AN INTEGRATED UNIT ON
THE AZTECS AND THE MAYAS
CARMEN KUCZMA
MARILU ADAMSON
WITH ASSISTANCE FROM PAT CLARKE
AND THE B.C. GLOBAL EDUCATION PROJECT
AND SANDRA MORÁN
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank:
TIME Inc. for their permission to reprint excerpts from Secrets of the Maya (August 9,1993).
Curbstone Press and Victor Montejo for permission to reprint “The Bird Who Cleans the
World”, “He Who Cuts the Trees Cuts His Own Life” and “Laziness Should Not Rule Us”
from The Bird Who Cleans the World and Other Mayan Fables.
The Union of Guatemalan Education Workers (STEG) for permission to reprint the Itzaj
Mayan words from the article “La Educación Popular”.
Photos by Carmen Kuczma
Cover Graphic: Amrit Baidwan
This material is covered by copyright and may not be used for commercial purposes. The
author of this material has provided it for use by students and teachers in instructional settings
in public schools. Users of this material should respect that intent and should acknowledge the
author.
Copies available from:
Lesson Aids
B.C. Teachers’ Federation
100-550 West 6th Avenue
Vancouver, BC V5Z 4P2
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction
3
Elements of Global Education
4
Key Understandings
6
Maps:
North America
Central America
Aztec and Mayan areas
8
A.
B.
C.
The Mayas
9
The Aztecs
10
Food
12
Food and Cooking Activities
13
Recipes
15
Spelling Words and Activities
18
Literature:
Aztec Legends
Mayan Stories
20
20
26
Writing Activities
30
Aztec Poetry
32
Mayan Poetry
33
Poetry Activities
34
Poetry Writing
Examples of Poetry Models
35
35
Math Activities
37
Science Activities
38
Map – Mesoamerican Societies
40
Social Studies Activities
41
Art Activities
45
Extension Activities
Prophecy
Sacrifice
Mayan Beauty Secrets
49
55
57
59
Miscellaneous
60
Pronunciation
63
Bibliography
64
Appendices
66
2
Stela at Copán
INTRODUCTION
T
he following unit has been developed for teachers who wish to integrate the study of
the Aztecs and/or the Mayas into other curriculum areas. Teachers will have opportunities
for integration through a variety of activities. Ideas for developing students’ critical thinking skills as well as enrichment activities are also included. There are teaching strategies to choose
from such as: individual research, group work, play writing, debates and interviewing.
The goal of this unit is to help students be aware of the global education principles of
interconnectedness, awareness of other perspectives and appreciation of other cultures. It is hoped
that students will be able to understand how the Mesoamerican societies from the past are connected to the present, how people from these societies saw their world and how we can learn and
benefit from an understanding of these cultures.
MAYAN
WOMAN
3
ELEMENTS OF GLOBAL EDUCATION
1. INTERCONNECTEDNESS
2. AWARENESS OF OTHER PERSPECTIVES
3. APPRECIATION OF OTHER CULTURES
1. INTERCONNECTEDNESS
As we move towards a more multicultural society and increased contact among peoples, there
are a number of ways in which we experience the linkages with people and nations throughout the world.
In order to understand these cultures today you have to look back and reflect upon their
history. Past and present are linked.
Objective:
To promote among students an understanding of the connections between:
- ideas
- events
- people and cultures
- local and global issues
- past and present
4
2. AWARENESS OF OTHER PERSPECTIVES
The indigenous peoples of ancient Mesoamerica had a different world view than ours in some
cases but it is a valuable one and has something to say to us.
An example is their relationship with nature and in particular their creation myths.
How did indigenous peoples relate to and see their universe and their place in it?
Objective:
To help students view concepts, ideas and events from a different and unique cultural perspective in order to enhance their global understanding.
3. APPRECIATION OF OTHER CULTURES
The influence of ancient Mesoamerican cultures can be seen in many aspects of contemporary
life today.
People, then and now from Mesoamerica, have many things to offer us and we can learn from
them.
Objective:
To have students recognize and respect the uniqueness of other cultures and how these cultures
have enriched our own.
5
KEY UNDERSTANDINGS
FOR THE STUDY OF
THE AZTEC AND THE MAYAN CIVILIZATIONS
1. CITIES: (SUCH AS TENOCHTITLÁN, PALENQUE)
- built in a variety of geographical and climatic areas
- some were built in the highlands, and others in jungles or coastal regions
- carefully planned, well laid out
- central areas were reserved for religious and public buildings and the houses
of rulers and the elite
- houses of common people were outside these areas
2. STRATIFICATION OF SOCIETY
- social order where everyone had their place
- obligatory duties; in exchange, people were provided with security
- central administration to maintain order, promote public works, provide justice
- based on a monarchy
3. MONUMENTAL ARCHITECTURE; ENGINEERING INGENUITY
- pyramids
- ceremonial temples
- palaces, tombs
- massive stone sculptures
- subterranean tile drainage systems and
waste disposal
MAYAN
WEAVER
4. ART WORK
- high quality artisanship
- ceramics, pottery, scuplture, frescoes, murals,
- ornaments, jewellery, figurines
- fine feather and goldwork
- accomplished weavers
6
5. INTELLECTUAL ACHIEVEMENT
a. They each had two calendars, the solar and the sacred
b. Their knowledge of astronomy led them to exact calculation of seasons and careful consideration of planting times
c. Obsessed by counting and the passage of time
- very detailed mathematical calculations
- were familiar with the concept of 0 (the Mayas)
d. Had a picture-writing (glyphs) system where an object was represented by a drawing; it was
kept in books called codices most of which were destroyed by the Spanish
e. Developed literature and poetry writing
f. Vast knowledge of medicinal plants
6. RELIGION
- religion touched almost every aspect of Mesoamerican life
- was a cohesive force
- worshipped many gods
- each god connected with some aspect of nature or a natural force
- to worship their gods, they built magnificent ceremonial centres, temples and pyramids
- there existed a hierarchy of priest-rulers who:
• held power and political authority
• directed intellectual life
• were scientists and cultural leaders
BAT GLYPH (COPÁN)
7. WIDE COMMERICAL AND TRADING
NETWORK
- cities were joined by a network of roads
- items such as cacao beans and feathers were in
great demand and used to pay tribute
- goods of all kinds were exchanged and all the
products of the land were sold in busy marketplaces
There was a general sense of order reflected
throughout their societies.
7
NORTH AMERICA
MEXICO
CENTRAL AMERICA
AND THE
CARIBBEAN
A. (see appendix A on page 66)
B. (see appendix B on page 67)
C. (see appendix C on page 68)
8
The region currently known as Mesoamerica covers the
southern part of Mexico and the northern area of
Central America. Two of the major advanced cultures
that emerged in this area are the Mayas and the Aztecs.
ELABORATELY
DRESSED
MAYAN
WOMAN
THE MAYAS
T
Their knowledge of medicine was superior to
that of any other civilization of their time. Their
agriculture, involving intensive farming with
irrigation, was advanced enough to support large
urban populations.
he Mayan civilization began to
develop around 2000 B.C. in southern
Mexico and lasted till 1500 AD The
Classic Age, the period of their greatest development, took place between 200 AD and 900
AD with the Mayan culture flourishing and
spreading through southern Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador and Honduras. Large
and powerful centres were built and the people
developed their own political systems, religious
beliefs and forms of artistic expression.
Unlike the Aztec empire that was controlled by
a central government, the Mayas had a number
of small city states and principalities. The Mayas
shared a common culture and religion but each
city governed itself and had its own noble ruler.
Some of the important cities were Palenque,
Chichén Itzá and Tikal.
The Mayan civilization was noted for its many
remarkable achievements.
For reasons still unclear, by AD 900 many of
the great cities and ceremonial centres were
abandoned and left for the jungle to reclaim.
In astronomy, they were more advanced than
other ancient peoples. Records show that the
Mayas had observed the skies for centuries,
keeping track of what they saw. They knew how
long the moon took to go around the earth, and
how long the planet Venus took to come back
to the same place in the sky. They could predict
eclipses, and they worked out a calendar of 18
twenty-day months and one five-day month
that measured the year even more accurately
than the calendar we use today.
The Postclassic period lasted from 900 AD to
1500 AD and saw the development of new centres of power and intense warfare. The arrival
of the Spaniards in the first decades of the 16th
century closed this phase of Mayan civilization.
The Mayan people, however, did not cease to
exist. There are at least four million descendants that still speak the Mayan languages.
Although most of them are Roman Catholic,
they continue to recount their ancients myths
and practice their rituals, based on their ancestors’ view of the universe.
They were the first to use the mathematical
concept of zero, 500 years sooner than anyone
else had thought of it.They developed a complex writing system, using a hieroglyphic script.
Their art, architecture and sculpture were refined and sophisticated. They built monumental
temples, pyramids and palaces, many of them
to honour their gods.
