A Glossary of Elephant Terms
\7e hope this glossary will be usefuI to anyone teading about
elephants, while encountering an unfamiliar tetm'
M. PhiliP Kahl
Elephant Research Foundation, West
100 Mountain Road
Sedona, Arizont 86351
Words have been collected ftom many soutce s, ovet a number
of yeats. Please bear in mind that such a work will always be
less-than-complete....very much'a wotk-in-progtess' It is an
USA
and
Chades SantiaPillai
DePattment of ZoologY
on-going ptoiecg many defnitions v'ill need modification'
invite you, please, to contribute yout cotnments'
lUfle
UniversitY of PeradeniYa
SRI I-ANKA
I7e realize that any such listing will always be a subjective
to be "inclusive" rathet than
"exclusive", reasoning that a term can be skipped over more
easily than searched for elsewhete.
choice and have tried
Some words apply to animals in general. In those cases' we
have tried to show how they relate to elephants, specifically'
And several refetences ate given, uthich will lead the readet
to furtlqer information. These refetences afe not meant to
be exhaustive but merely to show how a term applies to
elephants.
elephants.
Non-English terms [isted in italicsl, ate found especially in
oldet regional publicatioos. Synonyms are listed under the
heading of the most commooly used tetm'
periodic
updates and include changes and corrections' This version is
intended to be "downloaded" into yout personal comPuters'
whete a specific word can then be located with the 'FIND"
feature.
Readers are encouraged to send any comments/corrections/
suggested changes to both authors. These may be sent by
e-mail to: musthbull@sedona'net & csanti@slt'lk ot by post
to:
GtjthZ3: Suly 2004)
specific word can then be located with the
"FIND" feature'
M. Philip Kahl & Charles Santiapillai
We have surveyed many publications that contain glossaries,
and selected those items that have special televance to
An online version of this glossaty will refect
We have created the beginning' Now it is uP to other
elephant-workers to contribute and make it more useful
to all. An online version of this glossary fi'Savanna
(compilers)
Acknowledgements
Special thanks to Billie Armsttong, for assistance with the
references and in manY other waYs.
The senior autlror wishes to exPress his appreciatioo to the
MacArthur Foundation (Chicago, USA) fot a fellowship
which supported the compiling of this glossary and other
tesearch on .lepttants' We thank the following persons for
theit helpful corirments on eadier drafts of this glossary:
Billie D. Atmstrong, Fiona Capstick, Robert
H' I'
Dale'
Marion Garai, Petter Granli, Melissa Groo, Cynthia Moss'
Debbie Olson,Joyce Poole, Bruce A. Schulte, Hezy Shoshani'
Sylvia L Taylor.
Achin
1
(Burmese): [also: a-chin ] (Gale 1974:757; Daniel
998:140) Afterbirth; placenta.
Nidena
(Sinha-lese): @eraniyagala 1955:48; Jayewardene
1994:20,121; Cannon & Davis 1995:38) Female with
no tushes.
Activity-pattern: [= time-energy budget] (Veir & Davison
7965:355,359;
McKay 1973:53,61;
289,292) Amount
Gry
1976:288-
of
time spent each day in various
activities (e.g. foraging, walking, resting, drinking etc.).
Elephants spend a majodty of their time in fonglng.
Adolescent: [see also: age gtoups] (Ford & Beach 1951:
268) Sub-adult; age-group between pubetty and firll
reproductive matutity.
Adult:
[see also: age
gtoups] Mature individual.
Age-gtoups: [also: cohortsl
Q-ee 1987:279; Moss 2001:150151) Rather imprecise grouping by age-class, roughly as
follows, with some overlap:
Alrya (Sinhalese):
elephant. Also
Calf: [+0-4
t "t.1 Still dependent on milk.
generic term for all immatures.
term for elephant.
[see also: auntie] (X.iedman "1982:405; Lee
1987; Buss 1990:15,110; Moss & Colbeck 1992:86)
Maternal behavior by a female not the calf's mother;
may include comfort suckling. Juvenile or adolescent
female elephants that comfort, assist, and protect calvgs
in the farnily unit, but are not the calves' mother (but
may be their older sibling). Allomother and auntie
are similar; in general the former is a more prolonged
with the young.
a
Allometric: (Hanks 7972a:252; Calder 1984:2; Lindeque
& van Jaarsveld 1993; Lee & Moss 1995) Relative
changes in proportions, of morphological body-parts or
can
physiologrcal measurements. Changes can occur during
the evolution of the species or in the growth [ontogeny]
of the individual.
A]so
survive for some periods urithout milk.
t ..r,
a generic
belly.
Young iuvenile: [+2-5 yearc] Still nursing, but
Oldet juvenile: [+5-19
pussa, mul<Itna] (Deraniyagala
Allomother:
assistance
Infant: [+0-1 year] 62s 5tillpass under mothert
[see also:
1955:48; Jayewardene'1994:20,12L; Spinage 1994.34;
Cannon & Davis 1995:38; Katugaha 1,997:67) Tuskless
male; a male--without tusks--but with tushes; a rush
Weaned, but sti]l near
mother; females start to look aftet younger siblings;
males form play-groups.
Immatute: [+0-tO years] Not yet sexually matwe.
And-fold/anal-flap:
(Sikes
1 97 1 :frontispiecefphoto])
Triangular flap of skin at base of tail, 'which when
lowered covers the anus.
Ani fiamil): [also: anay ]
(Lahiri-Choudhury 1999:455)
Elephant.
Adolescent: [+10-15 yeats] Sexually mature, but have
not yet reproduced.
Anguli (Sanskdt) : (Edgerton 1931:114) "Finger"
of trunk.
at the end
Sub-adult: [115-20 years] Females reproductively
active; males reproductively "interested" but not usually
successfirl. Not yet firll-grown.
Adult: [+20-55 years] Fully mature. (f{B:
crook, gajbag, goad, guide, haunkus, hawkus, hendoo,
hendu, henduwa, thony, bull-hook, hook, driving-spike]
males
continue to gfow throughout life.)
Old adulr [+55+ years] ReptoCuction slowing slightly;
losing molars; nearing death.
Aggregation: [see also: social organization] @Ioss &
Poole 1983:316,377,318; Poole & Moss 1989:112,114;
Poole 1994:335) Gathering, which can be as large as
200-500; may include dozens of family units and a
number of matue males; larger aggregations form
mainly during the rainy-season in ateas where food is
plentifirl and usually associated with peak mating activity
[see also: breeding, seasonal]. Also sometimes seen
tn populations that have been heavily decimated
(fennent
1
867
:1,
55,7
5
6;
Carrington
1
9 58:17 4
; Chadvdck
7992:18, 297 -298; Jayewardene 1994:51 -52,721 ; Cannon
& Davis 1995:110,773 fthotol,172; Lak 7997:272;
Lahiri-Choudhwy 1999:455) Short stick with a sharp,
curved, finger-length metal hook at rhe tip, used to
control and direct captive elephants. A hooked goad for
driving elephants. Euphemistically, sometimes, called
"g"tde".
Artificial-insemination: [also: A.I.] (Schmitt, et zl. 1998;
Olson 1999) Impregnation
of a female with
semen
by artifical means. Only recently has this procedure
been successful with captive elephants, using modern
techriques and fresh [rather than frozenf semen.
by
poaching or other disturbance.
Agonistic behaviot: (Immelmann & Beer 7989:10;
Estes 1991:263,559) Collective term for aggressive
[dominant/offeosive] and defensive [subordinate/
submissive/fearful] behavior.
Ankus ; [also: angusam, ankusa, ankush, angkus, choon,
Asana
(Sanskrit): @dgerton 1931:"175) Withers; place
where mahout sits.
Askari (I(Swahili): (Buss 1 990:42,43; Smith 1992:1 40-1 41)
!flord meaning "soldier" or "guatd"; the attendant
younger bull(s), often in the company
of
an old, very
Gajah23:
(lulr
2004)
Ankus (drawn by Maniula Wijesundara)
(-'ajah23: (July 2004)
large
bull. In Hindustani the tetm is chela (Iftishnan
1972:
315; Daniel 1998:88).
Atha
(Sinhalese) : (Denniyagala 19 55:48; Jayevardene 1 994:
20,127; Spinage 7994:34; Cannon & Davis 1995:38;
Boto
Katugaha 1997:67) Male vdth tusks; a tusker.
Ath-gala
(Xlatz [Kenya]): @arker&Amin 1983:47) Malewitlr
tusks of about 35 lbs. each.
(Sinhalese): [see also: Hteddah,IcaalJ (Cannon
&
Davis 1 995:172) Method of captudng large numbers of
elephants by the use
of
Bootmeergah (Hindustani): (Shand 1996:63) A type of
elephant that is a blend of the koomeiah and the
meetgah.
a stockade.
Brachyodont: [also: brachydont; see also: hlpsodont,
molar] (Shoshani 1998:481) Refering to molars with
low-ctowns; found in some eatly proboscideans.
Athinne
(Sinhalese): [also: atini] (Detaniyagala 1955:48;
Cannon & Davis 1995:38; Jayewardene 1994:20,727)
Female vrith tushes.
Auntie: [see also: allomother] (Villiams 1950:60-61)
Female--often an older daughter--that stays with a
mother and helps out with the newbotn baby. Auntie
and allomother are similar; in general the Iatter is a
more prolonged assistance with the young.
Breeding hetd: [also: cow-calf group; see also: social
otganization] Gtoup of mature females and their
offspring. Especially in southern Africa, the term is
often used as synonyinous with family unit.
Breeding, seasonal: (I-aws 1969:199-200,203,275; Hanks
797 2b:13,17,78,22-23;
Williamson
797 6:89,90,91
; Crug
1984; Hall-Martin 7987:616-617,678; Poole
7987:
of yezr when the maiority of
conceptions take place. In areas with a pronounced
285,305,309,313) Time
B
abesiosis : (VIcKenzie 199 3 :67 8) Tick-borne disease caused
by a blood parasite, Babeda sp.
Bai (probably a creolization of the French baie, meaning
bay): [see also: salt-lick] (Quammen 2003:54) In central
Afi,cz, a wet clearing in the rainforest, where elephants
and other animals come to drink and eat minerals.
"Barnboo": (Sanderson 7962:216) Hollow,
basal part
of
a
tusk; also called the nerve-cavity pulp-cavity.
wet/dry cycle, bteeding peaks dudng and following the
rainy season when elephants are in good condition; in
areas urith a less pronounced wet/dty cycle, breeding
may occur throughout the year. "Breeding peaks are
probably a product of an increase in watet availabiJity
and the consequent dispetsions....away from ardLftcial
waterholes [@ Hutarge NP, Zimbabwe], resulting in
favourable breeding conditions under reduced stress,
and to the seasonal *ulzbitttJ of high qualiry food"
(Williamson 97 6:9 7\.
1,
Bazaa4 elephantl [see also: melaf (Shand 7992:5,27,758193; HalI 2000:35) A fair; in this case an elephant fair,
where elephants are bought and sold. The largest in the
wodd is an annual affair fNovember], held at Sonepur
at the confluence of the Ganges and Gandak Rivers in
Bihar, India.
Bite-size: (NfcKay 1973:56,95; Guy 1975:2; Ruggierc 1992:
145) Average amount of food taken in rvith each
trunkful; estimated between 27-200 g, depending on
observer and type
of food
Briskec (lVfcKenzie 1993:678) Lower chest region.
