listings on stock markets, all formalities governed by laws of member state in which SE is registered • Sole liability of SE; in principle SHs not liable beyond investment • Employee co-determination depends on cos involved in formation EUROPEAN COMPANY – SOCIETAS EUROPAEA (SE) Formalities re: amendment of articles of association or capital increase/decrease governed by member state in which SE is registered; registration /publication of changes is mandatory Cross - border merger possible, of SEs though (Treaty of Rome Art 20 provided this to be goal of EU, but never realised) Cross - border transfer of seat to another State is possible also, but must be accompanied by transfer also of head office there (failure to comply cld lead to liquidation) So far not yet extensively used by cos, but this is changing (BASF etc.) EUROPEAN COMPANY – SOCIETAS EUROPAEA (SE) SE meant to enable groups of cos w activities in various industries to restructure by creating 1 SE for each geographical sector, 1 SE for each activity sector & 1 SE for each product line Close relation to intro of the €, a needed instrument w/i economic & monetary union in terms of competition for access to capital Cos w operations in various States can move across nat’l borders & avoid complex & costly procedures of dissolution in original State & reincorporation as new legal entity in country to which they wish to move SE – a few examples • For example, “Subaru France” cld form an SE, “Subaru SE” w “Subaru Germany”, or an SE, “Subaru-Peugeot SE” w “Peugeot Spain”. • Also a holding SE or joint sub SE cld be formed by 2 cos of the same State if each had for at least last 2 yrs an establishment situated in another State • Thus “Ford France” or “SEAT France” cld form a sub SE or holding SE if they had branches in another State (e.g. Czech Republic) Societas Europaea None of above advantages currently available under national laws in force Offers cos a “Euro flag”, valuable in publicity terms w customers, clients, suppliers, creditors, etc. Removes psychological problems w reincorporation Text of SE Regulation contains 70 articles, not c. 300 of 1970 or 1975 versions Represents great improvement in flexibility & simplicity More open to SMEs, bx of share capital Euro 120k (previous proposals had ECU 500k or ECU 250k) Societas Europaea For non-EU multinationals, no longer “fortress Europe” Access opened to them (w central admin & strategic decision centres outside EU) so long as they are registered in an EU State & have “a real link with a Member State’s economy” = simply means an establishment in EU Some commentators believe, beyond efficiency & productivity gains , may strengthen EU firms against hostile take over bids Increased TRANSPARENCY of EU financial mkts SE – Worker Representation Current battle over character of evolving European system of corporate governance. Issue is fundamental choice btw 2 different conceptions of the firm: the shareholder model, where purpose of firm is to maximise value in interests of SHs, and stakeholder model, where firm has responsibility to broader range of stakeholders Worker groups argue for EU to use its existing legal framework to develop a co go regime which focuses on society: they say an important EU contribution to realising corporate social responsibility is establishment & maintenance of well-balanced corporate governance framework-focus on SE & employee co-determination SE – Worker Representation “Council Directive complementing Statute for a European company w regard to the involvement of employees in the European company”: Directive set up standards of employee involvement, guaranteeing autonomy of social partners & at the same time a degree of existing rights of employees provided by different nat’l regimes of participation rights Several participation models are possible: first, a model in which employees participate in supervisory board or administrative board, as case may be; second, a model in which the employees are represented by a separate body; & finally, other models to be agreed btw Mgmt or Admin boards of founder cos & employees or their representatives in those cos, the level of information & consultation being same as in case of second model SHs may not approve formation of SE unless one of models of participation defined in Directive chosen. SE – Worker Representation • Under this EU Directive on worker involvement, creation of SE wld require negotiations on involving employees of cos concerned • If impossible to negotitate, standard principle annexed