9
THE AZTECS
I
t is said that the Aztecs came from a
mysterious, far-off land in the northwest of Mexico called Aztlan—hence the
name Aztec.They were a wandering band of
people, numbering less than 5,000, looking for
a place to live. In 1323 they arrived at some
islands in the snake-infested swamps of Lake
Texcoco in the valley of Mexico. Here, they saw
the sign they had been promised by their god,
Huitzilopochtli (Blue Hummingbird). The sign
was an eagle with a snake in its beak, sitting on
a cactus. They called the place Tenochtitlán and
built their first dwellings round a temple to their
god. They began draining the swamp and raised
mud islands, held together by trees, in the middle of the lake. At first they built mud and reed
huts. Over a period of time this gave way to
more ornate temples and palaces. Three long
causeways linked Tenochtitlán with the mainland on each side and the city was honey-combed
with canals. They built a 15 km aqueduct to
bring fresh water to the city. They also built a
sewer system, flushing waste into the lake—a
PYRAMID
OF THE SUN
TEOTIHUACÁN
10
feat of sanitary engineering unheard of at that
time. Tenochtitlán became one the most beautiful cities in the Americas.
The Aztecs grew in numbers, prospered and
began to conquer the surrounding tribes. In
time, the boundaries of the Aztec empire extended from northern Mexico into Guatemala
and from the Gulf Coast to the Pacific Ocean.
The Aztecs were well advanced in many areas.
They developed a form of picture writing, devised a sacred calendar and built spectacular
temples and pyramids.They had a highly centralized government and an elaborate religion.
But Aztec society had its negative side. The
Aztecs, like Europeans of the time, lived in a
hierarchical society. At the top was the emperor,
the supreme ruler, with the nobles and priests
also holding much power.This small group controlled the mass of commoners and slaves at
the bottom, which may have numbered up to
five million people.
The Aztecs practiced human sacrifice. In the
centre of Tenochtitlán was the main pyramid
used for sacrifice to Huitzilopochtli. The Sun
God was also the God of War and the Aztecs
believed he had chosen them to conquer the
world. They felt they must offer their god the
continual blood that he needed so that he could
continue to rise in the east and triumph over
the night. In order to please their god, it was
necessary to be constantly offering him human
sacrifices. They waged war on a continual basis
in order to secure the victims for their sacrificial rites. In Aztec society, to die in battle or as
a prisoner of war on the sacrificial altar was an
ultimate privilege.
Although Aztec society had its dark side, it was
also a society that was unsurpassed in its
achievements.
The Aztec society continued to flourish until
1521, the year the Spanish conquered the Aztecs and the destruction of Tenochtitlán began.
Today, the Aztec legacy can be noted in the
Nahuatl language still spoken in the region, food
and cooking, health care and numerous traditions that are still observed.
Many aspects of contemporary life in Mexico
and parts of Central America continue to be
influenced by the Aztec culture.
Aztec stone sacrificial altar
Stone head of Quetzalcoatl, from the pyramid of
Teotihuacán
11
FOOD
T
he principal food of the Mayas was maize (chim or ixim). It was eaten on every occasion. Other important foods were: fish, game, fowl, beans, squash, pumpkins, and
sweet potato. A variety of fruits, such as the papaya and melon, were eaten.
Chocolate was a favorite drink as was maize water and fermented honey.
Mayan boys ate the fruit of the gum tree and chewed its gum.
For the Aztecs, corn was also the central food in their diet. From this, tortillas (tlaxcalli) were
made and a number of other dishes.The Aztecs ate many of the same things that the Mayas did.
They cultivated avocado (ahuacatl), tomato (tomatl) and hot peppers (chile). Chile was used in
many of their dishes. Cactus leaves were boiled and eaten by themselves or with main dishes.
They drank pulque from the maguey plant and octli, a mild intoxicating drink, also derived from
the maguey plant.They also drank atolli, a gruel made of maize flavoured with honey and chile.
Everywhere, chocolate (chocolatl) was an important element of native culture. It was made with
ground cacao beans and water. It was sweetened with honey and perfumed with vanilla.
Prehispanic Mexican women ground their corn with stone mano and metate, and made
tortillas much as many do today. From the Florentine Codex.
12
FOOD AND COOKING ACTIVITIES
1.
Refer to the Geneological Tree of Corn (next page).
a. Why was corn so important for the peoples of Mesoamerica?
b. What are some ways that we use corn today?
c. Do your own tree for one of the other products of the Americas
(i.e. tomato, bean, chocolate, potato).
d. See if you can find other recipes from Mexico and/or Central America.
2.
a. In groups of 3 or 4, brainstorm a list of important food products in your society.
b. Be prepared to explain why you think that product is important for your society.
c. In pairs, select one of these products and
Do a geneological tree.
Find a recipe with this product.
Write a story based on your product.
3.
Recipes to make in your class:
Chocolate
Tortillas
Guacamole
Pollo Pibil
See also SCIENCE Question 1 Container Cultivation
and LITERATURE Mayan Legend of Corn.
13
14
RECIPES
GUACAMOLE
To make this dish, mash 3 very ripe avocados until smooth, add 2 tablespoons of finely minced
onion, 1 teaspoon of salt, a dash of pepper, lemon juice to taste and either 2 teaspoons of chili
powder or 1 chopped peeled green chile. Keep covered until serving time.
Serve with tostadas, or as a sauce.
Makes about 2 cups.
A variation is to grind 2 tomatoes with the onion and chili and add to the mashed avocadoes.
TORTILLAS
2 cups masa harina corn flour (Available in most supermarkets)
1 1/4–1 1/3 cups of water
sheets of wax paper
Mix the masa harina with water to make the dough hold together.
Shape dough into 12 small balls.
Place a ball of dough onto a square of waxed paper and flatten slightly.
Cover with a second sheet of waxed paper and roll out into a circle (8–12 cm in diameter) with a
rolling pin.
You can cook the tortillas on a griddle or fry in deep fat until
crisp and golden brown.
To make a tostada, a variety of toppings can be placed on the
tortilla such as:
ground beef, shredded chicken, lettuce, tomatoes, cheese,
sourcream, onion and avocado.
MEXICAN CHOCOLATE
30 grams of unsweetened chocolate
1 tablespoon sugar
pinch of salt
1/2 teaspoon cinnamon
Combine these ingredients with 3 cups of milk and cook over
hot water until the chocolate melts. Beat until foamy and serve
hot.
15
CHILI
PEPPERS
THE TORTILLA
ATOLE
CHALUPA
CHILAQUILES
CORN FLAKES
ELOTE
ENCHILADA
GARNACHAS
GORDITAS
HELADO DE ELOTE
MASA
NIXTAMAL
PALOMITAS DE MAIZ
PANUCHOS
PENEQUES
PINOLE
POZOLE
QUESADILLAS
QUESADILLA SINCRONIZADA
SOPES
TACOS
TAMAL
TORTILLA
TOSTADA
TOTOPO JALISCIENSE
— a corn flour gruel.
— toasted tortilla topped with chicken, among other things.
— cut-up tortillas in a green sauce with chicken or in a red chile sauce.
— a popular Mexican substitute for breakfast.
— corn.
— rolled tortilla filled and covered with a sauce.
— a tortilla with a beveled edge, filled with cheese, beans, shredded meat, etc.
— a thick, stuffed tortilla.
— Yucatecan corn ice cream.
— ground up corn used to make tortillas, tamales, etc.
— the corn meal used to make tamales.
— the poetic way to say popcon — “little doves of corn.”
— a tortilla filled with beans, fried and topped with the usual shredded
chicken, lettuce, etc.
— a boat shaped tortilla, pinched at the ends and filled with cheese or
chopped meat, dipped in beaten egg and fried.
— toasted and pulverized corn meal.
— hog’n hominy “fire soup” garnished with sundry items such as marjoram,
oregano, chopped onions, chile piquin (small and very hot chile), radishes,
lettuce and toasted tortillas.
— corn dough made into a Mexican version of a turover, filled with cheese,
potatoe, meat, etc. and fried.
— a tortilla sandwich with a cheese, ham and avocado filing. Strictly modern
Mexican.
— a small garnacha.
— rolled, filled tortillas fried until hard.
— masa dough filled with anything at all, wrapped in corn husks and steamed.
— hand-patted or machine–flattened masa.
— fried tortilla.
— a toasted tortilla loaded with cheese, beans.
Perhaps the most distinctive of all the cooking of Mexico is that of the Yucatán, where many
Mayan people are to be found today. Many meat or fowl dishes are called pibil to tell that they are
steamed in a pot, pib in Mayan. In some cases,
the cooking is actually done in this way, but much
more often the chicken or meat is wrapped in
banana leaves and steamed for hours in a covered
pot. Cochinita pibil (baked pork) is a big favourite all over Mexico. Other popular dishes include:
Tzic de venado. This is baked venison, shredded
and mixed with coriander leaves, radish, mint
leaves and unsweetened orange juice.
Sopa de lima is chicken broth with lime juice,
tomato, onion and small pieces of chicken.
A human head was shown as an ear of corn by the Mayas
16
POLLO PIBIL
2/3 cup fresh orange juice
1/3 cup fresh lemon juice
1 tablespoon annatto seeds, ground up (optional)
1 teaspoon finely chopped garlic
1/2 teaspoon dried oregano
1/2 teaspoon ground cumin seeds
1/4 teaspoon ground cloves
1/4 teaspoon ground cinnamon
2 teaspoons salt
1/4 teaspoon freshly ground black pepper
A 2 to 2 1/2 kilo chicken, cut into 6 or 8 pieces
12 hot tortillas or ready-made tortillas
In a small bowl, combine the orange and lemon juice, ground annatto seeds, garlic, oregano,
cumin, clove, cinnamon, salt and pepper.