Btowse:
[see also: graze] (Owen-Smith 1982:360,372,373;
Shoshani 1992:54) To eat leaves, buds, turigs, shoots of
trees and shrubs (i.e. woody vegetation).
Buccal deptession: (Albl 1971:135,138,140) Deptession
in the cheek region of the sides of the head, below the
zygornttic-arch; depth is a good indication of age and-to
eaten.
Bolus: @enedict'1.936:178-179,181-184; Gry 1976:290;
Estes 1.997:262) Single ball of feces. An avetage of
3-5 boli are dropped at each defecation, approximately
17 times per day, for an approximate total of 155 kg of
feces/24 Lrr.
a lesser
Budr
Qanguage ? flanzanta]): @ushby 1953:137; Capstick
1992:34) InTanzania, a tuskless elephant.
BulL ford & Beach 1951:270) Adult
Bull area:
Boma (KiSwahjli): (IvlcKenzie 7993:678) Any kind of
raised structure for defensive or protective purposes;
a stockade.
In East and southern Africa, the term
also
extent--of physical-condition.
male.
retirement atea] @{oss & Poole 1983:
Hall-Matin 1987:61,6,618; Buss 1990:43; Moss
Colbeck 1992:109) Region inhabited mainly by
[see also:
318,323;
&
mature males, during periods
of
sexual inactiviry.
refets to an enclosure for the temDotarv containment
of
animals.
Bond group: [also: kinship group; see also:
organizationl
(I\4oss
& Poole
social
Poole
1994:332,334) Two or more related family uni'.s, who
show a strong association over time; after a separation
they greet each other with greeting rumbles or an
Intense Greeting Ceremony.
1983:31 5,37t),321;
Bull group: [= bul herd, bachelor hetd; see also: social
organization] @IcKay 1973:81-84; Moss & Poole
19 83 :3 1 6,3 1 8,322,323,325 ; Hall-Marin 1 9 8 7 6 1 9 ; Bus s
1990:28,36; Estes 1991:261) Gathering of mature,
and sometimes a few adolescent [as young as 74-16
years] males; these males do not usually form any
:
Iong-term bonds wrth each othet, although some may
[@ Amboseli, Kenya, bull groups averaged 3.8, with a
Ga,jah23: flu)y 2004)
it;,
A tusker (drawn
by Manjula Wijesundara)
tl il,
of 2-25 (I\4oss & Poole 1983:316)]. Interactions
between members of a bull group are usually telaxed
and amiable; whether a bull associates with other bulls
or with females depends on its age and sexual state [see
also: sexually active/inactive, musfh]; dudng the
heightened sexual-stage of musth, males are qpically
found with females or alone @oole & Moss 1989:116).
:range
a molar or tusk; softer than dentine and more like bone
in structue. Its main function is to anchor the tooth to
the jaw-bone.
Changpeuak (Ihai): @aniel 1998:36) A rare and revered
"white elephant".
Chang samkhan (fhai): (I(oma4
Bulling problem: (Alexander 2000:10) The problem of
musth, in the keeping of captive male elephants.
Bunolophodont:
& Long
7986:249; Tassy 1996:
21) Low-crowned tooth urith domed cusps which are
transversely linked by a loph or ridge. Referdng to the
structure of the grinding-surface of elephant molars.
(Savage
Burying behavior: (I(tihme
1962:68-69; Kiihme 1963:117)
By throwing objects (e.g. dirt, leaves, branches, etc.) on
top of it, an elephant attempts to bury an object, such as
a prostrate animal (elephant or other species).
et
a|.2000:31) A "white
elephant".
Chat-iarma (Hindustani ?): [also: charyama ] @aker 1890:
48; Sanderson 1907:89; Carrington 1958:175; LahiriChoudhury 1999:455) Seat on an elephant's back in
which ridets sit back to back, facing sideways. For
ordinary travel it is preferred to the howdah. Light
riding harness, which can accommodate four or more
persons, sitting back-to-back facing the flanks; it has
protective rails at both ends.
Charkaatiya (Hindustani): (Shand 1992:6,24) Man who
cuts fodder for a captive elephant.
Calf:
[see also: age groups] Q*e 1987:279)
elephant, generally less than 4 years old.
A
young
CheLa (Hindustani): @aniel 1998:88) Asian term for
askari.
Calf-disttess: (-ee 1987:287) When a calf is in distress, it
glves a deep, low rumble or a loud bellow, cry, scream,
or roar, vrhich evokes dramatic responses by other
land that is cleared to raise a single crop, after which it is
abandoned and teverts to jungle again.
elephants.
Capture myopathy: (l,IcKenzie 1993:678) Disease induced
by excessive anaerobic muscular activity, usually
following exertion associated with capture; charactenzed
by lesions
Chena land (Sinhalese ?): (Iennent 1,867:64; LatttnChoudhury 1999:455) In Sri Lanka, a patch of forest
of
skeletal and cardiac muscle.
Carcass-decompostion, stages of: @ouglas-Hamilton &
D ouglas -Hamil
ton
199 2:7 09 -1 1 0;
Poole 199 6:1 9 4)
Fresh: bloated, blood, vulture-droppings.
Recent: less than one year; shrunken skin over bones,
surrounded by bare patch of earth, the "rot patch".
Chryselephantine: (Sandercon L962: 220 Parker & Amin
1983:98-99,99 [photo] ; Alexander 2000:7 0,7 1) Art form
in which ivoty is mixed',rith solid gold, cedar, and other
woods, gems, and other materials. Greek statues which
were faced with ivory plates and decorated with gold
and gold leaf.
CITES: (Greaves 1996:141) Acronym for "Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species", a tte ty
signed in 1975 by many countries to regulate the trade
in ivory skins, and other animal products taken from
the wild.
Old: pile of white bones.
[see aiso: socid organization] (I\4oss & Poole 1983:
315,317,322,323; Hal-Martin 1987:616; Moss 1988:
76,126,132; Estes 1991:261; Poole 1994:334) Family
units that use the same dry-season home-ranCe [@
Clan:
Very old: pile of gray, cracked bones.
& Douglas-Hamilton 1982:474;
& Michelmore 19\t6:325) The
Carcass-ratio: (Barnes
numbers of dead elephants, expressed as a percentage
of all elephants seen, both dead and alive; usually from
Amboseli, Kenya, 4 clans contained 9,8,5,5 family
units, tespectively (Ir4oss & Poole 1983:317)]. Playback
experiments show that elephants distinguish berween
aerial surveys.
clan and non-clan members (NdcComb,
Douglas-Hamilton
& Davis 1995:36,37,1,09,772) Separating
elephants into categories, according to their attributes
of usefulness in domestication.
Caste: (Cannon
Colot-vision: (Owen-Smith'19
Ability to
et
a/.2000).
; Sukumar 20031. 40)
to simply variations of
82:387
see colors, as opposed
intensity-of-grey (i.e. black & white). Elephants may see
shades-of-grey in bright light, but have limited colorvision in dim light.
in
Cathemeral: [see also: diurnal,/nocturnal/ctepusculat]
Alimals, such
as elephants, that are or can be active in
portions of the day and the night.
Cementum: @,spinoza & Mann 7992:29; Spinage 7994:219)
Moderately calcified tissue sutrounding the dentine of
Colostrum: (I\4cKenzie 1993:678) First milk secreted by
mother after
birt\
contains high levels
of
antibodies.
Ciajah23:
(ulv
2(){).1)
A herd of Asian elephants atHandzpanzgala, Sri Lanka
(photo: courtesy Dt. H. I. E. Katugaha)
Cajah23: flu\'2004)
Comfort suckling: [also: allosuckling
see also: nutsing]
7987:288-290)
Permitting
a
calf,
not her own, to
Q,ee
attempt to suckle. Usually observed in adolescent
females who cannot provide milk; but adult females may
also suckle calves not their own. In many cases these are
the calf's gtandmother, and the calf probably receives
nourishment. May also be provided by the mother, to a
calf that has experienced stress.
Culling:
at once.
Dadnabas
Compression hypothesis: (Sukumar 1992:99) Oveta
bundance of elephants, owing to compression
range by human setdement.
[see also: poaching] (Hanks 1979:17,15,39-
67,155,157,164; Spinage 1990:1,5; Gavron 1993:131132,134-135,192-193; Hall-Martin 2000) The legal
killing of excess animals in a population; used as a gamemanagement tool by vildlife officials. With elephants,
the usual aim is for entire family units to be removed
(.Wata [Kenya]): @arker
& Amin 1,983:47) Large
females.
of their
Consort behavior: [= consorting, consortship] (I\4oss 1983:
176-177; Estes 1991:560; Moss & Colbeck 1992:177)
of z lrrzle, usually in musth, with a female
in estrus. May persist for several days, during which
Association
multiple copulations may take place.
Contagious behaviot: [= movement, coordination ofl
(Ifthme 7963:175; McKay '1,973:4,75,77; Moss 1983:
170) Behaviot in which the actions of one individual
Dambo
(language ?): [see also: vlei ] @ratt, et al. 1966:380;
Snelson 1997) InZanrbia, a fat, grassy &ainage channel
that foods in the rainy season and supports no trees.
Dana (Sanskrit): [also: temporal gland secretion,
T.G.S.]
1937:'118)
Fluid
that
flows
from
the
temporal
@,dgerton
glands in musth.
Danas
(anguage ?): (Shand 1996:50) Food
elephants, made ftom wheat and salt rolled
stalk.
for
captive
in abanzna
result in similar actions by companions.
Coppice: (Greaves 1996:141) Secondary regrowth of
Decoy elephant: (Cannon & Davis 1995:172)
elephant used to lue wild elephants for capture.
Tame
damaged woody vegetation.
Dentine/dentin:
Coprolite:
(Savage
& Long 1986:249) Fosslized dung.
Coptophagy: (I(ihme 1961:290) Eating of
feces.
Corpus luteum [meaning "yellow body''; abbreviated C.Ll:
(?lotka et al. 1988:310,373-374; Buss 1990:111-120)
Yellow mass in the ovary formed when an ovum is
discharged [ovulation]. If conception occurs, the C.L.
secfetes Progesterone during gestation.
[see also: ivoty] (Spinage 1994:218; Nelson
1997:24) Hatd, mineralized connective tissue that forms
the main substance of a molar or tusk. Formed of
collagen, calcium, phosphate, and carbonate.
Diestrus: [also: dioestrus; see also: estrus, pre-estrus,
metestus] (Arey, et a/. 1957:384;Jainudeen, et al. 1977:
323) Period of sexual quiescence occuring between
metestrus and pre-estrus in female mammals.
Diploe:
Cow: (Fotd & Beach 7957:272) Adult female.
Pneumatized bone containing air cells making the
bone light-weight, yet strong; honey-combed bone. In
elephants, the skull especially is of this form.
Cow-calf group: [also: bteeding herdl see a]so: social
organization] (I\4oss 19831168; Poole & Moss 1989:
113,114; Buss 1990:28; Moss & Colbeck 7992.40;
Poole 1994:337,332) Gatherhg of one or more mature
females and their offspdng. There is some confusion
h the use of the terms tfamily
unittt and "cow-calf
group", because families may not always be stable. Here
z"cow-calf gtoup" is any gathering of cows and calves,
without regard to their relatedness. It may consist of
anything from two to hundreds of individuals.
