CHAPTER 2
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
The research is basically determined to observe the interactions between men
and transvestite in the use of grammar and vocabulary in their conversations. There
are five theories that are discussed in this chapter. The first theory is sociolinguistics.
The second is language and sexuality theory. Meanwhile, the third is the speaking
style theory. The fourth is the grammar theory and lastly, the fifth is the vocabulary
theory.
2. 1. Sociolinguistics
Language and society are very close related. Sociolingustics is a study of the
effects of language use in society. According to Holmes (2008, p. 1), sociolinguists
are the people who study about the relationship between language and society.
Basically, every human speaks differently. Gender is one of the aspects that can
affect that human speak differrently.
2. 1. 1. Gender
According to Holmes (2008, p.157), gender is an approach based on human
socio-cultural behaviour which includes speech. She also states that gender has the
concept of describing masculine and feminine behavior in sociolinguistics (Holmes,
2008, p.157). Holmes (2008), also emphasizes that men usually use non-standard
grammar in their speaking.
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Meanwhile, Stockwell (2007, p.19) proposes that gender is the element of
linguistic application. Basically, it seems that Holmes’ and Stockwell’s opinions are
the same.
Commonly, feminine gender identity is defined as women’s behaviour while
the masculine gender identity is describred as men’s behaviour. Transvestites are the
people who are physically having their genitals as men but their appearance is like
women’s. They tend to express more the feminity as their identity.
According to Stockwell (2007, p.20), the term ‘genderlect’ refers to the
dissimilar lexical and grammartical choices that are characteristically created by men
and women. Basically, ‘genderlect’ proposes mutual respect and understanding by
showing that people should appreciate and respect the style of communication of
both genders. According to Tannen (as cited in Holmes, 2008), ‘genderlect’ reveals
how men and women speak in different ways. As suggested, one of the evidences of
the genderlect using is in ‘women’s talk’ study by Lakoff in 1970s, US, which
identified
“the frequency of particular colour terms (mauve); frequency of certain
evaluative adjectives (lovely,sweet); hesitant intonation; pitch associated with
surprised and questions’ tag-phrases (you know, kind of, sort of); and
superpoliteness (including euphemism, less swearing, more indirectness and
hedging)” (as cited in Stockwell, 2007, p.20).
Meanwhile, the different linguistic features between men and women can
distinguish their social classes. Holmes (2008, p. 161) argues that the speech of
women and men in Western communities often interact with theirs social classes.
The way people talk in communities seems to be important as their social class
identity.
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2. 2. Language and Sexuality
Language is the form of human social life. There is relation between language
and sexuality without identical connections. According to Cameron and Kullick
(2003, p.1), the term sexuality which resembles gender, underlining the idea of what
human deal with a cultural phenomenon rather than natural. In the mean time,
Sedgwick (as cited in Cameron & Kullick, 2003) argues that a large share of the selfperceived identity of some people is made up by sexuality.
Furthermore, transvestites basically refer to people who are physically having
their genitals as men but their appearance is like women’s. According to Cameron
and Kullick (2003, p. 5), transvestites basically do the cross-dress since the young
ages at eight or ten years old. Since that age, they begin to do something against their
common sex (boy) such as growing long hair, plucking eyebrows, wearing cosmetics
and wear the feminine clothings. Their gender transformations are usually not
tolerated by their fathers and they decide to move out from their houses.
However, the majority of transvestites usually come from a small town and
they migrate to the big city where they can finally meet the other transvestites and
begin working. Transvestites usually adopt female names by the time they finally
reach the transformation of acquiring female bodily forms as they refer themselves as
she (Cameron and Kullick, 2003).
Cameron and Kullick (2003, p. 6) also emphasize that transvestites do not want
to specify themselves as women while they simply characterize themselves as
homosexual men who feel like women and who attracted in men (who is masculine
and non-homosexuals men). Meanwhile, Zwicky (as cited in Cameron & Kullick,
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2003) argues that gay men speak unusual linguistic features as they want to differ
themselves from heterosexual men masculinity.
In addition, Cameron and Kullick (2003, p. 78) propose that the relationship
between language and sexuality shows that language is employed by the speakers as
the signal of their identity as homosexual. Cameron and Kullick (2003, p. 10) states
that the study of ‘language and sexuality’ bring the specialisation of language used in
sexual subcultures and the speaking style issue of gay men and lesbians which differs
them from heterosexual men and women. According to Chesebro (as cited in
Cameron and Kullick, 2003), in 1981, Gayspeak was first published in 1981 which
introduced the dimensions of homosexual society. Gayspeak is contributed to
acknowledge that gay men and lesbians do not speak in the same way.