Place the chicken in a shallow baking dish just large enough to hold the pieces snuggly in one
layer and pour the fruit juice and seasonings over it.
Cover the dish with plastic wrap and marinate the chicken for 6 hours at room temperature or
overnight in the refrigerator, turning the pieces over in the marinade from time to time.
Line a large colander with 2 crossed, overlapping sheets of aluminum foil and arrange the chicken
on it.
Pour in the marinade, then bring the ends of the foil up over the chicken and twist them together
to seal in the chicken and its marinade securely.
Place the colander in a deep pot, slightly larger in diameter than the colander, and pour enough
water into the pot to within 3–5 cm of the bottom of the colander.
Bring the water to a vigorous boil over high heat, cover the pot securely and reduce the heat to low.
Steam for 1 3/4 hours, or until the chicken is tender, checking the pot from time to time and
adding more boiling water if necessary.
To serve, remove the package of chicken from the colander, open it, and take the chicken and all
of its sauce to a heated bowl or platter.
Serves 4–6.
17
SPELLING WORDS AND ACTIVITIES
Many words still used today in Mesoamerica have origins in Nahuatl, the language spoken by
the Aztecs.
Some common words:
˘ ´ ¯
1. atole (a-to-la)
¯ ´ ¯
2. elote (e-lo-ta)
¯´
3. chapulin (cha-pu-len)
¯ ¯ ´˘ ¯
4. jitomate (he-to-ma-ta)
a hot drink made of ground corn
corn
grasshopper
tomato
¯ ˘ ´ ¯
5. zopilote (zo-pi-lo-ta)
¯ ˘ ´¯ ¯
6. molcajete (mol-ca-ha-ta)
stone used to grind corn
7. coyote
coyote
˘ ¯ ´¯ ¯
8. guajolote (wa-ho-lo-ta)
¯ ´ ¯
9. ayote (a-yo-ta)
10. tamale
vulture
turkey
squash
cornmeal dough with a sweet or savoury filling and steamed
in corn or banana leaves
There are at least 21 different Mayan languages that continue to be spoken by the people of
Mesoamerica. Itzaj is one of those languages. Here are some examples:
1. juj
iguana, lizard
2. cha’
gum
3. kan
snake
4. put
papaya
5. lemlem
lightning
6. top’
flower
7. stoz
bat
8. b’axal
toy
9. et’ok
friend
10. t’ot
shell
(Reprinted with permission from El Educador Union of Guatemalan Education Workers Bulletin Jan. Feb. 1994)
18
SPELLING ACTIVITIES
Try and integrate the Spelling words into your writing activities such as:
- diary entries
- newspaper articles
- a short story
- poetry writing
Do a visual dictionary or a poster with pictures of the words.
Make up a crossword puzzle using the Spelling words.
Make up a wordsearch using the Spelling words.
See if you can find any words that we use that come from the Mayan and/or Nahuatl language.
IMPORTANT
MAYAN
OFFICIAL
19
AZTEC LEGENDS
THE LEGEND OF QUETZALCOATL
F
or many centuries, the indigenous people of Mexico honoured Quetzalcoatl
as the god-king who not only created
mankind with his own blood, but gave them
the gift of corn.
According to the legend, Quetzalcoatl—whose
name means “plumed serpent”—was a blond,
bearded white man. About 500 years before
Columbus sailed for the New World, Quetzalcoatl ruled the Toltec Empire of Mexico. He
was many things: an ancient god and culture
hero, a patron of royalty and medicine, a teacher
of the arts.
One day, Quetzalcoatl summoned his people
and, without warning, declared that he was
going to return to the East, to the land of his
birth.
“I must go now,”, he said, “but I will make you
one promise. I will return to you. I will sail back
from the East in a ship with white wings. I will
return during my birth year, Ce Acatl, One
Reed.”
The Aztec calendar was based on a cycle of 52
years.Ce Acatl was the date of Quetzalcoatl’s
birth and his departure.Now, he said, it would
also be the date of his return.
Each 52 years, the people waited and prepared
and prayed for the return of the god-king,
Quetzalcoatl. As the years passed, the Toltec
civilization weakened, and a greater new power,
the Aztecs, took over. The Aztecs learned the
legend of Quetzalcoatl. Every 52 years, they,
too, waited for his return.
The years went by—1363, 1415, 1467—all
passed without Quetzalcoatl’s return. The next
year for Quetzalcoatl’s possible return would be
1519. Everyone, including the powerful Aztec
leader Montezuma,* made preparations. On
April 21 in the year 1519, eleven strange ships
appeared off the east coast of Mexico, near the
spot where the city of Veracruz now stands. The
ships had tall white sails, which looked to the
natives like the “white wings” of which
Quetzalcoatl had spoken. The men who stepped
from the ships were white men just like
QUEZALCOATL
SAILING AWAY
* also spelled Moctezuma
20
Quetzalcoatl. The leader of all the ships came
forth, and he, too, was a white man, and he had
a beard.
Word of the strange, bearded white men soon
reached Montezuma in his capital at Tenochtitlán, many miles inland. Had Quetzalcoatl,
the white god-king of the old legends, returned
to his people? Montezuma was not sure, but he
sent a party of Aztec nobles, carrying rich gifts,
to greet the white men. The leader of the men
who came from the ships told the Aztecs that
his name was Hernán Cortés. He said that he
had been sent to their country by a great king,
white like himself, who lived far to the east in a
land called Spain.
When the nobles returned to Montezuma and
told him of this, the Emperor was certain that
the old prophecy was being fulfilled.
Montezuma invited Cortés to visit his capital
city. On the long march from the coast to the
capital, Cortés and his men provided even more
reasons for Montezuma to believe that they were
“white gods.” Cortés was attacked along the way
by natives. However, they were easily defeated
when the Spaniards used strange weapons
which spate lightning and made noises like
thunder. And some of the white men rode on
strange, four-legged beasts called horses, which
the natives had never seen before.
When Cortés and his men reached the great
city of Tenochtitlán, Montezuma himself came
out to welcome them. He gave them many fine
gifts and a large palace to live in. But just one
week later, the Spaniards took Montezuma prisoner and the conquest of the Aztec Empire
began.
Quetzalcoatl, “Plumed Serpent” Templo Mayor, Mexico City
21
THE LEGEND OF POPOCATEPETL
T
he Mexican people have an ancient
legend which explains the birth of two
great volcanoes in the southeast of their
country. One is named Iztaechualt, which
means “the volcano of the sleeping woman.”
Nearby is the volcano Popocatepetl, which even
now can sometimes be seen glowing brightly in
the evening sky.
The legend tells us that many years ago, before
the mountains we know today even existed, the
land was ruled by a King who was very rich and
powerful but also very greedy. He had a magnificent palace, great riches, a beautiful daughter
named Izia and a strong, loyal army. But he was
not satisfied.
A brave young army officer named Popocatepetl
loved the King’s beautiful daughter, but he could
not tell her. Even in those ancient times, a captain, no matter how brave, did not marry a
princess.
One day the King invited all of his subjects to a
great ball at the palace. There was dancing and
singing and everyone was happy. The beautiful
Princess saw the handsome Popocatepetl looking at her, and she smiled at him. This gave the
young man courage, and he went to the King,
fell on his knees, and declared his love for Princess Izia.
The King listened silently as the captain asked
for permission to marry the Princess. The King
saw the chance to gain more territory by sending the captain on a nearly impossible mission.
Without even asking his daughter about her
feelings, he made the brave soldier a promise.
The most powerful enemy of the King lived on
the frontier of the kingdom. He had a strong
army that was feared by everyone. No one had
dared to challenge him. The king told Popocatepetl to take his soldiers and defeat this
fearful enemy: if he was successful, he would
marry the Princess.
The young captain was so deeply in love that
he agreed to go into battle against the nearly
unbeatable enemy. When they were left alone,
the Princess took off her scarf, kissed it and gave
it to Popocatepetl, promising to remain loyal to
him until her death.He took the scarf and courageously left for battle.
Weeks passed, and Popocatepetl did not return.
The Princess waited and waited for him, spending hours watching the road leading from the
battlefield. Her companions tried to distract her
with songs and dances, but she could not forget
the dangers which the brave captain faced to
win her.
The time came when the Princess did not have
the courage to watch the road any longer. She
lay on her bed, refusing to take the food which
was brought to her.
The King heard of his daughter’s actions and
went to see her. When she asked for news of
Popocatepetl, the King told her that all of his
warriors had been killed in a fierce battle in the
northern frontier. The Princess cried that, if her
beloved captain was dead, she had nothing left
to live for. She lay back, shut her eyes, and never
opened them again.
The King understood then that, wishing to
serve his greed, he had broken his daughter’s
heart.
22
Suddenly, loud cries came from outside the palace. They were victory cries. Popocatepetl, after
defeating the terrible enemy, was returning
home to the cheers of the crowd.
The happy soldier, still covered with dust from
his long journey, hurried into the palace. He
went to the King and reminded him of his
promise of marriage. With great sorrow, the
King told Popocatepetl that his daughter had
died of a broken heart.