Displacement activity: (finbergen 1952; Estes 1991:561)
of behavior, usually found in conflict situations, in
which activities are performed that seem out-of-context
(e.g. comfort-movements during a hostile encounter).
Type
Often the origin
of
titualized displays
[q.v.].
behavior patterns shown in
Display, ritualized: (finLegen 1952; McFadand 1987:
483-485; Estes 1991:561; Katrl & Armstrong 2000)
under an elephantt tail to help secure the howdalry
often made of metal; smoothness, not softness, is
Behavior-pattetn that has been derived, modified, and
stereotyped t}rough evolution, and which commurucates
information to other animals about the sender's mood
and/or intention. Approximately 100 such displays have
lmPortznt.
been described in dephants.
Crgpp.., @aket
1890:50; Shand 1992:25) Unit that passes
Ctush: [also:
elephant-restaint-device, E.R.D., E.R.
chute, E.R.C.; see also: silinguva) (Williams 1950:
70,87xphoto]; Sanderson 7962: 191,197[dtawing];
McKenzie 1993:679) Enclosue used for the mechanical
restraint of elephants; a safety measure when petforming
Diurnal/nocturnal/crepuscular: @4cKenzie
'1993:
679,681) [see also: cathemeral] Most active during
the daytime/nighttime/around sunser and sunrise,
respectively.
procedures that may be dangerous.
G\2,h23: fluly 2004)
A
female Asian elephant and her
catf:if tcalf
can walk undet the belly
of its mother, it
(drawn by Maniula Wiicsundara)
Ga;ia}23:
(uly
2004)
is less than one yeat
old'
Dominant frequency [abbreviated D.F.]: [see a]so:
fundamental frequency, peak frequency] (B.tg
1983:65) Frequenry
vocalization.
Dudurucha
of highest intensity in
(Wata [Kenya]): (Patker
an elephant
& Amin 1983:44)
Young male of less than 8 years old.
Dwarf elephant: (Czloi, et al. 1996; Roth 1996) Smaller
forms of Proboscidea, usually found on islands in
prehistoric times [= insular dwarfism]; now extinct. To
be distingurshed from pygmy elephant [q.v.].
Dwasala (language ?): [also: samkitna, mistal @dgerton
7931:1.2,16; Sanderson 1.907: 83,84) Second-rate
elephant, classed betwe en z koomeriah znd z rneetgah.
a half-breed mixtute of those other two. Most
ordinary elephants are of this type.
Probably
Eburnian: Made of or pertarring to ivoty.
Ek-danteya
(Sinhalese): (Cannon
& Davis
1995:38;
Katugaha 1997:67) A single-tusked male.
Enamel: (Spinage 7994:219; Nelson 1997:24) Hard, glossy
covering of tip-of-tusk when it first emetges;euickly
worn
Family unic [also: family, matriarchal family, matriarchal
unit; see also: social otganization] Related adult
females and their immature offspring. They fotm very
close long-term associations and, after a period of
separation, gfeet each other with greeting rumbles or an
Intense Greeting Cere mony. In l-.oxodon ta africaxa, usually
9-20 individuals [e.g. at Amboseli, Kenya, family units
avetaged 9.4, with t^nge of 2-29 (I\4oss & Poole 1983:
^
315-316)1. African forest elephanrs (txodonta ey/0rt1,
howevet, are usually found in smaller family units [e.g.
2.7
in Cental African
Republic (Iurkalo &
^ver^gjlrg
Fay 1995:48)]. There is some confusion in the use of
the terms "fzmily unit" and.'cow-calf groupt'. Here a
*fanily unit" consists of related females
and their young
that stay closely associated over dme.
Femde-choice: [also: mate-selection] (I\{oss
1983:
183,186,192,193; Poole 1987:311) Active selection, by
females, of specific males [usually those in musth ] as
sexual pattners.
Fighting: (Poole 1989a:143,145,147,150,151; Estes
1991
opposed to play-fighting (e.g. the Sparring ofren seen
between young bulls).
away,
Fil (Atabic):
rJ7ord
for elephant.
Enrichment, environmental: [= endchment, behavioral]
(Abramson
&
Catden
1998)
Provision
of
social
interaction (i.e. other elephants) and interesting things
for captives to dq play with.
Estrus: [noun= estrus; adi.= estrous; also:
oesffus/
oestrous] [see also: diestrus, pre-estrus, metestrus,
reproductive cycling] (Hess e/ al. 7983; Moss 1983:
179,180-181; Buss 1990:111-114; Poole 1994:336;
Brown 2000:348) Period of "heat" .in
females;
associated with ovulation and the time that conception
is most likely to occur. Only duing this period do
females permit copulation by males; they usually show
preference for older males, especially those in musffi.
Estrus cycles are approximately 72-17 weeks (85-120
days) in sexually mattrie, non-pregnant females, and the
estrous period usually lasts 2-6 days. In captiviry estrus
can be detected by a progesterone surge in the blood
around the time of ovulation.
a
Flatlining: [also: fatliner; see also: reproductive cycling]
(Schulte 1998:220; Brown 2000:356-358) Lack of
estrous cycling, especially in older captive females.
Flehmen: [see also: testing, vometonasal organ]
(l,asmussen, a/ al 1982; Schulte & Rasmussen 1999b:
1269) In elephants, it refers to the placing of the
ttunk-tip in the mouth aftet olfactory testing of
another elephant or its by-products. Presumably done
in order to determine the
displays that communicate signals from one individual
to another.
Ethology: @ilson 7975:584; Immelmann & Beer 1989:
92-93) Study of behavior under natural conditions,
.including the causaticn, external stimulation, internal
physiological mechanisms, ontogeny, and evolution of
behavior.
sexual status (i.e. esftous
ot
non-estrous) of the female. Mosdy done by mdes to
females, but may also be performed by femaies ro males
or other females.
Ftee-contact: [see also: protected-contact] @oyle
1993)
Working with captive elephants, in'which there is no
barder between the human and the elephant.
Ftugivory:
Ethogtam: (Immelmann & Beer 7989:91-92; Abramson
& Carden 1998:206) Descriptive inventory of the
elements which make up the entire behavior of z
species, especially the genetically-inf uenced ritudized
:
263;Poole 1994:337) Generally refers to serious combat
(e.9. the escalated contests between mustb-bulls), as
(Savage
& Long 7986:249; Estes
1991
:561) Fruit
eaung.
Fundamental frequency [abbreviated F.F.]:
[see also:
peak
ftequency, dorninant frequency] @.rg 1983:65)
Lowest frequency of sound in an elephant vocalization.
Gaiah (Sanskrit/Indonesian): [also: gaja, gadja, gadjah, hathi
] (fennent 1867:viii) Elephant, generally with no tusks,
in Sri Lanka.
Gaja-mukta (Sanskrit/Hindustani): [also: gaja-moti
]
(Shand 7996:143; Lahiri-Choudhury 1999:455; Hall
2000:1 62) See lvory-peads.
Ga,ia,623: (Julr 2(X)4)
(iajah23: flulv 2004)
Gaja-saste (Sanskit/Hindustani): [also: gziz-sasfta,
gaja-shastra ] (Cannon & Davis 1995:172; Shand 1996:
24;Lut 1997:269,277) Ancient text on the science of
elephants; wrinen about 600-500 B.C.; Iiterally .,elephant
knowledge", "elephantology'' [n Thailand the term
is kochasaat ; in Sri Lanka it is hasti-silpe ; in Burma it
is sin-kyan].
Ganai: (Eltringham 7982:206) Hard ivory, especially that
coming ftom forest elephants (I_.oxodonta rychtis).
Ganesh ftlindustani): [also: Gunesh , Ganesa ] (Sandetson
7907: 67; Sanderson 1962: 77; Ktishnan 1972:300:
1992:54) To eat grass, forbs, etc. (i.e.
Gtooming: (Laursen & Bekoff 1978:6; Estes 1991:262)
Collective term for comfort-movements that deal with
bodily-care; includes: wallowing, mudding, dusting,
bathing rubbing, scratching, etc.
Group:
[also: herd] General term for number of elephants
showing coordinated movement and behavior. The
term "group" is preferted (e.g. bull group, cow-ialf
group, mixed group, etc.)
Lahiri-Choudhury 1999:456) Elephant born urith
only one tusk-frightfully holy in India, especially if it
happehs to be the right tusk. Name given to an Asian
Gud.a-matge ftIindustani): [also meet2ut
(Gale 197 4:1 57,1 58) Anal-fold lq.v.l.
bull that has only one tusk visible. Loosely, an elephant
as in the icon of the Hindu deity
Ganesha.
Gudda (I{industani):
with a single tusk,
Ganesha (Flindustani): (Cannon & Davis 1995:30-34,172)
The elephant-headed Hindu god.
Gestation petiod: [see also: pregnancy] (Moss
herbaceous
vegetation).
(Burmese)]
[also: guddie ] (Shand 7992:24; Shznd
7996:72; Lahiri-Choudhuty 7999:456) Saddle or pad
that goes under the howdah .
Guide: A euphemism for ankus [q.v.]. Short stick with
1983:
180; Buss 1990:37; Estes 1991:265) Pedod between
conception and birth of a calf; usually glven as 22
months. At Amboseli, Kenya, the mean gestation
period was 656+4 days. Twinning occurs in less than
17o of births; Laurs (1969:205) found nvins in 3 out of
222 pregnancies, whereas Moss (2001:150) found only
one instance :-r:'1192 births .
Goondah (Hindustani): [also: goonda
; see also: saun]
(Iennent 1867:48; Carrington 1958:170; Sukumar 1994:
139,169; Lahiri-Choudhury 7999:456) A wild single
male elephant; a mischievious elephant. Hindustani
for "thug', bad character, towdy. In Assam, this term
refers to a rogue. Thete is some confusion over the
meaning of this term, It refers to adult male elephants.
Not generally used in S. India. In NE India, it refers to
zlarge rnul<hna [= tuskless maie]. May be used, loosely,
to include any large--and probably dangerous--male
elephant. A loner.
G.P. Syndrome: [= green penis; see also: mustft] (poole &
Moss 1981; Hall-Martin & van der Walt 1984:148; poole
1987:288) A pale greenish or gtey/white discolotation
on distal portion of penile-sheath, shown by musdr
males. Perhaps caused by a fungal growth.
Graveyard, elephanu [also: elephant cemetery] ftIall 2000:
256) Fictional place where elephants are said to go to
die. Perhaps based on the fact that they ftequently die
near water, thereby causing carcasses to be clustered in
for driving elephants.
Habituation: (Immelmann & Beer 1989:726-727) \faning
of original behavioral response to something that shows
no significance. In general terms, learning to ignore
something that does not matter.
Hadflm
(Arabic): (Baker 1890:29) The working tusk-usudly the right-is used more than the other to dig, etc.,
and is, therefore, more worn down.
IIan
(Butmese): [see also: aliya, hine, hinge, mukhna,
pussa, tajl (Williams 7950:44; Gale 7974:757; LatrttiChoudhury 7999:456) Bull with short, stour rusks.
Tuskless bull with only small tushes. such as females
carry.
II at*o fl apanese)
: (.r07illiams 1 9 89 : 1 5 8- 1 59 ; Chadwick I 9 92:
217; Holt-Biddhe 1994:75,78) Personal signature seals,
commonly called "chops", used in Japan to sign official
documents. Using a hanko made from r,voryconfers an
elevated status on the user.
