An Axia Marketing White Paper
Axia Marketing
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West Reading, PA 19611
610-376-0635
www.axia-marketing.com
An Introduction to Printmaking
By Wendy Kershner, Principal
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Contents
3 Introduction
3 Printmaking simplified
3 Intaglio printmaking
4 Brief history: prehistoric cave art to 20th century printmaking
6 Process details and glossary of terms
9 Summary and well-known printmakers
Introduction
Printmaking simplified
▪ Elementary school potato prints
Intaglio printmaking
▪ Etching and engraving
Brief history: prehistoric cave art to 20th century printmaking
▪ Prehistoric cave art, 500 BC and the Sumarians
▪ 2nd century through the late 8th century
▪ 15th through the 20th century
▪ Modern cliché
Process details and glossary of terms
Summary and well-known printmakers
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What is Printmaking?
Printmaking is one of the traditional fine arts. There are many types of
printmaking—silk screen, wood block, linoleum, lithography, etching, engraving,
letterpress, etc.—and it is the technique used to produce many everyday items
such as newspapers, magazines and books. This white paper provides an
overview of the history of printing and the basics of intaglio printmaking as well
as an index of printing terms and the printing process.
Printmaking simplified
The four traditional fine arts are drawing, painting, sculpture and printmaking.
Printmaking is the least known and least understood, although the concept of
printing is very simple. Think back to elementary school and potato prints. You
were given half of a potato, and you either cut into the potato or cut away the
potato to make a shape. Then you dipped the potato into paint, or a sponge filled
with paint, pushed the potato on a piece of paper and made an impression of
your shape. In other words, you were printing! The potato was the “printing
plate”, the paint was the “printing ink”, and the mark you made was a “print”.
Like potato printing, all printing processes are essentially the transfer of an image
from one surface to another. This transfer process creates a flopped or reversed
image of the original plate. Different techniques allow multiple layers to be
created on a single plate, and multiple plates can also be used to create a single
image. With so many variables, there are infinite possibilities and challenges to
the creation of a fine art print.
Intaglio printmaking
The term “intaglio” is used to describe a family of formal printmaking techniques
in which images are scratched or incised into a plate. Ink is applied to the surface
of the plate and then rubbed off to remove the excess, leaving ink only in the
incisions. A piece of damp paper is placed on top of the plate and run through a
printing press. The pressure transfers or “pulls” the ink from the recesses of the
plate onto the paper.
A traditional printing plate is created using thin metal—typically copper and zinc.
Historically steel plates have also been used, and the German artist Albrech
Dürer even experimented with iron although the weight was prohibitive. Although
zinc plates are more common due to the price, copper plates allow for the finest
quality lines.
Two main techniques for making incisions to the plate are etching and engraving.
An etching is a print from a metal plate that is literally “etched” using acid (or
what’s called an acid bath) in combination with acid-resist surfaces created by
using different grounds. An engraving is a print made from a metal plate where
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the marks are made directly to the plate. This is also called line engraving and is
similar to the process used for woodcuts and linoleum blocks.
For reference, woodcuts and linoleum are relief printed which is the opposite of
intaglio printing. The wood or linoleum surface is cut away and the top surface
that remains is inked and printed. The wood and linoleum surfaces cannot be
wiped as in intaglio, however intaglio plates can be printed in this relief way.
A brief history: prehistoric cave art to 20th century printmaking
Printmaking has shaped culture in all parts of the world. Originally not considered
an art form, it was viewed as a form of communication. It is now highly valued as
an artistic medium with unique technical qualities.
Engraving can be traced back to prehistoric cave art, with the carving of lines on
stones, bones and cave walls. Blowing pulverized pigment around hands placed
on a surface was another rudimentary form of printmaking. Both of these early art
forms touched on future printing concepts of repeated images, reversed images,
transferred images and stenciling.
The duplication of images goes back 3,000 years to 500BC and the Sumarians
who engraved designs on stone cylinder seals. The seals were pressed into clay
and multiple imprints could be made to identify ownership of goods.
In the 2nd century AD, the Chinese developed the stone rubbing which is a
primitive form of printing. Classic texts and holy images were carved onto huge,
stone slabs. Once the lines were made in the stone, damp paper was pressed
and molded to the surface so that the paper held the incised lines. Ink was
carefully applied to the paper, and the resulting image appeared as white lines on
a black background.
In the mid-to-late 8th century, the Japanese did wood-block rubbings of Buddhist
scrolls and charms. These devotional prints produced crude drawings. This “folk
art” focused on education and communication but without any artistic
interpretation.
In the 15th century, the Germans created playing cards from woodcuts. Cards
were popular means of entertainment, printed inexpensively, produced in large
quantities and widely distributed. 1446 is the earliest recorded date of a print or
engraving. It is believed that intaglio engraving developed from goldsmiths
printing impressions of their work to record their designs. At the same time
printing techniques were being refined, paper mills were established in several
areas of Germany, France and Italy.
In 16th century Germany, Albrech Dürer trained as a goldsmith and was known
for his craftsmanship and detailed work in his engravings. Throughout Europe,
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etching became more popular with artists than engraving because it was a much
easier technique to learn. By the mid-16th century, prints became very popular,
and they were used for illustrations, topographical surveys and portraits.