The grief-stricken captain was taken to the
Princess’ deathbed, where he wept, broke his
arrows and sword and promised never to leave
her side. He called his soldiers together and had
them build a tomb, as tall as a mountain, for
the Princess Izia. When the last stone was in
place he took the Princess in his arms, climbed
the mountain which would serve as her tomb
and placed her at the top, near the sky. He lit a
candle and began a solemn watch over the dead
girl, promising to guard her forever.
This candle is the flame of the volcano
Popocatepetl, which still reddens the skies of
the Mexican night, guarding over the volcano
of the sleeping woman, Iztaechualt.
Popocatapetl
23
THE FOUNDING OF THE CITY OF TENOCHTITLÁN
T
he Aztecs came into Anáhuac, the
high, fertile valley of Mexico, in
AD 1168. They were referred to at this
time as the Tenochas or Mexicas. They were
wanderers, a landless tribe who came from a
mysterious, far-off land in the north-west of
Mexico called Aztlan—hence the name Aztec,
the people of Aztlan. At that time, they numbered 5,000, if that.
According to their own legends, they had found,
in a cave, the Hummingbird Wizard, the famous Huitzilopochtli.He gave them this advice:
“You will be a great people if you will but follow my law. Wander until you find good lands,
then plant them with maize and beans, avoid
great wars until you are stronger, sacrifice to me
the bleeding hearts of your captives.”
He also told them that they were to look for an
eagle perched on a cactus devouring a snake.
This is where they should settle.
Moctezuma’s grandson wrote this foundation
legend in Nahuatl.
“It is told, it is recounted here how the ancient
ones.... the people of Aztlan, the Mexicans
....came to found the great city of MexicoTenochtitlán, their place of fame, their place of
example, the place where the tenochtli cactus
stands amidst the waters; where the eagle
preens... and devours the snake...among the
reeds, amid the canes.”
Tezozomoc, Fernando Alvarado.
Crónica Mexicayotl.
The eagle perched on a cactus devouring a snake is the
emblem on the Mexican flag.
´
24
CORN
“The gods made the first Maya-Quichés out of
clay. Few survived.
of corn. They molded their flesh with yellow
corn and white corn.
They were soft, lacking strength; they fell apart
before they could walk.
The women and men of corn saw as much as
the gods. Their glance ranged over the whole
world.
Then the gods tried wood. The wooden dolls
talked and walked but were dry; they had no
blood nor substance, no memory and no purpose. They didn’t know how to talk to the gods,
or couldn’t think of anything to say to them.
The gods breathed on them and left their eyes
forever clouded, because they didn’t want people to see over the horizon.”
From the Pop Wuj
Sacred Book of the Quichés
Then the gods made mothers and fathers out
25
MAYAN STORIES
These Mayan fables and animal stories were collected and transcribed by the author from the
Jakaltek-Mayan language, one of the 21 Mayan languages that are still spoken in Guatemala.
THE BIRD WHO CLEANS THE WORLD
O
ur Mayan ancestors spoke of a great
flood that covered and destroyed
the whole world. They said that the
waters rose and rose and rose, flooding the highest mountains and hills and killing everything
that lived on the earth. Only one house stood
above the flood. In that house all the species of
animals entered and hid themselves.
The waters covered the earth for a long time.
Then, very slowly, they began to recede, until
finally the turbulent waters revealed the earth
in its new freedom. When that house was still
surrounded by water, they sent forth Ho ch’ok,
the trumpet bird, to scout the horizon. Since
the water was still high the trumpet bird returned quickly, its mission complete.
After a little time more they sent Usmiq, the
buzzard, to find out how much the water was
receding. The messenger, circling through the
air, left the house. After a while he flew toward
one of the newly uncovered hills and landed
with a great hunger.
There he found a large number of dead and rotting animals. Forgetting his mission, he began
to devour chunks of the meat until he satisfied
his appetite.
When he returned to make his report, the other
animals would not let him in among them because his smell was unbearable. And to punish
him for his disobedience, Usmiq was condemned to eat only dead animals and to clean
the world of stench and rottenness.
From that time on the buzzard has been called
“The Bird Who Cleans the World” because his
duty is to carry off in his beak all that might contaminate the land. Usmiq, the buzzard, had to
be content with his fate, and thus he went away,
forever flying and circling in the air or sitting on
the bluffs looking for rotten things to eat.
26
WHO CUTS THE TREES CUTS HIS OWN LIFE
W
hen I was a small boy my father
used to tell me, “Son, don’t cut
the little green trees whenever you
please. When you do that you are cutting short
your own life and you will die slowly.”
This warning always worried me, especially
since at times I have carelessly cut some little
tree by the side of the road with my machete.
My father’s warning was nothing new, but
something the old ones have said since distant
times. And my father who knew their teachings, repeated it to me and my brothers. Now
when I hear about pollution, erosion, and deforestation, I realize the value of the old
philosophy. These things are signs of the slow
death that our elders have always foreseen when
they said, “Who cuts the trees as he pleases,
cuts short his own life.”
LAZINESS SHOULD NOT RULE US
T
hree jaguars were dying of hunger,
but they didn’t want to go out into
the forest to look for food. Just then
Rabbit came upon them and asked with great
concern, “Why are you complaining so, my
friends?”
“Well, we are dying for something to eat,” answered the jaguars.
“What of these great claws and fangs? What
are they for if not to catch your food?”
“Yes,” the jaguars said, “But we would have to
go out and look for it.”
“Well, then,” Rabbit said,”you need someone
to carry you out into the forest. Very good. I
can carry all of you. Climb into this net.”
So they quickly climbed into his net.
Rabbit found a long green guava stick. With
the stick he beat the jaguars.
“Take this! This is what you deserve,” he
shouted. “You are built like great hunters, but
you don’t want to exert yourselves.” He whacked
them hard again. “ This is what you deserve,
you lazy beasts.”
Rabbit left them lying there. The jaguars learned
from that beating that laziness is the origin of
much misfortune.
“The Bird Who Cleans the World”, “He Who
Cuts the Trees Cuts His Own Life” and “Laziness Should Not Rule Us” from Victor
Montejo’s The Bird Who Cleans the World
and Other Mayan Fables, translated by Wallace
Kaufman. (Curbstone Press, 1991.) Reprinted
with permission of Curbstone Press. Distributed by InBook.
When they were in and the net was tied shut,
27
Bernal Diáz del Castillo
On Entering Tenochtitlán
.....We saw the fresh water which came from Chapultepec to supply the city, and the bridges that
were constructed at intervals on the causeways...We saw a great number of canoes, some coming
with provisions and others returning with cargo and merchandise....We saw cues (pyramids) and
shrines in these cities that looked like gleaming white towers and castles: a marvellous sight. All
the houses had flat roofs, and on the causeways were other small towers and shrines built like
fortresses.
Having examined and considered all we had seen, we turned back to the great market and the
swarm of people buying and selling. The mere murmur of their voices talking was loud enough to
be heard more than three miles away. Some of our soldiers who had been in many parts of the
world, in Constantinople, in Rome, and all over Italy, said that they had never seen a market so
well laid out, so large, so orderly, and so full of people.
..... When we saw all those cities and villages built in the water, and other great towns on dry land,
and that straight and level causeway leading to Mexico, we were astounded. These great towns
and cues and buildings rising from the water, all made of stone, seemed like an enchanted vision
from the tale of Amadis. Indeed, some of our soldiers asked whether it was not all a dream.
(Diáz del Castillo, Bernal. History of the Conquest of New Spain, BAE, Madrid: M. Rivadeneyra,
1879.)
MARKET SQUARE
28
ACTIVITIES
Read one of the famous myths/legends.
Rewrite it in your own words.
Illustrate it.
Dramatize it.
Read it aloud to the class.
Compare it to a west coast native legend for style, characters and theme. How are they the
same? Different?
Are any of the legends trying to teach a lesson? If so, what is the lesson?
Investigate to find out who were the major gods/goddesses.
Do a brief write-up on each, a poster or a small book.
Read Bernal Diáz del Castillo’s impressions on first seeing Tenochtitlán.
What might you have felt had you discovered a city such as this?
Write your impressions/response as a poem, prose or a word painting.
DETAIL FROM TEMPLE OF QUETZALCOATL.
TEOTIHUACÁN, MEXICO
29
WRITING ACTIVITIES
5. Find a creation myth from the west coast of
B.C. How are these the same as the Aztec
or Mayan legends? Compare style, characters, theme. How are they different?
1. Keep a diary for a week of a child living at
that time:
It could be a Maya or Aztec, rural or urban child.
What would they do? eat? wear? study?
6. Make up an interview with a person living
in one of those societies ( a leader, warrior,
child, woman).
Think about what they would do in the early
hours of the day, during the day and before
bedtime.
Come up with 5 questions and answers.
Illustrate your diary.
7. Some indigenous people of Mesoamerica
continue with the custom of choosing a
Nahual or animal to represent each newborn
child.
2. Go back in time and visit one of the Aztec
or Mayan sites.
a) What would it be like? (pick some topics
to focus on)
What animal would you pick to represent
yourself? Why?
b) Write a letter home describing your experiences.
Write a short paragraph on which animal you
think represents you and why you think so.