On the other hand, Hayes (as cited in Cameron and Kullick, 2003) suggests
three specific functions or dimensions of Gayspeak. The first function is as a secret
code which develop the protection against exposure for instance, the use of innuendo
as to avoid or switch the specific gender reference when discussing one’s partner or
friends. The second, Gayspeak is used as a code which make the user to express a
wide range of roles within the gay subculpture for instance, the use of an extensive
vocabulary in defining sexual roles and behaviours. The third, Gayspeak as a
resource that can be used by radical-activists for instance, the different use of
pejorative forms like fag or dyke and ‘turn them back’ as symbols of deviance.
Moreover, Gayspeak was raised by gay community as their certain community
language.
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2. 3. Speaking Style Theory
Speaking style is a linguistic variant that is used by people when they speak.
According to Eskenazi (1992), the term of speaking styles has been used to define
speech variations. The variations of speaking style are reflected in all levels of
language, such as phonological, lexical and syntactic. Furthermore, the phonological
concern the use of contraction in pronounciation such as wanna and gonna.
Meanwhile, the lexical convey the words meaning in common usage and the
syntactic arrange systematical pattern of sentences or phrases. Furthermore,
Wardhaugh (1993) says that women use more standard forms than men do. Men use
more ‘stigmatized forms’, double negative, such as I ain’t got none and they tend to
have stronger regional accents.
According to Bjursäter (2004), the variabilities of speech production and
perception can be recognized by the speaker’s age, gender, anatomy and also the
dialect, idiolect and sociolect of the speaker. In order to be highly intelligible, and
relatively easy perceived by the listener, the speaker must put an effort to produce
clear speech (Bjursäter, 2004, p.1). Meanwhile, Kent and Read (as cited in Bjursäter,
2004) state:
“A speaker might vary his or hers speaking style depending on the listener and
the situation, using different expressions, pronunciations and tone of voice. The
manner of pronunciation is quite strict when a more formal speaking style is
used; the talker makes an effort to be easily understood by modifying the
articulation to make speech slower and acoustically more distinctive” (as cited
in Bjursäter, 2004).
Meanwhile, gendered speech is being used as the construction of
heterosexuality such as feminine speech. Hall (as cited in Cameron and Kullick,
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2003) made an observation about telephone sex worker’s language in the San
Fransisco, California, which marked Lakoff’s ‘women’s language’:
“I can describe myself now so that it lasts for about five minutes, by using lot’s
of adjectives...and that’s both-it’s not just wasting time, because they need to
build up a mental picture in their minds about what you look like, and also it
allows me to use words that are very feminine. I always wear peach, or apricot,
or black lace, or charcoal-colored lace not just black.” (as cited in Cameron
and Kullick, 2003).
It shows that the telephone sex worker, as a female, uses the feminine
vocabulary in her conversational strategies on the phone. Hall (as cited in Cameron
and Kullick, 2003) observed that most of the telephone sex workers performed their
gender identity without the same linguistic style because, they wanted to separate
their real characters between the way their gender constructed where they were
working. Meanwhile, Cameron (as cited in Cameron and Kullick, 2003) proposes
that feminine styles of speech nowadays are being used as the operators in telephone
business which marked the caring and emphatetic attitude to the customers.
2. 4. Grammar Theory
According to Aarts (1982, p. 6), the description of certain grammar component
always contemplantes on different sorts of linguistic units. There is semantic
descriptions, which concentrate on the meaning of individual words. On the other
hand, there is syntatic description which concentrates on the starting-point of the
sentence as being built from smaller units.
According to Cheshire, gender differences have been found in usage of nonstandard morphological and syntactix features in working class district of Reading,
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England (as cited in Coates, 2004). She considers the research as it reveals gender
differences in non-standard among the speakers. The following linguistics that
Chesire features are targeted:
1)
Non-standard –s:
“They calls me all the names under the sun don’t they?”
2)
Non-standard has:
“You just has to do what the teachers tell you.”
3)
Non-standard was:
“You was with me, wasn’t you?”
4)
Negative concord:
“It ain’t got no pedigree or nothing”
5)
Non-standard never:
“I never went to school today.”
6)
Non-standard what:
“Are you the little bastards what hit my son over the head?”
7)
Non-standard do:
“She cadges, she do”
8)
Non-standard come:
“I come down here yesterday”
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9)
Ain’t = auxiliary have:
“I ain’t seen my Nan for nearly seven years.”
10)
Ain’t = auxiliary be:
“Course I ain’t going to the avenue.”
11)
Ain’t = copula:
“You ain’t no boss.”
In the Reading community, Chesire (as cited in Coates, 2004) reveals that the
boys consistently use non-standard grammatical forms more often while the girls use
more standard forms. Chesire (as cited in Coates, 2004) emphasizes that the mutiple
negation, the vernacular forms, is mostly used by the boys as to show their toughness
of the ability to do a ‘tough’ job, such as slaughterer.
Although both men and transvestites use non-standard grammar, there are
some differences between tranvestites’ and men’s grammar. Basically, transvestites
come from a small town, and they use non-standard grammar in their community.