Renaissance printmakers challenged the restrictions of the standard printing
press’ small size. Large-scale woodcuts and etchings began to be printed in
multiple blocks and plates on several sheets of paper joined to form a single
picture. Some were arranged in long frieze-like sequences, while others were
pieced together to emulate monumental murals and tapestries. 1
In the 17th century, Baroque artists shifted their focus from only depicting reality
to conveying emotional impact. The famous Dutch artist Rembrandt was
considered the Baroque graphic master, known for his intaglio work and primarily
his etchings. He created over 300 printmaking plates, and to put the time period
in context his 400th birthday would have been in 2006.
Around the same time, in the early 1800’s, the Japanese master Hokusai
focused on wood block prints and color printing. His most famous print is The
Great Wave off Kanagawa.
In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the Spanish artist Goya was one of the
leading artists who created an extraordinary range of prints. He’s known for
combining aquatint with etching and creating a highly individualistic style. One of
best known series of prints was Disasters of War completed in 1810.
In the 18th century, art prints were considered originals, and then in the 19th
century, there was a shift with artists producing limited editions of their prints and
signing their work. 20th century printmaking has played a role in all of the art
movements including fauvism, cubism, expressionism, surrealism, abstract
expressionism, op art and pop art.
And to bring you to the present, you may be familiar with the modern cliché,
“Would you like to come up and see my etchings?” The phrase has been traced
back to 1937, specifically to a popular radio violinist David Rubinoff as well as to
an earlier comedy by Susannah Centlivre, The Man’s Bewitched. In Centilvre’s
play, one of the character’s states that there is “a very pretty collection of prints in
the next room, Madam. Will you give me leave to explain them to you?” Many
people think of Mae West’s famous invitation “come up and see me sometime”,
which is a playful reversal of the ‘villain’ enticing the ‘innocent maiden’ to come
back to his place with an offer to look at something artistic.
1
Philadelphia Museum of Art, Grand Scale: Monumental Prints in the Age of Durer and Titan, March,
2009, member newsletter.
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Process details and glossary of terms
Common printmaking tools
Etching needles
Scrapers—triangular cutting knives
Burnishers—flat or oval shaped knives
Roulettes—small wheels with handles
Techniques
Mezzotint: Mezzotint is a process of working directly on the plate, and mezzotint
lines are often less deep than etchings or engravings. Plates with shallow or
delicate impressions often have a shorter printing life because the lines do not
hold up to repeated printings. Some of the mezzotint techniques are dry point
(lines, dots and burrs) and stipple, and the tools include mezzotint rockers and
roulettes (round metal wheels).
Etching: An acid resist ground is applied to a metal plate, and the various
grounds are “baked” onto the plate using a hot plate.
Soft Ground: Soft grounds allow impressions to be made into the surface
of the ground. Materials or objects can be applied to pull off the ground in
certain areas to allow the acid to eat into the plate.
Hard Ground: A hard ground allows lines to be scratched into the ground
to reveal the metal surface of the plate so the acid can eat into the plate.
The resulting lines are different than lines marked directly on the plate,
and they are usually deeper and tend to last longer.
Aquatint: A resin powder is dusted on the plate using cheesecloth bags, a
filtering machine or by hand. The coarseness of the particles determines
the “screen”, and the acid eats between the particles to create a tonal
quality. Hard ground can be used to “block out” or “stop out” certain areas
on top of the aquatint. Spray paint is also now being used for aquatints,
and the spray paint mist is the acid resist.
Acid baths for etching metal plates
An acid bath is traditionally called a “mordant”, which is the French term for biting
because the acid “bites” into the metal plate. Diluted acids are used—often 6 or 7
parts water to 1 part acid. Ratios can vary, such as 3:1 and 2:2, and the ratio
determines the speed and aggressiveness of the etching process. Different acids
are used with different metals. Nitric acid is used with zinc plates; ferric chloride
and hydrochloric acid are used with copper plates.
A feather or similar tool is used periodically to wave the bubbles away to allow
the acid to evenly bite the plate. Zinc produces more bubbles than copper, so
zinc plates need to be monitored more closely in the acid. Over biting can occur
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when the acid leaks under the ground or when a plate is left in the acid too long.
After the plate is removed from the acid bath, the acid is rinsed off with water,
and the grounds are removed with solvents like turpentine and alcohol that are
specific to the ground.
Safety goggles and gloves are used, and ventilation is critical in the acid area as
well as in all areas of a print studio due to the various chemicals. Non-toxic
alternatives for etching such as acrylic polymer ground and photo etching (solar)
processes are becoming more common.
Paper
Handmade paper, composed of cotton and/or linen, is used for pulling prints.
The paper is soaked in water for approximately 15 minutes to release the sizing,
and the paper is blotted on blotter paper to absorb the excess water. The
softened surface helps push the paper into the plate grooves.
All printmaking papers have watermarks, and traditional printmaking papers are
Dutch, Italian and French. Paper selection is a personal choice, and variations in
stiffness, color and texture, give different results in the final print.