3. Newspaper
Do other cultures use animals as symbols?
Share some examples.
In groups, prepare a newspaper of that time.
Include: a cooking section, sports page,
weather, help wanted, advertisements, current
events, letters to the editor and a crossword
puzzle using some of the spelling words.
8. What things were the Mayas/Aztecs advanced in?
What things do you think they were not advanced in?
4. Write your own legend using one of the following ideas as your focus or make up your
own:
Why corn is so important.
The Mayan culture could be called “the
splendid versus the barbaric.” This could also
be said of the Aztecs.
How the quetzal got its bright feathers.
Explain what you think this means.
How the cedar got its wrinkly bark.
Illustrate this.
Illustrate your legend. You could include a
story map.
Prepare a skit to be presented to the class
that shows the paradox of the Mayan or Aztec society.
30
TEACHERS’ NOTES:
The Mayas never grasped the principle of the wheel
but
They could calculate the movements of planets and predict eclipses with acccuracy not
matched till the 20th century.
They could not build a simple arch
but
Their system of mathematics was unrivalled even in ancient Egypt. They could count in
millions and used the concept of 0 a thousand years before the rest of the world.
Their only tools were made of wood or stone
but
They cut and moved rocks weighing thousands of kilograms, and built temples over 70
metres tall.
Observatory Chichén Itzá
31
AZTEC POEMS
The Aztecs were curious about their relation to the universe as a whole; they questioned themselves about life and afterlife.
1.
Is it true that one lives only on earth?
Not forever on earth:only a short while here.
Even jade will crack,
Even gold will break,
Even quetzal feathers will rend,
Not forever on earth: only a short while here.
2.
If in one day we leave,
In one night descend to the mysterious regions,
Here we only came to meet,
We are only passers-by on earth.
Let us pass life in peace and pleasure; come, let us rejoice.
But not those who live in wrath: the earth is very wide!
That one could live forever, that one need not die.
Mexico was virtually a sun kingdom. Above all was the sun god.
3.
Now our father the Sun
Sinks attired in rich plumes,
Within an urn of precious stones,
As if girdled with turquoise necklaces goes,
Among ceaselessly falling flowers....
4.
Proudly stands the city of Mexico-Tenochtitlán,
Here no one fears to die in war...
Keep this in mind, oh princes...
Who could attack Tenochtitlán?
Who could shake the foundations of heaven?
32
MAYAN POETRY
1.
Let the day begin, let the dawn come.
Give us many good paths, clear and straight paths...
Let the people have peace, peace in abundance,
and be happy, and give us good life and a useful existence.
2.
Let us not forget,
nor erase from our memory
or lose our way,
look first to your country,
look first to your homes,
establish where you are from!
Multiply and walk
and go once again
to the place from where we came.
From the Pop Wuj
3.
For the Maya, time was born and had a name when the sky didn’t exist and the
earth had not yet awakened.
The days set out from the east and started walking.
The first day produced from its entrails the sky and the earth.
The second day made the stairway for the rain to run down.
The cycles of the sea and the land, and the multitude of things, were the work of the third day.
The fourth day willed the earth and the sky to tilt so that they could meet.
The fifth day decided that everyone had to work.
The first light emanated from the sixth day.
In places where there was nothing, the seventh day put soil; the eighth plunged its hands
and feet in the soil.
The ninth day created the nether worlds; the tenth earmarked for them those who had
poison in their souls.
Inside the sun, the eleventh day modeled stone and tree.
It was the twelfth that made the wind. Wind blew, and it was called spirit because there
was no death in it.
The thirteenth day moistened the earth and kneaded the mud into a body like ours.
Thus it is remembered in Yucatan.
Sodi, Demetrio. The Literature of the Mayas.
33
POETRY ACTIVITIES
1.
Refer to Aztec poem 3.
What is being described here?
Use specific references to the text and explain what the imagery conveys to you.
2.
Refer to poem 3 of the Mayan poetry.
Using a big sheet of blank paper, divide your paper into 13 boxes.
Give a pictorial representation of the creation in each of the 13 frames as described
in the poem.
Do a comparative framework for the 7 days of creation as descibed in the Book of Genesis.
Choose one other religion.
Investigate its theory of Creation and create a framework that would illustrate it.
3.
Choose another one of the poems and write what you think the poem is trying to say to the
reader. Illustrate it.
4.
Copy one of the poems from the Poetry section onto large white paper and illustrate it, focusing on the spirituality of the Mayas/Aztecs. Underneath, write your response to the poem.
What do you think the poet is trying to say about life? death? creation? Include specific references to the poem to support your points.
Itazamná (left) god of
the sky and learning.
Yum Kaax (right) was
the god of corn.
34
POETRY WRITING
Students can write poems using some of the following models:
Shape
Haiku
Cinquain
Stair
3 Line Location action subject
Acronym poem
The following topics can be used:
an animal (hummingbird, jaguar, quetzal, serpent)
plants (corn, cactus)
nature (sun,rain,thunder)
day, night
war
temples, pyramids
EXAMPLES OF POETRY MODELS
SHAPE POEM
Brainstorm words and phrases that describe the topic the teacher has given you.
Choose the words and phrases that you wish to use.
Draw the object and fit the words into it. Color it.
Pyramid
tall, stone
high in the sky
stairway to the gods
towering above for all to see
35
written by Richmond Students
HAIKU
Firefly
Flying as if lost
Lighting up the cold dark night
Little star cousins
James Harper
-3 lines
-5-7-5 syllables
-reference to nature
CINQUAIN
Line 1
Line 2
Line 3
Line 4
Line 5
One word subject
Two adjectives
Three verbs
A phrase
Synonym for line 1
Space
Black empty
Living changing dying
constantly growing and flowing
universe
Craig Lust
STAIR POEM
Ideas built up following a stair pattern
Line 1 Topic, main idea
Line 2 2 adjectives
Line 3 A place or time connected with topic
Line 4 A phrase
Waiting to fly away.
Up high in the banana tree
Yellow, singing
Bird
Zahid Nanji
3 LINE
Subject
Location
Action
The butterfly
in a cocoon
spinning a new life form.
Amrit Baidwan
ACRONYM
Write title vertically or horizontally (Space).
Letters of the title are used to start the
word or phrase.
Sparkling, like diamonds the
Particles in space
Afloat everywhere
Celebrating their voyage
Endlessly in space.
Annie Sandhu
36
MATH ACTIVITIES
T
he Mayas were excellent astronomers and could observe the solstices and equinoxes,
and predict eclipses based on mathematical calculations that were very complex and
advanced.
The Mayas were very interested in mathematics and are credited with discovering the concept of
zero.
Their number system was based on units of 20 and called vigesimal. Our system is based on the
number 10 and is called a decimal system.
ACTIVITIES
Make up some simple math questions using the Mayan numbers given below.
Exchange with a classmate.
Figure out your birthdate using Mayan numbers.
Write the date using Mayan numbers.
What is a solstice? an equinox?
When do they occur?
Draw diagrams to illustrate your explanations and label them.
NUMERALES MAYAS
37
SCIENCE ACTIVITIES
1. CONTAINER CULTIVATION
Plant black beans, different kinds of chile, groundcherry, cilantro.
You could plant them in different sized containers and
observe and chart their growth. Keep a record of your observations.
Follow-up:
Keep a journal. Record your inferences as you make observations. What are your conclusions?
Find a recipe that uses one of these ingredients. If possible, make it and share it with classmates or
Find 2 recipes. Which is the more nutritious food? Be prepared to support your decision.
2. INVESTIGATION
Investigate to find out what was the importance of the cochineal.
See what you can find out about the following and what they were used for:
maguey
hemp
sapodilla
ebony
mahogany
rosewood
cacao
tobacco
mezcal
chicle
The maguey plant and how sap was gathered and
stored until it became octli.
Develop an information chart to
include illustrations and a caption.
Draw the raw material and finished
product and include a short writeup to explain its use.
Do you use any of the above products or do you have them in your house?
38
3. URBAN PLANNING
Research one of the cities (Tenochtitlán, Tikal, Palenque) .
What kind of buildings, temples and houses did they have?
Design your own Mesoamerican city.
Do a model of your city.
4. REPORT WRITING
Do a report with a partner on one of the animals of the Americas or one of their sacred animals.
Why were they considered sacred? How were these animals treated? What were they used for?
5. AGRICULTURE
Slash and burn farming was used by many Mayan farmers.
What does it mean? Why was this method used?
What are the advantages/disadvantages of this?
How might it have contributed to the great Mayan centres being abandoned?
Follow-up:
See if you can find some information on the kinds of agricultural methods the Aztecs used.
Compare/contrast slash and burn methods with Aztec
farming methods using a Venn Diagram.
The Incas, another great civilization of the Americas, used
a method of farming called terrace farming. Find out more
about this and do a Triple Venn Diagram which shows all
3 types of farming.
6. ASTRONOMY
The Aztecs used chinampa agriculture,
a method by which they filled oval-shaped
reed baskets with earth and anchored them
to the shallow bottom of the lake with
trees. Crops of vegetables and flowers
were then grown on the fertile chinampas.
What did the Aztec calendar look like?
What were its components?
On what was it based?
How is it linked to the arrival of Cortés?