Hastyayurvedah, The: (Edgerton 1931:viii,:cvii) Ancient
Sanskrit work on elephants, dealing primarily with
medical treatment.
.Elathi ftIindustani,/Sanskrit): [also: haathi, hat'hi,
hasti,
& Meyler
1968:
hasthi, hasthin, gai, gaiah, pil
I
(Sillar
112; Daniel 1998:796; Lahid-Choudhurv
1999:456)
Uford for elephant.
certain areas.
lirnb:
(Savage & Long 1986:249) A thick,
columnar leg; adapted for bearing grcat weight.
Graviportal
a
shatp, curved, fingerJength metal hook at the tip, used
to control and direct captive elephants. A hooked goad
Gtaze: [see also: browse] (Guy 197 6:288,289 ,Zg7 ,293: Hanks
1979:167; Owen-Smith 1982:360,372,373; Shoshani
Hathi jokat (Hindustani): (HilL 2000:229) The ..elephantshivers", a term used by mahouts to describe how it
feels to come face to face with a wild rogue.
Hathisar
Q.{epalese): (.Wemmer 2000:59)
stable with facilities
fot mahout
In Nepal, elephant
families.
Gaiah23: flulv 2004)
I
Ganesh (photo: Charles Santiapillai)
Ga,1ah23
fluly 2001)
flelper: (NI. Garai, pers. comm.)
Females that help the
of human-hearin g !_20-30 Hzl; n a 10 hr sample
rumble-vocalizations at Amboseli, Kenya, onl1,
27%o of the recorded calls were audible to the human
observers @oole & Moss 1989:117). Some of these
range
maftiarch defend the group.
of
Fletd:
[also: group] @,stes 1991:562) General term for
number of elephants showing coordinated movement
and behavior. The term ..group" is preferred (e.g. bull
group, cow-calf group, mixed group,
etc.)
Hindgut fermentet: (Estes 1991:562) Nonruminant
herbivore, such as elephant, in which bteakdown of
cellulose occws in the cecum and large intestine.
Ilrne
low ftequency calls are extremely powerful. Elephants
are able to identift calling individuals up to 1.5 km away
(Ir4cComb, et al. 2000), but infrasonic calls can ptobabll,
be heard up to 5-10 Lm away.
Inter-calf intetval [see also: lactational anesttus,
recruitment, natality] Q-aws 1969:203-205,214_215;
Hanks
@urmese): [also: haing, hinge
;
see also: mul<hna,
han, tail (Williams 1950:44; Gale .1974:757: La}ttri_
Choudhury 1999:456),Tuskless bull.
flome-range: [see also: migtation, population-density]
(Owen-Smith 1982,:388,392; poole & Moss 19g9:112;
Estes 1991:261; Shoshani 1992:54) Area utilizcd !y
an elephant or group of elephants; depending on the
productivity of the region, it may be as small as 14 km2
(e.g. at L. Manyzra,Tanzanta) or as large as 3500 km2 (in
arid country, such as the desert of NV7 Namibia).
[also: hora or ronkedoors (Dutch)]
(I-ahiti-Choudhury 1999:456) Term used in Sri Lanka
for rogue elepharits. It is not always cleat whetler
signifies all unattached males, or just aggressive,
it
dangerous males.
Howdah (Jrdu): [see also: chat-jatma] (Chadwick 1992:
383; Shand 1992:25; Sukumar 1,994:169; Cannon &
Davis 1995:172; Labti-Choudhury 1999:456) Ridirg
chairs, fot two or more, often with a canopy, used on
domesticated elephants, primarily in Asia; used mostly
for hunting. A box-like stucture tied on an elephant's
back to carry people.
fluman-Elephant Conflicc [- H.E.C.] [see also: problem
Elephant Control] Situations where elephants and
humans come into conflict, e.g. crop-raiding, attacking
[vestock or humans.
Hyperthermia/hypothermia: (IlcKenzie 1993:
680) Higher/lower, respectively, than normal body
temPerature.
8,24; lTilliamson
1
97 6:
89,90; Moss
female; usually ranges from 3-9 yrs (extremes:2.7513 yrs; Laws '1.969.203), depending on environmental
conditions.
Inter-musth: [see also: musth, stages ofl near-musthl
peri-musth] @oole 1987:304) periods between bouts
of musth, shown primarily by younger [25-35 yrs.|
males, which seem to go in and out of musth more
than older males.
Ivory:
gols allia (Sinhalese):
197 2b:1 3,7
2001:151-152,154) Interval berween births by a given
[see also: tusks] (Espinoza
1992:47[yhoto],59) Material
& Mann
1992; Shoshani
of
which elephant-rusks
are composed; made up mosdy of dentine. It is used in
the manufacture
of z gteatvaiety of
artifacts.
Ivoty, grades of: (Eltringham 1982:205) Grades of
commercial ivory, according to its weight and shape.
Selling price roughly follows this sequence.
Vilaiti: Tusks weighing over 18 kg, usualJy otigrnaring
from adult males.
Cutchi: (?arker & Amin 1983:149) Tusks weighing
from 9-18 kg, mosdy from males. Special grade of rusks
used to make bangles.
Calasia: Tusks, from females, weighing more than 4.5
kg and between 5-7.5 cm in diameter.
Fankda: Tusks, from males, weigh.ing from 4.5-9 kg.
Maksub: Tusks, from either
sex, werghing fuom 2.3-4.5
kg.
Hypsodont:
[see also: molat, brachyodont] (Owen-Smith
1982:384; Estes 1991:562; Sukumar 1992:81; Shoshani
Dandia: Tusks, from either sex, weighing less than
2.3
kg.
1998:481) Referring to molars with high-crowns and
relatively
fl at
grinding-surfaces. Tall teeth.
Imrnobilization: (I\4cKenzie 1993:680) Term used for the
chemical restraint
of
an animal. Tranquilizing.
Incisor: (Hanks 7979:168) Premaxillary tooth of a mammal.
Elephants have one, the second upper incisor: the tusk
or tush.
Infrasound:
Chinai: Defective tusks of
any weight.
lvory pearls: [see also: gaja-mukta, gaja-moti ] (I_ahiri_
Choudhury '1999:455; HalI 2000:162) Small, round
inclusions that appear to be composed of rhe same
material
of
the
as
the tusk, which are sometimes found in the tio
HighJy valued in Asia. Necklaces
pt'lp of a tusk.
of "elephant pearls" are frequently mentioned in ancient
Sanskrit litetature.
(?ayne,
* a l.
1
9 86; P
oole
et a l.
1
988 :385,3 g6,39 1 ;
PooIe 1994:332,347,344) Sound frequencies below the
(irjeh2-3:
(f
Lrh 2t)t)-1)
A bull elephant (drawn by Manjula \iliiesundara)
(iaiah23: (Julv 20t14)
Jacobson's otgan: [also: vometonasal org,rn; see
also:
(X.asmussen a/ al 1982:160; Rasmussen a/ al
1984:360; Estes 1991:263,565-566) Area, located in the
testing]
roof of the mouth, that is sensitive to olfactory
Kinship group: [also: bond groupr kin group; see also:
social organization] (Nloss 1988:34,35; poole 1994:
331,332) Two ot more related family units, who show
a strong association over time; after a separation thev
greet each other with greeting rumbles or an Intense
cues,
especially those associated with urine.
Greeting Ceremony.
Juvenile: [see also: age-gtoups] Q-ee 1987:279)
Sub-
adolescent individual; often divided into young juvenile
p-5 yeats old] and old juvenile [5-10 years old].
Kalouk
Juvenile-care unit: [see also: nutsing unit] (N4cKay 1973:
72-75,79-80) A type of cow-calf group among Etepbat,
composed of females and post-weaning iuveniles but no
infants.
?): [also: khalauk
]
(Gale 1974:158)
Koomeriah (Hindustani): [also: koomerah, komeriah,
koomra, bhadra ] (Sanderson 1 907: 83,84,85x
[drawing],g
5,92; Sanders o n 7 9 62: 260 ; Lahrti-Choudhury 1 9 9 9 : 457)
Thoroughbted; a high caste of elephant that is calm,
btave, disciplined, deliberate, ingenious, and strong,
favored as a work elephant. In India, captive elephants
Juvenile-musth: [see also: moda] (Chan&asekhartn et al.
1992:71-72; Rasmussen et aL. 2002:975) Near-musth
condition sometimes shovm by young [1 1-20 years old]
in captiviry. They may show some sigrrs of mustb
but not attain fi:ll-musdr.
are often referred to, as to vzhich caste
males
Kalasha (anguage
Qanguage
Wooden or iron bell ied on the neck of an elephant to
track its whereabouts; mosdy used in Asia.
of
elephants the1,
belong. The most prized body-srrucrure in elephants.
Koonkie (Hindustani/Burmese):
?? [Kenya]): Q.itreumann
[also: koomkie, khoonki,
koonki, kunkie, kumchee, kumki ] (Sanderson 1907:707 1,126; Lut 1997 :47,80; Daniel 1 998: 1 1 0,208dphotol)
Burmese for "schoolmaster". A well-trained domestic
elephant; often a tuskless male between 45-50 years
of age, chosen for his dociliry and patience. Used for
catching and training working elephants. Sanderson
1898:46) Cow
rvory.
Kataka ((Swahili): (Smith 1992:146,148) KiSwahili tetm
for the worn patch on the hind edge of the heel of
an old elephant; a good indication of age/size....and,
therefore, possible tusk-size.
(1907: 126) says in Bengal they were all females; word
derived from Hindustani "kumuk ", meaning a.d. Can
Kan
(Sanskrit): (Shand 1996:55) Ancient wotd for elephant.
Disease of the feet of elephants.
Kataputna (Sanskrit) : [see
be either male or female, depending on the arca jn
which the wotd is used. [See long discussion in LahiriChoudhury'1999 :457
kherr mustlr] @,dgerton
'1931:116) "Full-in-the-temples"; bull in the first stage
-458.1
also:
of mustlr, with swollen tempotalglznds.
Ktaal (angaage
7995:17
Keystone species: (Shoshani 1993) A species that has major
ecological effects on its habitat and, therefore, on other
species living in the same area. Elephants are second
only to humans in the alteration of their habitat: e.g. by
destructive feeding they change bush to gtassland, by
digg.rg for water they provide drinking places for other
?): [also: kotahl, corral; see also: l<heddah,
ath-gala) flayewatdene 1994:9,1.21; Cannon
&
Davis
2;Lahiri-Choudhury 1999:458) Small enclosure.
In Sri Lanka, the method of capturing large numbers of
elephants by the use
of
a stockade.
Kumbha
(Sinhalese): [also: kumbastale ] @,dgerton 1()31:
77,777;Jayewatdene'1994:721) Two large domes on the
top of an Asian elephant's head.
animals. etc.
I{heddah
(Hindustani): [also: keddah, khedda, kheda,
kheddha, khedna, k'hedah, gad shikar ] (fennent
1.867:1.04; Sanderson 7907: 72; Sukumat 1992:38,217;
Spinage 199 4:280-282; Daniel 1 998:208a[photo],208b-
cphoto],210,212-225) Method of capturing elephants,
in India, whete entire herds are driven into a corral or
stockade using trained elephants as .,drivets,'. The highwalled stockade, made of togs or wooden poles, into
which elephants are driven. In Sti Lanka the term is
kraal; in Burma it is kyone ; in Sanskrit it is vari .