Barrett (as cited in Cameron and Kullick, 2003) proposes that the concept
‘queer’ which was formulated in 1990 as political challenge to ‘gay’ and ‘lesbian’
develops as particular language that is spoken by ‘gay community’. He suggests that
the drag queens use the co-occurence of inapropriate linguistic. Barret (as cited in
Cameron and Kullick, 2003) also gives the example of the stereotytpical AfricanAmerican Vernacular English that is used by celebrity drag queen Ru Paul during
television appearence:
12)
“She be nervous”
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13)
“She run”
It can be seen that the use of the copula ‘be’ marked the habitual aspect from
the utterances number one ‘she be nervous’, while the absence of the third person
present tense indicative market /s/ from the utterances number two ‘she run’.
Meanwhile, it has been observed in Detroit by Holmes (2008, p. 163) that the
multiple negation (e.g. I don’t know nothing about it), a vernacular feature of speech,
is used more in men’s speech than women’s. The vernacular form is considered as
the non-standard form. Men tend to use the vernacular form as reflecting the macho
connotations of masculinity and toughness in their conversation. The standard forms
of linguistic generally show more formal interactions and it is considered as
politeness (Holmes, 2008).
2. 5. Vocabulary Theory
Schmitt (2010, p. 4) suggests that vocabulary is required for language use in
communication. Every individual in society, needs to know about lexical item in
order to use it well.
The sentence contains incomprehensible words to non-homosexuals which is
marked that homosexuals particularly have their special way to communicate each
other. On the contrary, Penelope (as cited in Cameron and Kullick, 2003) argues on
her study about gay language that homosexual slang is not known by all
homosexuals while the homosexual actually varied by the homosexuals who live in
an urban centre or a rural town.
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Penelope (as cited in Cameron and Kullick, 2003) proposes that the
homosexual slang is being considered as a core vocabulary known by both men and
women in a wide geographical distance, while a fringe vocabulary known by gay
men who live in urban centres. She suggests that the core vocabulary which is known
by many heterosexuals, consists of items: butch, dyke and one-night stand, while the
fringe vocabulary consists of particular syntactic patterns:
14)
Compound:
size queen, meat rack
15)
Rhyme compound:
kiki, fag hag
16)
Exclamation:
for days!
17)
Puns:
give him the clap!
18)
Blend:
bluff (blend of ‘butch’ and ‘fluff’ to signify ‘an individual who plays
either the aggressive or the passive role’)
19)
Truncations:
bi, homo and hetero.
Rosanoff (as cited in Cameron and Kullick, 2003) proposes that the
homosexuals develop special slang expression in their community in communicating
to each other. Meanwhile, Duberman (as cited in Cameron & Kullick, 2003) gives
example one of the slang expressions which is used by a homosexual:
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“That queen over there is camping for a jam.”
According to Schmitt (2010), a person must know about each individual lexical
item in order to use it well and it is obvious that lexical items cannot be learned from
only a single exposure. When learning lexical item, this is often conceptualized as
learning from its meaning. Meanhile, Legman (as cited in Cameron and Kullick,
2003) proposes a list of words that are used by some homosexuals in some contexts
which is documented as ‘The Language of Homosexuality’. The list of lexical items
which is provided with little information about how the words are used, in what
contexts, under what circumstances, by whom or to whom can be seen as:
20)
Church-mouse:
a homosexual who frequents churches and cathedrals in order to
grope or cruise the young man there. Churches are chosen for this
pupose not from any irreverence or cynicism, but rather because
crowds of standing and preoccupied people, as in cathedrals, subways,
elevatos and theaters, are ideal for the homosexual’s purpose.
21)
Checkers, playing:
moving from one seat to another in a motion=picture theatre to find a
willing youth. The homosexual sits down next to a likely subject, and
makes either a verbal or an elaborately accidental physical overture or
‘pass’, and if rebuffed, gets up and moves to another row, preferably
not too close to the previous location, to try again with someone else.
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22)
Dethroned:
ordered by the attedant to leave public toilt; said of male homosexuals
(‘queens’ therefore ‘dethroned’) who frequent the toilet rooms of
parks, subways, barrooms, theathers, and other public buildings.
23)
Fish:
originally a generic term for women or for the vulva; the reference
being to the somewhat piscine odor of the female genitalia. The word
is used among male homosexuals as predicate nominative to refer to
male homosexuality, sepecially of the effeminate type, as to be fish or
to go fish (example: ‘when he touched me i just went fish all over’).
24)
Incest:
a sexual liaison between two homosexuals, such an association being
held in comparative contempt by most homosexuals.
25)
Man:
when pronounced emphatically by a homosexual, this term refers to a
man who is definitely not homosexual.
26)
Sister in distress:
a homosexual male in trouble, usually with the police.
27)
Tea-room queen:
a homosexual who frequents toilet rooms to find persons amenable to
his erotic or erotico-financial plans, or to scrawl homosexual
dithyrambs or invitations on the walls.
The terms above are only used by homosexuals men in their community. The
heterosexuals men basically do not understand the meaning of each terms.