What can you find out about the Mayas and their knowledge of astronomy?
Why do you think the Aztecs and Mayas were so interested in astronomy?
39
40
MESOAMERICAN SOCIETIES
SOCIAL STUDIES ACTIVITIES
1. Give 3 theories on who may have first visited the Americas.
(Vikings, Japanese, Irish)
Which theory makes the most sense to you? Why? Give reasons to support your answer.
2. Who first settled the Americas?
Where did they come from?
How might they have arrived?
When might they have arrived?
What is the evidence for this theory?
3. Map 1 On a world outline map, show the route(s) that all possible visitors might have used.
Colour code the routes and include a key.
4. Draw and label 5 animals they may have found. Which of these would be considered natural
resources? Which ones were used by the inhabitants? How were they used?
5. What were the first crops grown in Mesoamerica? Draw and label 5 of them and tell what
they were used for.
6. What are the elements of a civilization? Which do you think would have developed first?
second?
Tikal
41
7. The following groups of people all developed their separate societies in Mesoamerica.
Investigate the following to find out:
a) who they were
b) where they lived
c) when
d) their achievements
e) any other important information
-Aztecs
-Mayas
-Zapotecs
-Mixtecs
-Toltecs
-Olmecs
Produce a key visual for one of the above societies. Present information in:
-Web form
-Data retrieval chart
-Another form of your choice
Achievements
Important people
in the society
Strengths
AZTECS
When
Weaknesses
Where
8. Map 2 On an outline map of Mexico and Central America place where each of the above
societies lived.
Colour code it and include a key.
Detail from Temple of
Quetzalcoatl.
Teotihuacán, Mexico
42
9. Map 3 On an outline map of Mexico and Central America place the following: (Teachers
may want to reproduce the reference map for students).
- Tula
- Tenochtitlán
- Tehuacán Valley
- Monte Alban
- Mitla
- Chichén Itzá
- Palenque
- Tikal
- La Venta
- Copán
10. Take one group from question 7 and do an in-depth study.
Include:
- the topics you need to cover
- the questions you need to answer related to each topic
- maps
- drawings, diagrams and charts
TEACHERS’ NOTES
Also refer to pages 74-77 in the book 500 Years and Beyond for further activities. (If this
resource is not available in your library you can contact the B.C.Global Education Project
at the BCTF for a copy).
Palenque
43
OTHER TOPICS
FOR INVESTIGATION
Religion
Family Life
Sports and Games
The Market
Festivals
Dance and Music
Warfare
The Tribute State
Medicine
Artwork
Weaving, featherwork, pottery
El Castillo Chichén Itzá
44
ART ACTIVITIES
1. GOD’S EYES
Form a cross with two sticks or wires and wind wool or cord around. Alternate colours. Smaller
ones could be made into mobiles.
2. MURALS
depicted daily life in the Americas
(Reference: temple walls at Bonampak, the work of Diego Rivera)
Examples of murals to do:(working in groups)
a) Mayan or Aztec civilization, including as many elements of the civilization as you can
b) A market scene in Tenochtitlán
c) A Mayan ballgame
or
d) A scene at school such as recess on the playground
Remember that murals should include as much detail as possible.
3. CODICES
- were made of bark or deer skin
- used to record events
- only a few survive as the Spaniards burned most of them.
Materials: brown cardboard cut into 8 1/2 by 11, paints, pencil crayons, felts, white paper slightly
smaller than the cardboard.
Students can work in groups of 4 or 5.
Each group brainstorms important events in the last school year.
Group decides which students will depict which events.
Each student, on the white paper, represents that event, either by drawing or using symbols.
Then pencil crayon, felts or paints can be used to color it in.
When the group has finished, put events in order and glue on to the cardboard. Punch holes in
each piece of cardboard, and thread wool or string through it. They can be stood up on a table to
be displayed.
If you want, both sides of the cardboard can be used.
45
4. MODELS
Build a model of:
- a pyramid
- temple
- city
5. DIORAMA
6. FRIEZE DESIGNS using Mesoamerican symbols (flowers, serpents, hummingbird).
7. VISUALIZATION
Have your teacher read aloud Bernal Diáz del Castillo’s impressions on first arriving in Tenochtitlán.
Visualize, then draw what the city might have looked like.
Part of the city of Chichén Itzá was The Thousand Columns, a 5–acre plaza containing:
- a huge temple
- columned hills
- sunken gardens
- terraces
- pyramids and temples
Visualize, then draw The Thousand Columns. Be as detailed as possible.
8. POSTERS/MOBILES
Find out what crops and animals
were found in the Americas that
had not been seen before. Draw a
poster to illustrate some of them.
Make a mobile.
46
9. STELA*
(Reference: Stelae at Copán, Honduras.)
A stela is a carved stone pillar commemorating important events
in Mayan history. The greatest number of them are found at
Copán in Honduras. The Mayas carved ornate stelae from huge
pieces of limestone and obsidian, often covering the entire rock
surface with intricate designs, glyphs, and pictures. They used
stelae to record history and mark the passing of time as well as to
mark the graves of important people.
Use the outline on your right to create your own stela.Include
important events in your life (entering school,making the team,
first babysitting job).Use Mayan-style designs, glyphs and/or pictures.
Compare the totem poles made by the native people of Canada
with the stelae carved by the Mayas in Mesoamerica. In what
ways are they similar? In what ways are they different? In making
your comparison, consider the material from which each was
made, the style in which each was decorated and the specific use
to which each was put.
Stela
Carving a stela
* Stela - singular
Stelae- plural
47
CODICES
Codices were made of carefully prepared paper cloth, made from fibres of the maguey plant or
animal skin. The Mayan codices were written or painted on with fine brushes on long strips of
bark paper, folded like screens and covered with a layer of chalky paste. There are only 4 Mayan
codices left today. When the Spanish arrived, they burnt all the ones they could find. For the
Spanish, the conquest meant the total destruction of all Mayan and Aztec knowledge, science,
religion and traditions.
MAGUEY PLANT
48
EXTENSION ACTIVITIES
FOLLOW THE MAYAN TRAIL
Plan an imaginary trip to visit the archaeological sites of Mesoamerica. What would you plan to
see? What would be the points of interest? Focus on 2 or 3.
Design and prepare a brochure with graphics, map, descriptions of what you will be visiting and
your itinerary. Share with the class.
Write a speech you would give if you were the tour guide on this trip.
COMPARE AND CONTRAST
Compare and contrast El Castillo of Chichén Itzá, Mexico and the pyramid of Cheops in Egypt.
Look at ways in which they are the same and the ways they are different.
Develop a diagram to organize similarities and differences.
Working with a partner or in groups of 3, draw floor plans and diagrams of the exterior and
interior of the tomb pyramid at Palenque and of an Egyptian tomb pyramid. Then, compare
them.
In what ways are they similar?
In what ways are they different?
Which pyramid is more technologically advanced in its construction?
Which pyramid is more beautiful?
Be prepared to explain your responses.
As far as we know, there was no contact between the ancient Egyptian and Mesoamerican
civilizations.Each civilization developed separately, without the knowledge, influence or aid of
the other.
Compare the accomplishments of the Egyptian and Mayan or Aztec civilizations. In what ways
are they similar? In what ways are they different?. If there was, in fact, no exchange of information and ideas between these civilizations, what factors might account for the similarities?
49
WORD COURT TRIAL
This is an imaginary court trial. Words are to be put on trial for the damage they have done.
Examples are:
Colonization
Conquest
Greed
Domination
Discovery
Define the words using a dictionary.What do you think of when you hear these words? How do
you think the people of Latin America feel when they hear these words? What do they mean to
them?
Choose one word and prepare a case for why you think this word has been damaging to the
people of Latin America.
PREDICTING
If the classic age of the Aztecs or Mayas had never ended and had continued to evolve, where do
you think the civilization would be today?
What do you think the accomplishments would be in the 1990’s?
Develop a diagram with headings such as agriculture, art, writing, mathematics and religion and
put your predictions under these headings.
Consider: Would they have maintained their beliefs or would scientific evidence have shifted
their thinking?
TIMELINE
Do a timeline with diagrams, graphics and other art work to show the birth, rise and fall of
Chichén Itzá (or Tikal or some other Mesoamerican city). You may want to include the year it
was “rediscovered” or reclaimed from the jungle.
50
ARCHAEOLOGY
Explain what an archaeologist does in preparing for a dig.
Sketch the different tools she/he would use.
Research government policy on the finding of artifacts in Mexico, Guatemala or Honduras. What
are the laws and penalties around this?
See if you can get any information about this with regards to artifacts in B.C.
What would be some of the dangers an archaeologist might face?
Pretend you are an archaeologist in the jungle and keep a diary of what you do and how you feel.
Consider: climate, food, isolation, other people you are working with, fears you might have.
Illustrate your diary.
ART
Create a mobile summarizing the important ideas learned about Mayas or Aztecs on one side,
with illustrations on the flip side.
Variation:
With a different colour for each side of the cards, e.g., red/yellow, write the key understandings
for Mayas on red side and key understandings for Aztecs on yellow side.
WRITING
Like the ancient Egyptians, the Mayas wrote in hieroglyphs, small pictures that stood for words
or ideas.