Khett musth ftIlndustani): [see also: katapurna, neatmusffi, pen-mustfi] (Edgerton 1937:37; McGaughey
1963:"105; Daniel 1998:14) First sr,ge of musth;
sometimes called "temple-filled,,, which refers to the
swollen temporal gland.s.
Kumla (Hindustani):
[see also:
mela-shikar) @anieJ 199g:
271) Man who remahs in camp and is responsible for
feeding the .koonkies.
Kyan
zit
@urmese): (Sanderson 1962:215) Odd tusk-form
"in which both tusks are regularly ringed, consrricted,
and ridged throughout their length and right up to their
roots, Iike a bamboo."
Lactating female: [see also: nursing] (_ee
19g7:2g0)
Female who is producing milk.
Lactational anestrus: [see also: inter-calf interval]
(Hanks '1972b:'18; Williamson '1976:90) period during
lactation in which a female does not come into estrus
and, therefore, does not conceive. Usually lasts 2_
resulting in 4-6 year intewal between births
(exfteme intervals can be much wider, depending on
4 yrs,
Ga,jah23:
(f
ulr'
2t)t):1)
1;
Asian elephant size classes: it is difficult to assess the age of an elephant in the field but after some experience
ooe can get a rough idea of the immature ones by comparing their size against that of a full grown adult.
(picture drawn by Manjula Wijesundara)
C:riah23: flulv 2004)
1u
environmentd conditions).
Laibat; (Gale 1974:158)
Breast-band which is part
of
the
kept.
dragging gear.
1973:73; Eltringham 1982:12) Term for
the fetal-hair remaining on a newbotn; the fine hair on
Lanugo: (tr4cKay
Laterzl recumbency: [see also: stetnal recumbency]
(1\4cKenzie 1993:681) Lying on the s.ide.
Lohitiya (Hindustani):
[see also:
mela-shika] (Daniel
1998:
211) Man who hangs on behind and prods the koonkie
near the root of the tail when speed is required.
Lop-e ar: [also
: fl
M arfi
: [als o : karivenn
see also:
a
Qtlalzy alam), kankush ta (Hin du s tani) ;
1991:
otdute] Qfenon, et a|.7997:40); Capstick
182) Elephantdung.
of the fetus.
the body
Manswe @urmese): [see also: swe'Pyat'swe-byat ] @aniel
1,998:93) Tusk, or piece of tusk, broken off in a fight
between two bulls; a good luck charm that should be
oppy-ear] (Sikes 197 7 :120,20 4) Pathological
condition in which a portion of the ear is folded forrrard
and hangs down at an abnormal angle. May be due to
arterial disease or injury.
Lumbar: (I\4cKenzie 1993:681) Area of the back between
Mastutbation:
[see also: Male-Male
Mountingl (Knhme
Kiihme 1963:11'7) Sexual
gratification by other than normal maie-female
1961:290[drawing];
copulation.
lsee also: esttus, musth] Qoole et al. 1'98t):
386,391;Poole & Moss 1989) Process of searching for a
suitable, receptive member of the opposite sex.
Mate-seatching:
Matriarch: (Buss 1990:30-32; Estes 1991:2560; Moss &
Colbeck 7992:1.55-156) Mature female who acts as
leader of a family unit; qpically the eldest and most
experienced individual in the group.
the last rib and the pelvis.
[also: family, family unit, matriarchal
social organization] Group of related
mature females and their young; ranging between 2-45
individuals (@ Amboseli, Kenya). See discussion under
Matriarchal family:
Lumbar depression: (Albl 1971:134,135,137,139,140) A
longitudinal depression in the lumbar region of the sides
of the spine; depth is a good indication of physical-
unit;
see also:
family unit.
condition.
Machan (Hindustani): (Gzle '1974:758) Platform used for
shooting or photographing; a hide or blind.
Maturity, sexual:
198,214-21.5;
Poole 1 994:33 5becomes
physicalJy
Age at which reproduction
797 6:89,90,97 ;
Mahout (Hindustani): [also: carnac, c rnax, cawadie (S.
India), cornac, kotnack (French; possibly originally
Sinhalese), mahawat, ooziefuzi (Burma), ponnekella
(Sri Lanka), kao-Chang (Ihailand) ; pawang (Indonesia)]
22; Jayewardene 199 4:52,727 ; Cannon
2; Ivercet 799 5:66; Lajt 1997 :
85,209-2'1.1.; LahiriChoudhury 1999:458) Trainer,
keepet, driver of an elephant.
(Iennent
& Davis
1
867 :1
199 5:1 09,7 1'2,17
Male-male Mounting: [also: femoral
coPulation,
interfemoral intercourse] (Ford & Beach 1957:274;Kahl
& Armstrong 2000:20) Sexual mounting of one male by
another. Penis is rubbed on inside of thighs; eiaculation
often occurs, penetration does not. Generally found
among young adult males, who have little success in
mating with mature females.
337)
puberry] (Laws 1969:1'93,197Hanks 1972b:1'3,17,19,20; Williamson
[see also:
Buss 1 990:
1 1
0-1 1 1,17 5;
possible; approximately 9-72 years for females, 1415 years for mzles. Under adverse environmental
conditions (e.g. very high population-densities) maturity
may be delayed until 20+ years (I-aws '1969 197,214). In
captiviry both sexes may reach sexual maiurity much
earlier (e.g. 4+ years in a female [Dieringer 1997)).
Especially in wild males, physical maturity does not
mean they will mate successfully. Successful mating is
often delayed until males become significandy larger and
attain musth, tt 29* years of age.
Maxilla:
[see also:
mandible] (]Icl(enzie 1993:681) Upper
)^w.
Meconium: (?oole 1996:94) Fetal stool, passed by
a
newborn an hour or so after birth.
Maligawa tusker (Sinhalese): (Cannon & Davis 1995:172)
Generic term for the tusked elephant that carries the
relics
of
the Buddha in the Kandy, Sri Lanka, procession
f= Esalz peraheta] inJdy /August
each yeat.
Marnmae: Mammary glands or breasts that secrete milk. In
elephants they are between the front legs (i.e. pectoral
mammae).
Mandible:
[see also:
maxilla]
@4cKenzie 1993:681) Lower
Meergah (Hindustani): [also: meerga, meergha, mirga, mrga ;
s ee als o: sowar\ (Sanders on 1 9 07 :83,84,84x [drawingl,S 5 ;
Sanderson 7962:260; Lahiri-Choudhury 1999:458)
LongJegged elephant, favored for use as a transPort
animal and taught to carry loads on its back or haul
carts. According to Sanderson (1907: 84) it is not a very
desirable elephant. A body-type: thin, long legs, small
head, light body usually faster than the koomeriah , but
lacking in courage and endurance.
law
Ga1rh2.i: (lLrl\ ll
)l l-+)
t9
Gajeh2-j:
(f
ulv 2[t04)
Mela
(Hindustani): [see also: bazaar, elephanl (Shand
1992:5,27,158-193;HalI2000:35) A fair; in this case an
elephant fair, where elephants are bought and sold. The
largest inthe wodd is an annual affair [November], held
at Sonpur/Sonepur at the confluencebf the Ganges and
Gandak Rivers in Bihar, India.
Mortdity: (Buss 7990:12-17,37; Moss 2001:152-153)
Referring to the death-tate, or loss, in a population;
includes factors such as disease, accidents, starvation,
predation.
Mrigahastin (Sanskdt): (Shand 1996:49) "the beast with one
Mela-shikar (Hindustani): lilso: I<yaw-hpan (Burmese),.
peti shikar; see also: Phand[ (Shand 1996:38,1501
51
; Latt
7997 :7 | 4,7 48,27 4,223,251 ;
Daniel
1998:21 0;
Lahiri-Choudhtry 1999:459; Hall 2000:35) Method
of elephant-capture-originating in Assam, India-using
nooses by men mounted on trained elephants; a method
of catching single elephants, one-by-one.
Metesttus: [also: metoestrus/metoestrous; see also: esttust
pre-estrus, diestrus] (Arey, et al. 1957:384,826) Period
of subsiding follicular function following estrus in
female mammals.
Migration:
[see also:
home-range] (Owen-Smith 1982:389;
Buss 1990:5-7,11; Shoshani 199254)
movement ftom one zre to anothet,
kpl".,
seasonal
hand": referring to the trunk of an elephant.
Mukhna (Hindustani): [dso: mukna, muckna,
makna,
] (Sanderson 1907: 53,66,119; Sanderson
1962: 15,190; Chadwick 1992:304-305; Sukumar 1 992:
35,1 65; I-ar 1997 :40ftthotol ; Daniel 1 9 9 8: 60-6 1 ; LahiriChoudhury 1999:458) Term for tuskless mde elephants
in India. Approximately 90oh of bulls in S. India, 50%
in N. India, and 5-10% in Sri Lanka do carry tusks. [The
term is aliya or pussa in Sri Lanka; the term is sidor
in Thailand; the tetm is haing or hine in Burma (Daniel
7998145 Lahid-Choudhuty 1999:411); the rrame is
tondo 'rn Mozambique (Capstick 1988:90).1 A rnale
rvithout tusks suffers from an inferiority complex and is
often very dangerous (Shand 1992:6).
makhna
[see also: nulliparous, primiparous]
Q,ee 1987:219-280) A female that has given birth to two
Multipatous female:
Milk-tusk
(Spinage 7994:217-218; Shoshani 1996:74;
Luckett 1996:26) Same
incisots, which
as
deciduous-tusk or deciduous
or more offspring.
are better terms; these are the deciduous
precursors of the ttue tusks, which fePlace them after
about one yezt of age,
Murtain: (Lahiri-Choudhury 1999:40,458) Fatal epidemic
disease; probably anthrax. It is found in carde and
elephants, both wild and domesticated.
Miombo (Swahili): @rrtt, ct al.
&
Douglas-Hamilton 1982:472; Spinage 1994:173) In
East, centtal, and south-central Africa, a type of mixed
woodland of both trees and sfuubs, dominated by
btoadleafed, deciduous trees of the genera Braclystegia
1966i380; Barnes
artdfulbemardia
Mkono wa tembo (KiSwahili): Litetdly, "the arm of
an
elephant". Used to refer to an elephant's trunk.
Moda :
[see also: iuvenile-musth] (Chan&asekharan et al.
1992:71-72; Rasmussen et aJ. 2002:975) Pre-musth
condition sometimes shown by young [1 1-20 yeats old]
males in captivity.
1966:3-16; Roth & Shoshani 1988; Buss 1990:
58-67) Rear grinding teeth. During their lifetime,
elephants have six sets of molars in each half of the
upper and lower jaws; they progress fonx'ard, in linear
progression tovard the distal end of the jaw, and replace
Molar: (Laws
each other at specific ages.
Monitor elephant:
[see also:
koo*ief
(Cannon
7995:92,772) Tame elephant, used
control wild elephants.
to
& Davis
captute and
Musth (Jtdu/Hindustani): [also: mada, madha, mast,
mudda, must ; see also: sexually-active /inacivef
flainudeen, et a|.7972; Poole & Moss 1981; Hall-Martin
1987; Poole 1987; Poole 1989a) From the ancient
Sanskrit wotd (mada ) which means "intoicadon,
excitement, rapture". Period of heightened sexualactivity in mature males [average onset 29 years-old],
chancterrzed by urine-&ibbling, G.P., strong odor,
incteased aggression, swollen tempotal glands, T.G.S.,
and elevated testosterone-levels. Sometimes called a
form of "sexual insanity" (Williams 1989:125). Musth
has also been used to refer to the dark, strong-smelling,
oily substance exuded from a male Asian elephantt
tempora! gland, although this term is not used for
African elephants where both sexes secrete from the
temporal glands. ffhe term is mudda or madha in Sri
Lanka; mon-Igrathi, mon-kyatti, mone, or mong-gyin
in Burma.]
