DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS
Sole Purpose:
to describe a behavior or type of subject
not to look for any specific relationships, nor to correlate 2 or more variables
Disadvantages
since setting is completely natural, with all variables present, cannot identify cause
Advantages
can acquire a lot of information through description
useful for identifying variables & hypothetical constructs > which can be further
investigated through other means (kind of like exploratory surgery, or the USS
Enterprise on an away mission)
descriptions can be used as an indirect test of a theory or model
some behaviors/situations cannot be studied any other way
2 general categories of descriptive designs: surveys & observational studies
1) Field Surveys
subjects complete a questionnaire or interview in a natural setting
attention must be given to:
construct & content validity
reliable scoring
clear questions with precise, mutually exclusive answers
controlled consistent behavior of the interviewer
concrete behaviors that naive subjects can accurately describe
counterbalance order of questions (to identify & control response biases)
representative sample (use large N)
surveys may be mailed or conducted over the telephone
Mailed:
if need large N or if questionnaire is long
problems: could take a while & not all surveys will be returned
questions representativeness of the sample
should have at least 50% return rate to be considered adequate
to increase return rate: include a cover letter, ensure survey has face validity,
use only brief questions with simple instructions, use a small reward, send a
reminder letter
Telephone: structured & closed ended questions (no free associations please)
usually higher response rate
subjects who don’t participate may be too busy or too wary
make sure intro is straightforward & friendly
Identifying the Population & Selecting the Sample
identify all subgroups in the population in an unbiased manner
best to use probability sampling techniques (random or stratified random)
otherwise can use one of the following
cluster sampling:
certain groups are randomly sampled & all subjects in them
are observed
convenience sampling:
quota sampling:
study subjects who are convenient
using convenience sampling, with the restriction that the
sample has the same % of each subgroup as that found in the
pop
snowball sampling: “and they told two friends, and so on, and so on...”
Potential biases:
time of telephone call
volunteer bias (people with strong opinions, or bored, are most likely to respond)
the silent majority?
predictive validity? How you feel today may not be how you feel tomorrow
Analysis of Survey Results
use descriptive stats to check for significant correlations between responses from different
questions (see if significant using inferential stats)
compute “margin of error” = confidence interval for frequency data
2) Observational Studies
descriptions based only on unobtrusive (covert) observations of the subjects
3 general techniques
naturalistic observation
unstructured, unsystematic observation of a wide range of behaviors or situations
systematic naturalistic observation
systematic observations of a specific behavior or situation
participant observation
the investigator “infiltrates” the group being observed (like a spy)
takes part in group activities but true identity and purpose are concealed
Advantages
100 % natural > no subject reactivity or demand characteristics
Disadvantages
1. experimenter expectations (esp in participant observation)
2. lack of informed consent
3. usually have to rely on convenience samples
4. mostly qualitative data: verbal descriptions based on visual observations
may lack precision & accuracy (observer bias) & not very sensitive
Purpose
to identify variable which might be important
indirect tests of models or predictions
To increase Reliability & decrease Bias
develop well defined scoring criteria
use time sampling techniques
employ multiple observers
use double blind procedures
videotape (if possible)
obtain more random samples to increase external validity
the “data” in descriptive research designs is frequently based on observations of actual behavior or
the responses to questions ... but there other types/sources of data ...
archival research:
written records
allows access to otherwise unobservable behaviors
can verify subjects’ self-reports
disadvantages
may not have access to all records
difficult to get informed consent
records are only as goos as the people who took them
ex post facto research
a study of the events after they have occurred (archival research is necessarily ex
post facto)
can also obtain subjects responses after the event (rely on recall, self-reports)
data is unreliable
cannot precisely quantify past events
cannot ensure that past events reliably occurred for all subjects
case studies
detailed observations of one situation or one person
case study (longitudinal, prospective): subject to time-related confounds
case history (archival, retrospective): poor reliability & validity
selection of the “case” is not usually truly random but convenient
Program Evaluation
procedures for developing & evaluating social programs
1. needs assessment
identify what’s needed & whether the program will be used
2. program planning
design the program - methods
3. program monitoring
make sure program is implemented and clients are using it
4. outcome evaluation
is the program having the intended effect?
data for each phase collected through descriptive research methods