Think of ten ideas that are most important to you
and design hieroglyphs to represent these ideas.
Cross section of the Temple of
Inscriptions, Palenque. It shows the
long-lost stairway that led down to the
grave of the high priest or ruler, Pa Kal.
It was found in 1951 by Antonio Ruz,
a Mexican archaeologist.
51
SPORTS
In all Mayan cities there was a ball court where 2 teams played pok-a-tok. Each team struggled to
force a heavy rubber ball through their opponent’s goal which was a heavy stone ring set on the
wall of the court. It was played at a furious pace, sometimes so violent that players died during the
game. Reliefs carved in the stone walls of the ball court show the decapitation of a ball player and
on a nearby platform are carvings of skulls skewered on sticks.
If you were an archaeologist, how would you interpret these carvings?
MATH SCALE DRAWINGS
Draw a scale diagram on a blank white sheet showing:
a) your height
b) an Aztec pyramid
c) a Mayan pyramid
d) Cheops pyramid in Egypt
CONNECTIONS
In what ways have the indigenous cultures of the Aztecs and Mayas influenced the culture of Mexico/Central America today?
What has come into our society from Mesoamerica?
Using the headings food, plants, animals, vocabulary, science and any
other ones that you can think of, list what we use or have today that has
come to us from Mesoamerica.
Variation:
You may want to illustrate your list or present the information in the
form of a codice (see Art Activities).
52
WHAT IS GOING ON?
Note: Teachers are to read the following descriptions to their class. Do not tell students what each
description is about.
The first paragraph deals with an Aztec sacrifice. The second one is a North American hockey
game.
1.
The screams of the victim echoed off the hills. Warm blood ran down the cold altar steps. The
High Priest plunged his old hand into the opened chest and pulled, pulled until the vessels snapped
and a fountain of blood spat into the clear blue sky. He gave a shout of satisfaction and held the
heart high above the altar, the blood running freely down his arm.
2.
The men appeared to be following a small disc, hitting it with a curved object clasped between
two of their limbs. It was not certain what the object of the ceremony was, but I was guided by the
ecstatic cries of the crowd. Sometimes they would cry aloud if the disc became enmeshed in a
kind of cage, but the climax of worship came when several of the creatures rushed upon one
unfortunate victim, thrashing with their limbs. The roar was so deafening that I had to close my
ears to it. Slowly the tumult died and I think the creatures were satisfied when they saw red
matter emerge from the nucleus of their fellow creature.
The teacher may then want to ask some of the following questions.
a) Do you think these events describe something on this planet?
b) What do you think is being described in each story?
c) Have the observations anything to do with religion? Why would you think that?
d) How do you think the victim in each case felt?
e) If you were one of the participants, would you rather take part in the first or second story?
EXTENSION ACTIVITY:
A family has been informed that their son, a fine Aztec warrior, has been selected as a sacrifice to
the gods. The father is proud of this as this is the ultimate honour but the mother reacts differently. Act out a probable argument that develops between the two. Try to reach an agreement.
How does this compare to your beliefs?
Present your findings to the class.
53
GIVE A THEORY
The ruins of once-beautiful cities in the jungles of Mexico and Central America tell scientists much
about the amazing people who built them. But they do not tell why these cities were suddenly
abandoned over one thousand years ago. Around 900 A.D., something mysterious happened to the
Mayan civilization. Activity stopped in the cities. Walls and foundations for new buildings were left
unfinished. To modern archaeologists it looked as if the cities had been abandoned.
WHAT HAPPENED TO THE MAYAS?
Below are listed some theories as to why the great Mayan centres were abandoned. Can you think
of any other reasons?
Choose one of the theories and write a play or story about what might have happened.
Some explanations given for the collapse of the great cities are:
1. The agricultural system collapsed and their food supply failed. The soil was exhausted and as
the population increased, there wasn’t enough land around the cities to grow all the corn that
was needed.
2. Overexploitation of the rainforest ecosystem, on which the Mayas depended for food.
3. Water shortages might have played a role in the collapse.
4. Overpopulation was another problem. Mayanists estimate that there were as many as 200
people per sq km in the southern lowlands of Central America which is a very high figure.
5. Overpopulation and a disintegrating agricultural system could have lead to malnutrition.
6. An earthquake.
7. Disease killed off the Mayas. Or did disease perhaps weaken them so much that they moved
away from the cities to look for healthier surroundings?
8. Invasion from other tribes caused their downfall.
9. Revolt by the commoners and slaves against the unproductive, religious priests and rulers.
The people may have resented the increasing demands of the priests for food and labor to
build the temples.
10. The common people simply gave up their struggle against the heat, jungle and increasing
demands of the rulers and moved away from the centres and into the forests.
54
PROPHECY
I
n 1519, Moctezuma, the Aztec emperor,
awaited the return of Quetzalcoatl. There
were a number of events that occurred that
lead him to believe that something dreadful was
to happen. Below is a story that tells of some of
these events.
One day long ago, the soothsayers flew to the
cave of the mother of the god of war. The witch,
who had not washed for eight centuries, did not
smile or greet them. Without thanking them,
she accepted their gifts—cloth, skins, feathers—
and listened sourly to their news. Mexico, the
soothsayers told her, is mistress and queen, and
all cities are under her orders. The old woman
grunted her sole comment: The Aztecs have
defeated the others, she said, and others will
come who will defeat the Aztecs.
Time passed.
For the past ten years, portents have been piling up.
A bonfire leaked flames from the middle of the
sky for a whole night.
Another temple was burned by a flash of lightning one evening when there was no storm.
The lake in which the city is situated turned
into a boiling cauldron. The waters rose, whitehot, towering with fury, carrying away houses,
even tearing up foundations.
Fishermen’s nets brought up an ash-coloured
bird along with the fish. On the bird’s head there
was a round mirror. In the mirror, Emperor
Moctezuma saw advancing an army of soldiers
who ran on the legs of deer, and he heard their
war cries. Then the soothsayers, who could neither read the mirror nor had eyes to see the
two-headed monsters that implacably haunted
Moctezuma’s sleeping and waking hours, were
punished.
Every night the cries of an unseen woman startle all who sleep in Tenochtitlán and in
Tlatelolco. My little children, she cries, now we
have to go far from here! There is no wall that
the woman’s cry does not pierce: Where shall
we go, my little children?
A sudden three-tongued fire came up from the
horizon and flew to meet the sun.
Davies, Nigel. Los Aztecas.
Tibón, Gutierre. Historia del nombre
y de la fundación de México.
The house of the god of war committed suicide, setting fire to itself. Buckets of water were
thrown on it, and the water enlivened the
flames.
55
SOMETHING TO THINK ABOUT
T
he events in the above story took
place in 1519, which was also the
year that Quetzalcoatl might reappear
(see The Legend of Quetzalcoatl).
Do you think all that happened was a coincidence or do you think it might be something
else?
What other explanation can you give for the
events that took place in the story and the fact
that Cortés came to Mexico the same year as
Quetzalcoatl was to return?
Have you ever had something happen to you
that you feel is out of the ordinary such as “déjà
vu” (this has already happened to me) or ESP?
How do you think these events contributed to
the defeat of the Aztecs?
Illustrate the passage and include as many details as possible.
An Aztec picture of the comet seen over Tenochtitlán in One Reed. Some astrologers tried to
soothe Montezuma by saying it had never appeared! Others foretold terrible disasters.
56
SACRIFICE
I
t is said that the gods gathered in the
twilight at Teotihuacán, and one of them,
the Hummingbird Wizard, Huitzilopochtli, threw himself into a huge brazier as a
sacrifice. He rose from the blazing coals changed
into a sun; but this new sun was motionless, it
needed blood to move. So the gods immolated
themselves, and the sun, drawing life from their
death, began its course across the sky.
To keep the sun moving in its course, so that
the darkness should not overwhelm the world
forever, it was necessary to feed it every day with
its food ‘the precious water’—that is, with human blood. Sacrifice was a
sacred duty towards the sun
and a necessity for the welfare
of men, without it the very life
of the world would stop. Every
time that a priest on the top of
a pyramid held up the bleeding heart of a man and then
placed it in the sacred vessel
the disaster that perpetually
threatened to fall upon the
world was postponed once
more.
sidered a great honour to be sacrificed. But the
Aztecs needed more victims and to obtain them,
there were ceaseless little wars. It was the sacred duty of every Aztec to take prisoners for
sacrifce in order to obtain for the Hummingbird Wizard the nectar of the gods—human
blood and hearts.
War, eternal war, then was bound up with religion. How else could human hearts be obtained?
A long peace was dangerous and war thus became the natural condition of the Aztecs for if
the gods were not nourished they would cease
to protect man from the other gods and this
might lead to the total destruction of the world.
Sacrifice was inspired neither by
cruelty nor by hatred. It was
their response, and the only response that they could conceive
to the instability of a continually threatened world. Blood
was necessary to save this world
and the men in it. The victim
was no longer an enemy who
was to be killed but a messenger who was sent to the gods.