Musth, stages of: [see also: pro-musthr neat-musth, petimusth, inter-musth] @oole, et al. 7984:259; Poole 1987:
304; Schulte & Rasmussen 7999a:385,387) Near-musth
is the same as peri-musth, and includes pto-musth
[before], pte-musth [before] and post-musth [after].
Full-musth is the same as deep-musth and heavy-
Mon-kyathi (Burmese): [also: mon-kyatti, mong-gyin ]
@aniel 1998:123) Butmese term for musth.
musth and denotes the peak condition of musth.
[see also: tempotal gland] (I-aursen & Bekoff
79782; Estes 1991:259; Shoshani 1998:480) Gland,
with a vertical slit-like opening located berween the eye
Musth gland:
Monovular: [see also: polyovulat]
Ovulation of one egg at a time.
ftIanks1979:168)
G;rjah2-3:
(fulr 2t){t4)
21
An Asian bull elephant in musth
G\ah23: fuly 2004)
22
and ear which produces temporal gland secretion.
which females and infant calves occur.
Tempord gland is a much better name than "musth
gland", as its secretion sometimes has nothing to do
with musth (..g. ir females and young, especially of
L.oxodonta).
Natality:
[see also: recruitment] (Hanks 197 2b:73,20; Calef
1988; Buss 1990:86,93-94) Refering to the birth-rate
in a population. Usually 6-8oh pet ye t, il a healthy
elephant population.
Nyika (I{Swahili): [also: osrlalei
(].{aasai)l Qtatt, et a/. 1966:
381; Spinage 1994:187) Commiphora-Acacia rhotn scru6,
found in much of SE Kenya andTanzania.
Oozie @l:rmese): [also: oozy, oozr, uzi ; see also: mahoutl
(!filliams 1 950:50-56; \Williams
1989 :124,127
La:r. 1.997:129) Trainet, keeper, driver
of
-128,135;
an elephant.
[see also: marfi] (Stockley 1953:94,95-96) Another,
more gentile, name fot dung.
Otdure:
Nautch-khana (anguage ?): [see also: bai, sah-lickf (Shand
1996:121) A clearing in the forest that is devoid of
vegetation; the elephants' bdlroom.
Ovarian cycle: @Ioss 1.983179,1.80,181; Brannian et a/. 1988:
357,3 59,3 63 ; Plotka t a l. 1 9 8 8 309, 3 1 0, 3 1 2,3 1 4) P erio d
between ovulations. in females that do rrot become
pregnant during their first cycle. Generally believed tcr
be 12-17 weeks in Laxodonta and Elephas.
e
Near-musth: [see also: musth, stages of; intet-musth,
peri-musth] @oole e/ al. 1984:259; Rasmussen et al.
1984:354,358; Poole 1987:295) Period immediately
before and after full-musth, when testosterone levels
may be partially elevated and some--but not all--of the
manifestations of full-musth are seen. When shown
by young males, it may be called iuvenile-musth.
Mahouts call, it Hten musth (N4cGaughey 1 963: 1 05).
Pachyderm: (IVlcKenzie 1993:682) Historical name for
large, thick-skinned hoofed mammal
rhino). Not
a
connective tissue witl'r vascular and lymph sinuses.
Netsu.ke
flapanese): (Chadwick 1992:207) Round
ornaments--often made of ivory-with a hole in the
center, used in Japan to secure the sash of a kimono.
Nictitating-membrane: (Sikes 1971:43) Unpigmented
third eyelid, approximately 4 X 1 cm in size.
NiIa
(Sanskrit ?): (Sikes 1971:137; Derzntyzgzlz 1955:6870,140-142; Cannon & Davis 1995:709,711,,132,172)
Sensory points on an [Asian] elephant, which may be
stimulated by the mahout to discipline, control, or
direct the animal.
(e.g.
elephant,
natural taxomonic grouping.
Pakala (Sanskrit): @dgerton
Nerve-cavity: [also: pulp-caviry] (Laursen & Bekoff 1978:
2) Hollow of a tusk, filled primarily with mesemchymal
:
1931:26,104,1.20)
A fever of
elephants.
Pan: (Grezves 1996:131; Ben-Shahar 1999:316) In southern
Afuica, another name for a waterhole or depression that
fills during the rains. The bottom is permeated with
calcium (calcrete), which forms a hard pan that holds
w2ter.
Pannikan (Sinhalese): [also: Pannikers,
(fennent 1867:97; Jayewardene
Davis 1995:87-88,173) Muslim tribe in
Lznka, known for capturing elephants.
Pattutition: (Ford &
PanickeasJ
&
1,994:121; Cannon
N
and
NE
Sri
Beach 1951,:283) Giving birth.
Pawang (Indonesian): pair 1997:85) Indonesian namefor
mahout or elephant-handler.
a
Nipples: QQrdong 1998:213[drawing]) Raised epidermal
papilla that include multiple lactiferous ducts, releasing
milk to the infant. They are prevalent among mammals;
humans and elephants have pectoral mammae with
nipples. ['Teats", sometimcs erroneously said to
be found in elephants, include a cistern and a single
lactifetous duct; they are found in derived artiodactyls,
such as deer, sheep, cows.]
Nullip arous female : [see als o: multiparous, primipatous]
[,ee 7987:279-280) A female that has not conceived or
Peak frequency [abbreviated P.F.]: [see also: fundamental
frequency, dominant frequency] @.rg 1983:
65) Highest frequency of sound in an elephant
vocalization.
Peieik
(Burmese): (Gale t974:159) Attendant who does
odd jobs fot the oozie.
Pengasoh Celd"y)' [see also: auntie] @aniel
1998:102)
Foster-mother.
given birth.
Nursing/nurse: [see zlso: lactating female, weaning,
comfott suckling, suckle] (N4oss & Colbeck 1992:
90,144-145; Shoshani 1992:53,54) To obtain milk from
Perahera (Sinhalese): flayewardene 1994:'121; Cannon &
Davis 1995:135-149,173) In Sri Lanka, a procession-mainly o6 2 lsligious nature--in which domesticated
elephants often participate.
the mother.
Nursing unit:
iuvenile-care unit] $lcKay 1973:
72-75,79-80) Type of family unit among Elephas in
[see also:
Peri-musth: [see also: musth, stages ofl inter-musth,
near-musth] @oole e/ at. 1984:259; Rasmussen et al.
1984:354,358; Poole 1987:295) Period immediatell'
(iajrh2.3: (Julr 2t)t)4)
Elephant Training Centte at Way Kambas Nationd Park' Sumatra
Gajah23:
(uly
2004)
before and after full-musth, when testosterone levels may
be partially elevated and some--but not all--of the
manifestations of full-musth are seen. Mahouts call it
Hrctt musth
Phand
?): [see also: mela-shika\ (Shand
Daniel 1998:211,212) Noose used to
capnlre elephants, by a rider on the back
[domesticated] elephant.
Phandi 0*go"g. ?): [also: nooser;
of
another
see also mela-shikat]
(Shand 1,996:38; Lm 7997:67; Hall 2000:35,245,249)
Rider who captures wild elephants with a noose, from
the back of a domesticated elephant. A bot-phandi is
a
master catcher.
Phara Qangaage ?): (Shand 1996:150) A broad belt that is
wound atound the chest of the koonkie during melashikar.
or
pre-pubertal] (Hanksl
979:
1
68) A
produced sperm.
Pouch, pharynged: (Sikes 1971:79; Shoshani, et al. 7997;
Shoshani 1998:485; Shoshani & Dudley 2000) A
receptacle in the floor of the mouth, in which water
can be stored; such water can be drawn ouq later, and
sprayed on the eats to cool the body-temperature.
Pranidhi
uaining place--usually permanent--where
(Sanskrit): (Edgerton 1931:120) Direction;
methods of a mahout in driving an elephant...by means
of verbal commands, feet, and hook
Pte-estrus: [also: proestrus, pro-estrus, pro-oestrus; see
also: estrus, diestrus, metestrus] (Arey, et al. 1c)57:
384,1110;Jainudeert, ct al. 7977:323; Poole & Moss 19u9:
120) Period of heightened foll-icular activity preceding
ttue estrus,. Cow may exhibit some--but not all--of the
signs
Pil-khana (Hindustani/Urdu): [also: pil Htana, pilkhatia,
peelkhana, pheell (Sanderson t907 :91,125; Sukumat
7994:752,169; Lahiri-Choudhury 1999:459) Stable,
camp,
[see also:
female that has ovulated at least once. or a male that has
(N4cGaughey 1963:105).
(language
1996:38,150;
Post-pubertat
ofestrus.
Ptegnancy: [see also: gestation period] (Buss
1990:31;
Moss & Colbeck 1992:52-53) Having conceived but not
yet borne an offspring.
domestic elephants are kept.
Piosphere: (.Western 7973; Ayen 1977:376) Area around
a
rvater-source that shows ecological effects (i,e. damage),
owing to proximity to that water-source.
Pte-musth: [also: pro-musth] @ernando, et al. 1963:
111) Period befote full-musrll, during which the
manifestations of musth slowly begin to appear; mosr
likely caused by
a
gradual increase in testosterone levels
in the blood.
Plant secondary compounds: (Owen-Snith 7982:367,394)
Protective chemical compounds in plants that make
the vegetation telatively unpalatible or indigestible to
herbivotes.
Poaching: (Poole 1989b) Illegal killing usually for rhe ivory
but can also be for meat. May have serious effects on
social structute
of the population.
Pocketed herd: (Seidensticker 1984:72; Sukumar &
Santiapillai 1996:329) Group of elephants confined
in a relatively small area, from which they are unable
to leave; usually surrounded by hurnan development.
May be thought of as 'tslands of elephants in a sea of
humaniqy''.
Polyovular: [see also: monovulat] (Hanks 7979:168)
Ovu-lation of two or more eggs at a time.
Population: [see also: social organization] (Moss &
Poole 1983:315,318,322) All the elephants in a region,
including sub-populations of females and their
offspring, plus the adult males; they may all have some
contact vith each other, e specially during the v/et-season
when latge aggtegations may form.
Population-density: [see also: home-nngef (Spinage
1990:75,76,17; Barnes, a a/. 7999) Average number
of elephants per unit atea'rn a region; usually given as
elephants/km2.
Pre-pubetal
[see also: post-pubertal] (Flanksl 979: 1 68) A
female that has not yet ovulated, or a male that has not
yet produced sperm--owing to young age.
Primiparous female:
[see also:
Q,ee 7987:279-280)
multiparous, nulliparous]
A female that
has conceived and is
about to give or has given birth to one offspring.
Problem Elephant Control: [= P.E.C.j QooLe'1996:254)
Means of dealing with 'problem elephants"--repear
offenders of certain elephantine crimes, such as fencebreaking, crop-raiding, killing of livestock and humans.
Solution is sometimes translocation or exclusion (i.e.
with ditches, electric-fencing) or, often, killing.