to Directive apply (SE mgrs to give regular reports, w consultation & info: strategy, bus plans, sales, production, M&A, implications for workers, closures, layoffs, etc.) Worker participation in SE In some cases where negotiations fail & where cos involved in creation of SE previously subject to codetermination, the SE wld be obliged to have standard principles to help them participate Applies to SE created as a holding co or JV, when majority of employees had rights, prior to the SE, to participate in co decisions If SE created by merger, standard codetermination principles apply when 25% plus of employees had participation rights bf merger (political “hot potato” blocked agmt on Directive until Nice Summit 2000) SE & worker co-determination • Nice Summit compromise: States could decide not to implement Directive on participation for SEs created by merger, but then SE cld only be registered in that State if agmt w employees concluded or when no employees covered by co-determination previously • What might happen bx of this last point? • In case of transformation of nat’l co into SE, arrangements for worker participation previously applied wld have to continue to apply SE & worker participation • However, Directive aims to preserve acquired rights of employees by applying “before & after principle”, not to export worker participation to where not exist (but reading labour advocates, they would like to push this) EUROPEAN COMPANY – SOCIETAS EUROPAEA (SE) CASE STUDY: BASF: from AG to SE In Feb 2007, the Board of Executive Directors of BASF AG proposed to Supervisory Board to convert BASF AG into a European Company (Societas Europaea, SE) w effect in 2008. Dr. Jürgen Hambrecht, Chairman of the Board of Executive Directors of BASF Aktiengesellschaft “With our decision to convert BASF into a European Company we are making a clear commitment to our main market in Europe and are assuming a pioneering role in the chemical industry.” BASF SE conversion timeline • March 16, 2007: Invitation to Annual Meeting w detailed information about conversion • April 26, 2007: Resolution of Annual Meeting regarding conversion • Mid-June, 2007: Beginning of negotiations on employee participation • Mid-December, 2007: Conclusion of employee negotiations on employee participation • Q1, 2008: Registration of BASF SE in commercial register Why BASF doing this? • Show its pan-EU business commitment • Logical outcome of a 10 yr business structuring process • Be first in chemicals & related industries to do so • Show its dedication to EU integration What advantages does BASF see? • SE a modern responsive structe better suited to BASF’s 12 member supervisory board (employee co-determination stays in effect) • Emphasise social partnership throughout Europe by intergrating employee representatives from rest of Europe into supervisory board (Italy, England etc. don’t have) Established SEs include: Allianz SE (Germany), Artemis Global Capital SE (Germany), Carthago Value Invest SE (Germany), *Conrad Electronic SE (Germany), Eurotunnel SE (Belgium), *Elcoteq SE (Finland), Galleria di base del Brennero BBT SE (Austria), Graphisoft SE (Hungary), Innovatis SE (France), Jura Management SE (Netherlands), Lyreco CE, SE (Slovakia), Media Corner SE (Belgium), MAN B&W Diesel Group (Germany), MatMar SE (Austria), Narada Europe SE (Norway), *Plansee SE (Austria), Riga RE- SE (Latvia), *SE Sampo Life Insurance (Estonia), Schering - Plough Clinical Trials SE (UK), SCS Europe SE (Netherlands), Viel et Compagnie - F inance SE (France), World W ide Invest SE (Germany), YSL Beauté Benelux SE (France) COMPANIES INTERESTED IN ESTABLISHING AN SE • Arcelor , Braun-Melsungen, DaimlerChrysler, EADS, Eurotunnel , Fortis, Hypo Real Estate , Linde AG , Mazaars , Neumann Partners GmbH , SAP , SEB, Suez , TeliaSonera, WAZMediengruppe EU COMPANIES & FREEDOM OF ESTABLISHMENT Freedom of establishment one of 4 fundamental freedoms of EU internal market Includes right to take up & pursue activities as a selfemployed person & to set up & manage undertakings under conditions laid down for its own nationals by law of country where such establishment is effected Thus, Art. 43 of Treaty (Rome) prohibits all restrictions on freedom of establishment of nationals of 1 State in territory of another Also prohibits restrictions on setting up of agencies, branches or subsidiaries by nationals of 1 State in territory of any other one • Freedom of establishment includes freedom of primary & secondary establishment. • NB: Treaty puts natural & legal