In the most usual form of the
HUITZILOPOCHTLI
sacrificial rite the victim was
And the victims, who had been
God of war
stretched out on his back on a
prepared from childhood, acslightly convex stone with his arms and legs held cepted their fate.
by four priests, while a fifth ripped him open
with a flint knife and tore out his heart. There
From Von Hagen, Victor.
were also sacrifices of beautiful women to the
The Aztec Man and His Tribe.
goddesses of the earth and of children to the
Soustelle, Jacques.
rain-god, Tlaloc. The Aztecs used some of their
Daily Life of the Aztecs.
own citizens as sacrificial victims and it was con-
57
Based on what you have just read, give the reasons that the Aztecs sacrificed humans.
Do you think it was an honour to be sacrificed? Why?
Every culture possesses its ideas of what is and
what is not cruel.
The Aztecs were horrified when they saw the
senseless torture, burning and killing carried out
by the Spaniards when they arrived in 1519.
For the Aztecs, the killings were done quickly
for the most part and they were carried out with
a definite purpose in mind.
They also could not understand the Spanish
Inquisition.
What was the Inquisition? When was it started?
Why was it started?
The Aztecs did not like to kill their enemy on
the battlefield. They would rather take them as
prisoners.
Can you think of a reason for this?
Can you think of any examples in our society
that might seem cruel to someone from another
culture?
Are there practices carried out in other cultures
that seem cruel to you?
‘Flowery death’: the ultimate Aztec privilege was death on the sacrificial altar, where
thousands of young Aztecs offered their lives to nourish bloodthirsty Huitzilopochtli, god of
war (From the Codex Magliabecchi).
58
MAYAN BEAUTY SECRETS
“Slightly crossed eyes were held in great esteem,”
writes Yale anthropologist Michael Coe in his
book The Maya. “Parents attempted to induce
the condition by hanging small beads over the
noses of their children.”
The Mayas also seemed to go in for shaping
their children’s skulls: they liked to flatten them
(although this may have simply been the inadvertent result of strapping babies to cradle
boards) or squeeze them into a cone. Some
Mayanists speculate that the conehead effect
was the result of trying to approximate the shape
of an ear of corn.
The Maya filed their teeth, sometimes into a T
shape and sometimes to a point. They also inlaid their teeth with small, round plaques of jade
or pyrite. According to Coe, young men painted
themselves black until marriage and later engaged in ritual tattooing and scarring.
From Time August 9, 1993 p.48
Secrets of the Maya.
Copywright 1993 Time Inc. Reprinted by permission.
What do we do in our society to make ourselves
more attractive?
Are any of these practices painful?
Can you think of any practices that are dangerous?
Can you think of what people in other societies
do to make themselves more attractive?
What is beauty and who determines it?
Above
Artificially flattening the head.
Below
A Mayan beauty feature was the
squint created be hanging a ball
in front of the eyes.
59
MISCELLANEOUS
PLAY BALL
A
n important game was a ballgame
called pok-a-tok by the Mayas and
tlachtli by the Aztecs. It had religious
significance for many Mesoamerican cultures.
No one knows exactly how the game was played,
but we do know that it was played by two teams,
each with two or three players, using a solid rubber ball in specially made courts. The game was
dangerous because of the speed at which the
ball was propelled from one side of the court to
the other using the hips. Using the hands and
feet was not allowed. Spectators gambled on the
competition’s outcome. There were many beliefs surrounding the ballgame. The game’s
violent competition was a symbol of the battle
between darkness (night) and light (day) and
was a re-enactment of the death and rebirth of
the sun. People also believed that the more they
played the ballgame, the better their harvest
would be.
The solid rubber ball, which may have symbolized the sun or the moon, was kept in constant
motion in the air, like the movements of the
planets. The players may also have attempted
to re-enact the battles they had won. Human
sacrifice frequently provided the grisly finale of
a game; sometimes the defeated players were
sacrificed and their heads possibly used as balls.
MAYAN BALL GAME
60
LIGHT AND MAGIC
D
uring the spring and fall equinoxes
every year, crowds of tourists gather
around El Castillo of Chichén Itzá
to watch the setting sun’s shadow slowly move
up the staircase that begins with two massive
serpent heads carved at the base. The pyramid
was dedicated to Kukulcan, a powerful god of
creation and transformation. Its four staircases
have 91 steps each, which, added to the top platform, equal 365, the number of days in the solar
year, reflecting the Mayas advanced knowledge
of astronomy. The serpent heads point directly
to a natural well where human bones and gold
jewelry, evidence of ritual sacrifice, have been
found.
BLOOD HARVEST
T
he gruesome ritual of bloodletting
accompanied every major political
and religious event in ancient Mayan
society. In one engraving, the wife of a ruler is
seen pulling a rope through her tongue. Blood
dripped onto pieces of bark paper, which were
burned as offerings to the gods. The intense
pain of such rites led to hallucinatory visions
that allowed participants to communicate with
ancestors and mythological beings.
From Time, August 9, 1993
Secrets of the Maya
Temple of Inscriptions Palenque
61
CALENDARS
The Aztecs had two calendars: the religious one, tonalpohualli, consisting of 260 days; and a
second one which was a solar calendar, called xiuhmolpilli. The first calendar was magical and
sacred. Its cycle consisted of 20 periods of 13 days. The solar calendar was 365 days long and
had 18 months of 20 days each. The remaining five days, called the empty days, memontemi,
were the unlucky days. Fires were extinguished, fasting was general and business was stopped.
Everyone waited to see if the world would end. After the five days were over and they saw the
sun rise once more, people resumed their duties knowing that life would go on once more.
T
he Mayas had very similar calendars.
One calendar was the tzolquin or
lunar calendar of 260 days and the
other was the civil calendar called haab of 365
days. The lunar one was used to determine religious ceremonies. The civil calendar was made
up of 18 months of 20 days each plus five days
that were thought to be bad luck days called
uayeb. The haab was a solar calendar, based on
the time that it took the earth to go around the
sun. It was very important for the farmers as it
determined the growing seasons.
18 glyphs representing Mayan months, including the 5day unlucky Uayeb period
Aztec Solar Calendar was divided into these 20 months.
For both the Mayas and the Aztecs, the first
day of each calendar occurred at the same time
only once every 52 years.They believed that at
the end of the 52 year cycle the future of the
world was in balance and might be destroyed.
(See the Legend of Quetzalcoatl in Literature).
62
PRONUNCIATION KEY
Anáhuac
˘ ˘ ˘
an-a-wok
chocolate
¯ ¯ ˘ ¯
cho-ko-la-ta
guacamole
˘ ˘ ´¯ ¯
gwa-ka-mo-la
Huitzilopochtli
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯
wet-ze-lo-potch-tle
Iztaechualt
¯ ˘
˘
es-ta-shwalt
Nahual
¯ ˘
na-wal
Nahuatl
¯ ´˘
na-wa-tl
pollo pibil
´ ¯ pebel
¯ ¯
poyo
Popocatepetl
¯ ¯ ˘ ˘ ´˘
po-po-ka-te-petl
Quetzalcoatl
˘ ˘ ´˘
ketz-el-kwa-tel
Tenochtitlán
˘ ¯
¯ ˘
te-noch-tet-lan
Teotihuacán
¯ ¯ ¯ ˘ ˘´
ta-o-te-wa-kan
´
63
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ORIGINAL SOURCES
Casas, Bartolomé de las. History of the Indies. Translated and edited by Andree M. Collard.
Harper and Row Torchbook. 1971.
Díaz del Castillo, Bernal. The Bernal Díaz Chronicles. Translated and edited by Albert Idell.
Doubleday, New York. 1956.
León Portilla, Miguel. The Broken Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest of Mexico. Beacon
Press,Boston, MA. 1962.
Recinos, Adrian (translator). Popol Vuh. The Sacred Book of the Ancient Quiché. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. 1950.
Tezozómoc, Fernando Alvarado. Crónica Mexicayotl. Imprenta Universitaria, Mexico City.
1949.
Tibón, Gutierre. Historia del nombre y de la fundación de México. FCE, México. 1975.
RECOMMENDED SOURCES
Davies, Nigel. The Ancient Kingdoms of Mexico. Penguin Books, Harmondsworth. 1982.
Davies, Nigel. The Aztecs. Macmillan, London Ltd. 1973.
Galeano, Eduardo. Memory of Fire: Century of the Wind
(Three volumes: Genesis. 1987; Faces and Masks. 1988; Century of the Wind. 1988.) Pantheon
Books, New York.
Kuczma, Carmen. (ed) 500 Years and Beyond: A Teachers’
Resource Guide. CoDevelopment Canada, Vancouver. 1992.
64
Montejo, Victor. The Bird Who Cleans the World and Other Mayan Fables. Curbstone Press,
Willimantic, CT. 1991.
National Geographic. October 1989. “La Ruta Maya”.
National Geographic. September 1987. “Jade - Stone Of Heaven”.
National Geographic. April 1986. “Rió Azul Lost City of the Maya”.
National Geographic. December 1980. “The Aztecs”.
Soustelle, Jacques. Daily Life of the Aztecs. Penguin Books, Harmondsworth. 1964.
Vaillant, George C. The Aztecs of Mexico. Pelican Books, Harmondsworth. 1950.
Wright, Ronald. Stolen Continents. Viking Penguin Books, Toronto. 1992.
65
Appendix A
NORTH AMERICA
66
MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA
AND THE CARIBBEAN
Appendix B
67
Appendix C
68