Plates
To prepare a metal plate, if you are working at a size other than the standard
sheets, the plate needs to be cut. Next the edges and corners need to be
beveled—rounded, filed and polished to prevent the paper from tearing. Different
shapes can be created from the metal sheets as part of the creative process.
The surface of the metal is cleaned to remove all oils. Plates can be completely
reworked at any point—grinding, scraping and polishing—until the image is
diminished or eliminated. The tools used are scrapers (triangular cutting knives)
and burnishers (flat or oval shaped knives). The back of plate has a protective
coating to prevent the acid from eating the back.
Ink
Printing inks are specially formulated for printing. The consistency can vary from
thick to thin and “sticky” or tacky to smooth. Some inks respond best when
heated. The selection of ink—the brand of ink and the ink color—is also a
personal choice.
Inking
A tarlatan cloth (which is similar to a heavy cheesecloth that’s been sized) is
used to wipe the ink off the surface of the plate but retain the ink in all of the
markings. The process involves completely coating the plate with ink using card
board “chips” and then wiping it clean with a series of rags making sure that the
ink isn’t pulled out of grooves. The initial rags start off very full of ink and then
cleaner rags are used so that the surface can be completely cleaned. Extra
wiping is done with phone book sheets and a process of hand wiping. The entire
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wiping process is variable and can be controlled to create unique prints. The
edges of the plate should be clean, and there should be no ink blotches on the
final print which can result from too much ink squishing out from the pressure.
Printing presses and the printing process
The goal is to have enough pressure exerted to push the damp paper into the
plate so that the ink can be pulled out of the grooves. A flatbed press with a
hand-cranked roller is most commonly used. There are also electric presses
which can help keep the amount of pressure even on a large plate, however
electric presses are not the norm. An average press is about the size of a small
dinner table and weighs in the range of 500 to 1,000 lbs.
Three felt blankets of different weights are used between the roller and the press
bed—thin, medium and thick. A template or piece of newsprint is put down first,
then the inked plate facing up, then the printing paper, and then another piece of
newsprint. The blankets are carefully laid down on top of the paper so nothing is
shifted.
Prints
Single prints are called monotypes (solo and unique) and monoprints (unique
from a plate). The various stages, trials, states and proofs are numbered and
recorded chronologically so the progression of the print can be tracked. Editions
are identical prints of the same plate, numbered 1 of 5, 2 of 5, etc. (1/5, 2/5)
There is no value change between the prints of an edition, however there will be
subtle changes within the prints due to all the variables.
Framing
Archival mat board is recommended for most framing to preserve the print.
Prints are often framed with mats, and prints can also be floated in a frame to
show the full print image. Ideally the print is not completely attached to the back
surface. Small rice paper tabs are typically used to attach the print to the mat.
Traditionally the artist signature is positioned in the right-hand corner below the
actual printed image. The title of the print is positioned in the middle, and the
edition number, A.P. (artist proof) or other designation is positioned in the lefthand corner.
Other intaglio techniques: collographs and chine collé
Collograph making is a relatively new print medium developed almost entirely
within the last 50 years. The plate-making process involves cutting, gouging,
tearing, scraping and sanding the surface to dig into and build up the non-metal
base. The critical components of collograph plates are the base and textures as
well as adhesives and coatings to seal the plate so that it can be inked and
printed.
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Chine Collé is used to add color and texture to prints. Thin rice paper is attached
to the damp printing paper using rice paste or rice glue. The pressure of the
press binds the rice paper to the print, and the image is printed on top of the rice
paper. Chine Collé is a layering technique and creates additional levels in the
print.
Other printing processes: lithography and rotogravure
Lithography is another fine arts printing process that uses stone, originally
marble, as well as very thin metal plates. The basic principle of lithography is that
grease and water repel, and the ink sits on the surface of the plate before being
transferred to the paper.
Rotogravure, also known as Photogravure, has traditionally been used for
newspaper and magazine printing. This “modern engraving” is done
electronically with a diamond stylus on steel cylinders with a copper top layer.
These cylinders are created to withstand up to a million impressions (or prints) on
high speed printing presses.
Summary and well-known printmakers
By looking closely at original prints, you can often see how the plate was created
and what challenges the artist faced. There are many famous printmakers to
learn from, although you may think of these artists as only painters or sculptors.
19th Century:
Edward Hopper
John Sloan
Marc Chagall
Joan Miro
Paul Klee
Edgar Degas
Mary Cassatt
Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec
Edvard Munch
Henri Matisse
Pablo Picasso
George Braque
Winslow Homer
20th Century:
Josef Albers
Robert Motherwell
Jasper Johns
Robert Rauschenberg
Jim Dine
Roy Lichtenstein
Robert Indiana
Andy Warhol
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Axia Marketing works with organizations who want to re-imagine and streamline their marketing
efforts. We balance left brain and right brain thinking, and our specialty is that we both “think and
do.” We help our clients think through their needs and then assist them in moving forward in new
and sometimes unexpected ways. We’ll help you take a fresh look at your marketing and the
way you do business. Please contact Wendy Kershner for further information at Axia Marketing,
610-376-0635, wkershner@axia-marketing.com
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