Ptoboscidean: (Shoshani
&
Tassy 1996; Nelson 1997:
24) A member of the order Proboscidea.
Elephants
and elephant-relatives--living and extinct--with a long,
flexible snout, such as a trunk.
Proboscis: [see also: trunk] (Sikes
1977:39-41.; Shoshani
1997) The long, muscula! prehensile extension of
an
elephant's upper-lip and nose.
Protected-contact: lsee also: free-contact] Q)oyle 1993)
Managing unconfined captive elephants through or
from behind a shielding barrier.
Puberty:
[see also: maturity, sexual] Q,avs 1969:193,1971.98,274-215;,Hanks 1972b:13,17,79,20; \filliamson
G4iah23: flulrr-Znt4)
Gtlah23: (July 2004)
7976:89,90,91; Buss 1990:110-111,175;
Poole 1994:335337) Age at which reproduction becomes possible;
approximately 9-72 yeats for females, 1475 yearc for
males. Under adverse envitonmental conditions
(e.g.
very high population-densities) maturity may be delayed
until 20* years (Laws 7969:197,2'1,4). In captivity, both
sexes may reach sexual maturity much eadier (e.g.
4+ years in a female [Dieringet 1997]). Especially in
wild males, matudty does not mean they will mate
successfully. Successful mating is often delayed until
they anain musti, zt29* yezts of age.
Pulp: (Laursen & Bekoff 1978:2) Material that fi.lls the
hollour [pulp-cavity, nerve-cavity] of a tusk; it is
composed primarily of mesemch)nnal connective tissue
vrith vascular and lymph sinuses.
pulp-cavity:
[also: nerve-cavity] paursen & Bekoff 1978:
2) Hollow of a tusk, filled pdmarilywith mesemchyrnal
connective tissue udth vascular and lymph sinuses.
Retirement area: [see also: bull atea, sexually-activef
inactive] @Ioss & Poole 1983:318; Estes 1991:261;
Moss & Colbeck 7992:50,109,777) Region inhabited
mainly by bulls-either singly or in bull groups--in
a sexually-inactive condition. When they become
sexually-active, bulls leave the retirement area and
associate with females; individual bulls usually return
to the same retirement area aftet their period of
association with females.
Rogue: (S?illiams 1950:41,739-747 ; De:aruyagala 1,955:7 48;
Carringon 1958:51; Estes 1991:260 Vernacular term
fot a particulady aggressive and dangerous elephant,
most often a bull. The animal may be sick or injured
and may also be in
hatred of people.
musth. They seem to have a deep
[n Sri Lanka, the term is hora allia
or hora or sora (from Sanskrit chora ) or ronkedoors
(Dutch).1
Rutting: (Poole 1 987:283,284,31 1,313) Heightened
sexual
in male ungulates; similar in many respects to
musth in elephants, except that rutting is generally
state
Pussa (Sinhalese): [see also: mu.[<na] @eraniyagala 1955:
48; Jayewardene 7994:20; Cannon
&
Davis
1995:38;
Katugaha 1997:67) In Sri Lanka, a tuskless male; a male
with no vestige of tusks or tushes.
Pygtny elephant (l.{oack 1906; lfestern 1986; Matthiessen
1991:135-138) Reputed small fotm of elephants
(-,oxodonta africana
pmiliQ, in the Central/West African
tain-forests. Now believed to be young individuals of
the forest elephant, L Eclotit. To be distinguished ftom
dwarf elephant [q.v].
Recruitmene
[see also: natdity] (Calef 1988; Spinage 1990:
15; Spinage 1994:184) Increase in a population, usually
as tlre result
of biths
Sann ftIindustani): (Sillar & Meyler 1968:113) Group of
elephants.
Sdt-lick
[see also: bail (Weir 1969; Ruggiero &Fay 1994;
Holdo, et al. 2002) Localities--e.g. termite-mounds,
waterholes with clay substates--where elephants eat soil
dch in minerals.
Saun Qanguage ?): [see zlso goondah] (Carrington
1958:
160) r0fild, single, male elephant.
exceeding deaths; may also be
augmented by immigation.
Reinforcemenc (Shyan 7993:23) In animal raining
any condition that strengthens learning ot increases
the probability that a response urill occut Positive
reinforcement indeases the likelihood that a tesponse
vdll be petformed by
gi"g it a "good,/pleasant,
[positive] consequence after the response has occurted,
whereas negative reinforcement also increases the
likelihood that a response vrill be performed to avoid a
"bad/unpleasant" [negative] consequence.
Reproductove cycling: I see dso: estrus, flatlining] (I-aws
7969:205; Laws, Parker, & Johnstone 7970:77 4; Har.Irrs
797 2b:73,27,25; rtrTilliamson 797 6:9 1 ; Shoshani 1 992:
57; Moss 2001:150-751,155) Periodic ovuldtion of
matufe non-pregnant females;
of reptoductive
'zite
life. In wild female elephants @ Amboseli,
Kenyal the
reptoductive-rate seeras to peak by 18-19 years, slows
after about 40-50 years, and neady ceases by 56-60 years
age, We have litde evidence of complete cessation
of breeding (sometimes refetred to as "menopause,) in
rvild eleohants.
of
synchronous and musth is asynchronous among males
in a population.
Savanna: (Hanks1979:168; Estes 1991:564) Subtropical or
ropical gassland vrith widely spaced trees, characterized
by extended wet and dry seasons.
& Mann 1992:30;
Spinage 1994:220) System of ctossing lines, which is
unique to cross-sections of probosidean ivory.
Schteger pattetn/lines: @,spinoza
Scrimshaw/scrimshanding: (Parker
& Aniin 1983:147;
Espinoza & Manrr 1992:30) An art fotm, developed
mainly in North America, in which designs are engraved
on the surface of ivory. [AJso performed on walrusivory and spetm-whale-teeth.]
Scrivelloes:
Q,yelJ 7924:175; Sanderson 1962: 2'17; Daniel
1998:39) Name used in the ivory-tade for smalJ tusks,
unoer 10-20 lbs. [4.5-9 kg]; shott.tusks, projecting a few
inches from the lips. May sometimes be synonymous
vrith tushes [see Krishnan 1972:300].
Senescence: (Hanks 1979:18; Moss 2001:151,153,155)
Deteriorating physical condition, owing to old
Sexual-dimorphism: (I-aws
1
969:1 96;
age.
Poole 1 994) Phvsical
or behavioral differences between the
sexes.
Gajah2.i: (fuh 2{)(t4)
Sexually-active/inactive: @Ioss & Poole 1983:378,322;
Poole a/ al. 7984256,258,259; Poole 1987:286,290;
Poole 1989a:141) Adult mdes who are sexually-active
associate with femdes and can mate successfully even
though not kI musthr' adult males urho are sexuallyinactive usually stay with all-male gtouPs or alone. The
various categories of adult male sexual condition are:
non-musth inactive, non-musth active, inter-musth,
near- [p.ti-] musd5 full-musth; th"y probably
repfesent increasing levels of plasma testostefone'
Older adult males who periodically come into musth
are referred to as "socially matufe"; yorurger males who
do not come into musth are teferted to as "socially
immature", [Females are receptive to sex only during
the short period
of esrusl
(Lahiri-Choudbury
7999:458,459) The sport of hunting or shooting game'
Shikad [also: shikarie, shikatee, shekatry ; moksoh
@urmese)] is the "spottsman-hunter".
Shikar (Hindustani/Bengali/Assamese)
:
Sibling: @ord & Beach 1957:287) Offspring of the
same
also: ranulona, tuskleseness] Tetm for
tuskless males in Thailand.
[see
Sikara (Sanskrit) : (Edgerton 7931:36) Fluid that z musth
bull sprays from its trunk.
Silinguva (Sanskrit ?):
1,42; Cannon
[see also:
crush] (Deraniyagala 1955:
& Davis 1995:109) Structure restricting
a
captive elephant while it receives treatrnent.
Singoung @urmese): (Gale 1974:159) Head elephant-man.
Oozies and peieiks come under him.
Sin-oke
@urmese): (Gale 1974:159) Very senior and
experienced elephant-man, Singoungs, oozies,
peieiks come undet him.
arr'd
Sinpyudaw @tlmese): [also: Sin-byu'dasvl (Gile 7974:
159; Daniel 1998:35) A tare "white elephant", widi 20
toes, peady eyes, ted mouth, light colored and smootlr
skin.
& Poole 1983; Moss 1988;
Hieratchical otgznizaion,
1989:112)
Moss
Social otgarirization: (trIoss
Poole
below.
&
See
definitions under each term, individudly'
Femde & young gtoupings [also: cow-calf group]
Family unit [also: family, matriarchal
Aggregation
Sub-population
Population
All-male groupings BuIl group: [also: bachelor herd,
bull hetdl
meeryal\ (Sanderson 1907:88; LahiriLight-weight elephant, trained
1999t459)
Choudhury
Sowari;
[see also:
for riding.
Spoot: [see also: frlizzle,bolus] (Sikes 1971:320-321) Sign
left by passing elephants; composed mainly of twizzles,
dung, tracks.....also broken ftees, mud rubbed on ffeetrunks, diggogs in dirt [to dust], etc.
Sternal tecumbency: [see also: lateral recumbencyl
farnily,
[= stereotypy] (Immelmann &
Beer 7989:291) Panern of repeated niovements, most
often seen in captive elephants. Probably related to
anxiety, frustration or thwarted intentions' Some such
Stereotypical behavior:
behavior-patterns may be found-in a very low-intensiry
or abbreviated form--in vild individuals'
Sub-population: [see also: eocid organization] (Moss &
Pooli t983:315,377,322) Families that occupy distinct
dry-season home-tanges but may mix freely in the wet
season [@ Amboseli one sub-population contained 27
family units in 4 clans (Moss & Poole 1983:317)]'
Suckling/suckle: [see dso: lactating female, weaning,
comfort suckling nursing] (Moss & Colbeck 1992:
90,144-745; Shoshani 7992:53,54) Permitting z cilf to
nurse and obtain milk; to nourish from the breast'
Swe-gat (Surmese): (Gale 1974:159) Elephant with his
tusks growing outward.
Swe-pyat @urmese): [also: swe-byat' see also: manswe]
(Gale 1974:'159) Elephant with his tusks cut or broken
off, owing to accident or other causes.
Tactile: (Ford & beach 1951:288) Referring to the sense of
touch. Elephants show many tactile social behaviors,
most of which are probably related to the collection of
olfactory cues about the physiologrcal statrrs of other
Tar' (Butmese): [see a]so: mukhna, han, fu'ne] (Villiams
Bond group [also: kinshiP grouP]
1950:44;Gale7974:760) BuLl with only one n:sk, either
Ieft or right.
Clan
()aiah23: fluly'2004)
grouPs both Present]
elephants.
matriarchal unit]
Aggtegation [v'ith no adult males
Mixed groupings [with adult males and cow-calf
(McKenzie 1993:683) Lying on the brisket or sternum'
mother, i.e. brothers and sistets.
Sidor (fhai):
Sub-population [with no adult males presentl
present]
Tal-betal (anguage ?): (Shand 1996:60) Referring to tusks,
one of which points upward, the other downward'
Tan
& Moss 1981; Poole 1987:286,307) See definirion
under temporal gland secretion. Perhaps it is better to
feserve the term temporin for the non-musth secretion
only, as is done by Sukumar (1994:38,39-40,95-96).