entities on an equal footing • Thus, cos formed in accordance w law of given EU State & having their registered office, central administration or principal place of business w/i EU must be treated in same way as natural persons who are nationals of States (Article 48) EU COMPANIES & FREEDOM OF ESTABLISHMENT • provisions on freedom of establishment do not apply to exercise of official authority in state concerned: ECJ has interpreted this exception very restrictively, limiting it to those functions which are closely related to exercise of sovereign rights, which require special loyalty to State • Another exception applies to provisions providing special treatment for foreign nationals on grounds of public policy, public security or public health, where proportionality test needs to be satisfied • One of main aims of Euro legislation by Council & Euro Parliament is to increase legal certainty & effectiveness. • However, since secondary legislation was very much delayed it was very important to establish whether it was possible for natural & legal persons to rely directly on EC Treaty provisions on freedom of establishment Freedom of Establishment Building on 1963 Van Gend en Loos decision, which established the EU legal order as a new & autonomous legal order in its own right, ECJ confirmed that: ‘the rule on equal treatment w nationals is one of the fundamental legal provisions of the Community. As a reference to a set of legislative provisions effectively applied by the country of establishment to its own nationals, this rule is, by its essence, capable of being directly invoked by nationals of all the other member states’ (Jean Reyners v. Belgium- 1974). EU incorporation theory • As stated earlier, most countries adhere to the “siège réel” (“real seat”) view of incorporation • While others (UK, Eire, DK, NL) hold a more open incorporation theory– more like US EU COMPANIES & FREEDOM OF ESTABLISHMENT European Court of Justice case law on crossborder activities ECJ has issued several judgments about scope of freedom of movement of Euro cos defined by an interpretation of provisions of EC Treaty. In several decisions, ECJ has emphasised principle that cos registered in one EU State should be able to do business throughout EU w/o being made subject to specific incorporation requirements in other States. Decisions have progressively established European theory of freedom of movement of cos (more like US) EU COMPANIES & FREEDOM OF ESTABLISHMENT The Centros Case (Case C-212/97; 9 March 1999) 2 Danes established Centros Ltd under laws of England & Wales. Co was to engage in business only in Denmark (DK) incorporators clearly stated that they established entity under English/Welsh law only to avoid minimum capitalisation requirement for Danish LLCs (approx £25,000). Danish commercial registry considered this to be an unlawful circumvention of Danish law minimum capitalisation rules & refused to register co’s branch office in DK EU COMPANIES & FREEDOM OF ESTABLISHMENT Centros - 2 main ideas: 1) ECJ ruled that where a co had exercised its right of establishment under Treaty, EU States are prohibited from discriminating against this co on ground that it was formed in accordance w law of another EU State where it has its registered office but does not carry on business; 2) State is not authorised to restrict freedom of establishment on ground of protecting creditors or preventing fraud if there are other ways of countering fraud or protecting creditors. Court points to availability to Member States of option of adopting EC harmonising legislation in this area of company law; it constitutes pressure for adoption of 14th directive (transfer of registered offices) EU COMPANIES & FREEDOM OF ESTABLISHMENT • • • • The Überseering Case (Case C-208/00; 5 November 2002) ECJ went further: All SHs of Überseering BV, an LLC organized under Dutch laws , were resident in Germany, & co’s principal office was located in Germany. German courts decided that bx of location of co’s principal office German corporate laws apply to it. The Dutch co was thus dismissed from court proceedings in Germany. In judgment, ECJ ruled it was incompatible w freedom of establishment guaranteed in Arts. 43 and 48 EC for State to deny legal capacity (& standing to sue or be sued in courts) to co formed in 1 State which moves its central place of administration to another State. Against expectations of many German legal commentators & recommendation of Advocate General, ECJ also held that where a co incorporated in