@urmese): (Gale 1974160) Elephant born with only
one short tusk, either left or right.
Taphonomy: (Haynes 1991; Nelson 1997:24) The study
of how fossils are formed. How bones are affected by
geological and biological processes.
Tetai
(Hindustani): [also:
tata[
(Sukumar 7994:'169;
in the foothills
U7emmer 2000:60) Moist land; the region
Taxonomy: (Shoshani & Eisenberg 1982; Laursen & Bekoff
197827,6; Shoshani 1992:43,45) Branch of science
dealing with the classiEcation of otganisms.
Elephas maximus: Asian elephang usually divided
into 3-4
subspecies:
' of the Himalaya of notthern
India and southern Nepal,
characterized by sal (Sborea robasta) forests.
Testiconda: (Glover 197 3 :45) Having the testes permanen tly
and normally in the abdomen, as in the elephant and the
hyrax.
E.m.maximus,
E.m.sumatranus,
E.m. i n dicus, E.m.borneensis
of
[For derivation
names, see Shoshanil 992:43,44,58]
I--axodonta africana:
African savanna elephant; recently
divided into 2 species:
L africana and L
[see also: flehmen, Jacobsonts organ, vomeronasal
otgan]. Presumably performed in order to determine
the sexual status (i.e. estrous or non-estrous) of the
female. Less frequently, testing can be done by females
or calves.
rychtisl
[Fot derivation of names,
Testing: (Schulte & Rasmussen 1999b:1269) Olfactory
response shown mainly by bulls to sample, with the
trunk-tip, a female's genitals, urine, or dung. After
testing, the trunk-tip is often then placed in the mouth
see
Shoshanil992:43,44]
Testosterone: (Hall-Martin
Paenungulata: (Estes 1997:249) [paene , Latin for
"nearlT/'or "almost", i.e. almost an ungulate] = hyraxes,
elephants, and dugongs/manatees
&
van der Walt 1984; poole
et al. 1984; Rasmussen et al.
1984:356-358,360,361:
Poole 1987:285,308,311) Mde sex hormone, produced
primarily by the testes; found to be significandy higher
in tle plasma and urine of males in musth.
Proboscidea: = elephants and their [extinct] allies
Thiringeye (Sanskrit
(dugongs/manatees) &
?): (Cannon & Davis 1995:109) Pole
used urith a tourniquet for controlling elephants.
& lower: (Albl 1971:135,138,140)
depressions in the temporal region of each side
Toenails: (Spinage 1994:52-53; Shoshani 2000: 39) Flard,
keratinized material at end of some digits along the
front edge of feet. Generally 4-5 on forefeet and 3, 4,
Tethytheria:
= Sirenia
Proboscidea
Tempord dent, upper
Two
of the head, above the zygom^tic-^rch. Their depth
is a good indication
of age and--to a lesser extent--of
physical-condition. The lower tempotal dent contains
the temporal gland.
84:352; Poole
1
987:287,288 [drawing]) Gland located
midway between the eye and ear, which resembles
salivary tissue and secretes tempord gland sectetion.
Weighe up to 3 kg in males, rarely over 1 kg in females.
It swells significandy in males during musrh. [n South
India, the term is
kuppool
(IvlcGaughey 1963:105).1
Tempotal gland sectetion: [also: temporin, T.G.S., rut
waterl (Deraniyagala
1955:732; Rasmussen ct al. 7984:
353,354,358-360,367;
Poole
7987:286,287,288[dmwi
ngf,307,311) In Elepbas, there is one qlpe of T,G.S.:
in males ooly, which signifies musfh. In L.oxodonta,
there are two types of T.G.S,: watery and short-term, in
males/females/young, which signifi es socid excirement
or stress; more viscous and dutablg in males only, which
signifies musth.
Temporin:
[also:
Tofa (Yatz fKenya]): (?arker&Amin 1983:45) Largemale
'vith tusks 70-100 lbs.
Tempord gland: [also: T.G., musth gland] flainudeen, a/
al. 1972:256; Laursen & Bekoff 1978:2; Rasmussen a/ al
19
or 5 on hindfeet.
tempord gland secsetion, T.G.S.]
@oole
each.
Tond.o
(Shangaan fMozambique]): [see also: muknal
(Capstick 7977:99-700; Capstick 1988:90) Term for
tuskless male elephants in Mozambique.
Ttail
(Gavron 7993:79) Foot-path used by elephants [and
other animals]; often of great age and tradition.
Ttanslocation: SrlcKenzie 1993:683)
transportation, and release
of
Capture,
animals into a new area.
Ttee-breaking: [dso: tree-shaking] (Hendrich,t971:148156) Trees are knocked down, often so that leaves or
ftuit can be reached and eaten. Also done, apparendy
for social reasons, especially by certain
bulJs.
Ttipy ivory: (Spinage 1994:220) Tusks vrith a morrled or
speckled appearance, perhaps the result of calcium
defciency.
Ttunk:
[see also:
ptoboscis] (Shoshani'l 992:44ldr
awin
9],46-
Oajah23:
(luli
2{)tt.l)
47,54 Gavron 1993:46-47) Extended, fexible
appendage produced from a union of upper-lip and
nose; highly dextrous and of many uses: e.g. eating,
drinking, touching, vocalizing, signalling intentions,
smelling, throwing water/mud/dust, as a weapon, and
others.
Tush/tushes: (Sanderson 1'907 : 67 -68; Dennyagala 7955:
40; Shoshani & Eisenbetg 7982:2) SmdI tusks qdth
no pulp inside that barely protrude past the lip. They
are short, downward-pointing prongs in the upper jaw;
seldom retained long, being generally broken off eatly
in life. If broken they are not renewed. About 5070 of
Asian females have tushes, the others nothing. It has
been claimed that tushes have softer ivory than tusks.
Cloaca-like conrmon opening to the urinary and genital
tracts in a female elePhant'
1983:45) Male with
CJTata [Kenya]): @arker & Amin
tusks of mote than 100 lbs. each.
Usho
Yasa-Iobha (Sanskrit): @dgerton 7931:722-123) Method
of catching wild elephants, using the enticement by
females.
VeId (Aftikaans):
[also: bushveld, veldt
382; Greaves 1996:131)
In
]
(Pratt, et al' 1966:
southern Africa, open
country ot grassland; bush.
(Sanskrit): (Edgerton 7937:71,723) Furrow in the
of the top of an elephant's head' between the
Vidu
middle
[see also: ivory] petanyzgala 1955:40; Buss 1990:
69-72; Shoshan 7992:46ldtzwtn$,47 -48,59) Permanent
Tusk:
second upper incisors, composed mosdy
of
dentine.
The only source of red ivory. In I-axodonta, both sexes
normally have tusks. They gtow throughout \fe at a
rzte of about 17 cmf yea4 avetaging 61 kg at 60 yrs
in bulls zrnd 9.2 kg in cows; tecord-weight = 106 k&
recordJength = 355 cm. In Ebphaq only some males
have tusks.
also: mukhnaf (Cannon & Davis 1995:173) An
elephant with tusks. In Asia, neady dways a male.
Tusker:
[see
[see also: tuslg wotking] (Spinage 7994:75)
The tusk that is not used for digging etc.; usually longer
.and less worn.
Tusk, mastet:
Tusk, working: [also: servant tusk; see also: tusk, master]
(Eltringham 1982.6; Spinage 1994:75) The tusk that is
used for diggog, etc.; is usually, therefore, mote woro
down. [t Tanzarrra the term is h*ombilo (Rushby
1953:139); in
Aabis itis haddm
@aker 1890:29)1.
Tuskless/Tusklessness: (Owen-Smith 1966; Abe 1996;
Whitehouse 2002) Bonvrithout the ability to produce
tusks; apparendy a geneticdly inherited trait. In Asia,
most females and some males (varyingwith location) are
tuskless. In Africa, certain areas (e.g. Queen Elizabeth
Ni Uganda, and Addo Elephant Nl South Africa) have
alargely tuskless female population. Tuskless males are
uncommon in Africa.
domes or kumbhas.
Viltus (famil): @isenberg & Lockhart 7972:4; Sukumar
7992:164) In southern India and Sri Lanka, seasonally
inundated marshy areas and small ponds.
Vlei
(Aftikaans): [see also: dambo] (Gteaves 1996:131)
channel that
In southern Afica, a flat, grassy dtunage
floods in the rainy season and suPPorts no trees; marshy
ground.
Vomeronasd otgan: [also: V.N.O', lacobson's organ;
al'
to olfactory cues, especially those associated with urine'
Vyala (Sanskrit): @dgerton 1931:724) Term for a rogue
elephant.
Wallowing: (Gly
7976:289,291; Estes 1997:262; Shoshani
1992:55[photo],57) Collective term for grooming
and bodily-maintenance that includes: water-sPraying/
bathing/mudding/dusting/rolling in dust or mud'
Weaning: [see also: nursing] ['attts 7969:207; Moss &
88; Shoshani 1992:53'54)
nursing; usually starting at 7-2 years and
usually completed by 4-5 years; occasionally continues
Colbeck
7992:86-87,99,1 14,1
Cessation of
until g+
years.
Wun-bike-I<yo @urmese): (GaIe
[see also: spoor] @isenbetg & Lockhafi 1972:22;
Sikes, 2000:223) Sticks that are chewed and droppedoften in z road ot track-by passing elephants. One can
tell ftom how fresh and green they are how recendy the
Twizzles:
Urine-dribbling: @oole 7987 :287,289[photo],295; Kabl &
Armstong 2002:163-164) Irakage of urine from the
sheathed penis, shown by mdes in musth; during fi:llmusth bulls may lose more than 300 I'
this manner @oole 1989:148).
Gaizh23:
flu\'
2004)
191
4:160) Girth band'
Yaatba'hd (language ?): (Sandersot 7907:97) Common
ailment among working Asian elephants. Especially
among those freshly captured and, tlerefore' perhaps
related to stress.
elephants have passed.
Urogenital sinus: [= U.G.S.]
see
1982:160;
also testing' flehmen] (Rasmussen et
1989:114)
Rasmussen et oJ. 7984:360; Poole & Moss
Area, located in the roof of the mouth, that is sensitive
Yata
(Sanskrit): (Edgerton
793t122) Guidance of
an
elephant, by the mahout, with the feet.
of fluid
per day in
Yaudha (Sanskdt): (Edgerton 1931:66) Male in firll-musth'
Uterally z"ftghter".
al
1982:1'60)
Zoochoty: @rahmachary 1995:389) Dispersal
(X'asmussen ct
of
seeds-
-and their subsequent germination--by being passed through
an animal's alimentary ftact.
Zygolophodont:
(Savage & Long 7986:250) Proboscidean
teeth with high-pitched transverse lophs or ridges.
Zy gornatic-arch: (AIbl
197
1
:1 35 ;
Shoshani
1
99
6 :1
2) Cheek-
bone. Bony ridge running approximately horizontalll'
across the side-of-the-head behind the eye. Separates
the lower temporal dent and the buccal depression.
The temporal gland lies just above the zygomatic-
atch. The rygomatic-arch is composed of parts of
three bones: the maxilla, ing"l [= malarl, & squamosal.
Sumatran elephants at the Elephant Training Cen.re in Way Kambas National Park, Sumatra
(photo: couftesy Alain Compost)
()aj:rh2-i:
(f
t Iv
2(X14)
31
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