another EU State exercises its freedom of establishment in another State, that other State is required to recognize co’s legal capacity (& to be party to legal proceedings) which it enjoys under laws of its state of incorporation EU COMPANIES & FREEDOM OF ESTABLISHMENT Überseering Case: Following ECJ judgement, co incorporated in EU State is entitled to rely on principle of freedom of establishment to contest any refusal by a host state to recognise it as a legal entity w capacity to enter into contracts & be a party to legal proceedings As matter of German law, this decision signals end of previous practice where legal capacity of foreign incorporated cos was not recognised, where effective seat of admin was in Germany Will provoke much academic discussion on whether, & if so to what extent, accepted phenomenon of full recognition of legal capacity of ‘pseudo - foreign co’ w/i single market will be extended to other areas of company law EU COMPANIES & FREEDOM OF ESTABLISHMENT Inspire Art (Case C-167/02; 30 September 2003) A Dutchman established co (Inspire Art Ltd) under laws of England & Wales, requesting registration of co’s Dutch branch office at commercial registry in Netherlands (NL) Registry took position that specific Dutch rules for foreign entities registered in NL were to apply to co. Consequence: Inspire Art Ltd would have been required, inter alia, to use a co name indicating its foreign origin, & comply with minimum capitalisation rules for Dutch LLCs. EU COMPANIES & FREEDOM OF ESTABLISHMENT Inspire Art case: ECJ continued its tendency of deciding in favour of freedom of establishment by holding that rules submitting pseudo-foreign companies to co law of host state were inadmissible It held that a foreign co is not only to be respected as legal entity having right to be a party to legal proceedings, but rather has to be respected as such, that is, as a foreign company that is subject to co law of its state of incorporation Any adjustment to company law of the host state is, hence, not compatible with European law EU COMPANIES & FREEDOM OF ESTABLISHMENT • Hughes de Lasteyrie (Hughes de Lasteyrie du Saillant v. Ministère de l'Économie, des Finances et de l'Industrie, case C-9/02) • In case, French Conseil d’Etat referred question to ECJ whether French legislation which, to avert tax avoidance risk, established mechanism for taxing increases in value where tax residence was transferred abroad, was compatible w principle of freedom of establishment under EC Treaty • Court said freedom of establishment is one of fundamental provisions of EU law & that, according to well-established case law, observance of that freedom precludes EU State of origin from hindering establishment of one of its nationals in other EU States, including by tax measures FREEDOM OF ESTABLISHMENT In Hughes de Lasteyrie case, ECJ viewed provision was likely to restrict exercise of right, having at very least dissuasive effect on taxpayers wishing to establish themselves in other EU State, because they are subjected, by mere fact of transferring their tax residence outside France, to tax on a form of income that has not yet been realised, & thus to disadvantageous treatment compared w person resident in France Such hindrance can be allowed only if it pursues legitimate purpose that is compatible w EC Treaty & is justified by imperative reasons in public interest Measure, inferring general intention of tax evasion from mere transfer of tax residence to another Member State, cannot be justified by imperative reasons in the public interest: it is disproportionate in relation to the objective sought EU COMPANIES & FREEDOM OF ESTABLISHMENT Hughes de Lasteyrie case: Provision is aimed generally at any situation where taxpayer w substantial holdings in co subject to corp tax transfers residence outside France for any reason at all, & thus presumes an intention to circumvent French tax law by taxpayer who transfers his residence outside France Court considers that objective– to prevent taxpayer eluding payment of tax on increased value due in France – may be attained by measures less coercive or less restrictive of freedom of establishment & which relate specifically to risk of such temporary transfer, e.g. by taxing taxpayer who, after short stay abroad, returns to France once his increased values realised Thank You • Contact information – Should you have any additional questions, please feel free to contact me at: • patrick.omalley@interpresas.com • www.interpresas.com © Patrick J. O’Malley 2008