Ottenheimer Chapter 7
Writing and Literacy
Writing and Symbolism
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Not all universal symbols are universal.
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Author gives the example of her bathroom experience and the universal symbol for women’s room
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Note the skirt that she saw as a symbol for women, but that a Comoros man saw as a sign for men.
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Men in many Pacific Island countries also wear a “skirt”
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She goes on to discuss the NASA plaque launched with the Pioneer 10 in 1972.
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It was intended to be a universal form of communication
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The raised hand, for instance, was intended as a signal of friendship
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But, visual symbols that we use to are to a great extent arbitrary (just like we have talked about for spoken
language)
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For instance, different languages have different-sounding words for a small, furry house pet that ‘meows’.
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English it is cat, Shinzwani it is mpaha, and in Japanese it is neko
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As you learn a new language you are likely to want to learn how to write it.
What is Writing?
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Writing is not language because:
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We do not need to teach language (it is innate), but writing is taught.
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Not all cultures have writing; it is not universal as is language.
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Language is ancient, writing is recent.
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Writing is considered to be:
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A way of recording language by visible marks
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A system of graphic symbols that can be used to reflect any thought.
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System of more or less permanent marks used to represent an utterance in such a way that it can be recovered more or less
exactly without the intervention of the utterer.
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The first of these three definitions talks about recording ‘language’ and the second is about conveying meaning and thought
and the third reminds us that we record utterances
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While it not necessary to think of writing as representing spoken language, that is the general view.
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Writing (the graphic representation of language) is considered secondary to speech
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Most scholars differentiate complete writing systems from partial writing systems
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Complete writing systems allow you to record any and all thoughts and words
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Partial writing systems are limited in what they can convey
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“Picture writing systems such as the bathroom signs, NASA space probe are partial
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They convey only what they can picture, and are limited by cultural understandings.
How Does Writing Work?
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Suggestion: If the vocabulary of this chapter is confusing, visit our library and watch the this film: The Writing Code: The
Greatest Invention.
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Writing systems work by using symbols to represent sounds as well as ideas or meanings. There is no general agreement on what
to call each of these types of symbols.
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Option 1 (Phonetic signs):
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Words like phonetic, phonographic, and sonographic have been suggested for the symbols that represent sounds.
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Phonetic sign is a graphic mark that represents one or more sounds of a language
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A bit different from a phonetic symbol; the linguistic transcription of a single sound
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The phonetic sign is the mark you make on paper
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Use <> for signs, and [ ] for symbol
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Single sound example: In English <s> is [s], but in Arabic one writes < ‫> س‬
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Group of sounds example: In English <x> is [ks] or Japanese one writes < サ> for [sa]
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Signs read differently in different languages: <ch> may be [ʃ ] in French as in chaise, [x}] in German or Czech as in
Bach, or as [tʃ ] in English as in chair
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Option 2 (Semantic signs):
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Words like semantic, pictographic, logographic and ideographic have been suggested for the symbols that represent meaning.
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A semantic sign may or may not also represent sounds, but representing sounds is not the focus of a semantic sign
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The primary focus is to represent meaning.
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For instance, <2> represents the idea of a specific number in many languages. The actual pronunciation of this idea is not
specifically coded in the sign.
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In English it is two, it is deux in French and so forth
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Option 3: Some writing systems use phonetic and semantic signs in the same written word.
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In English, we write <2nd> for [sɛkənd], and in French it is <2e>
The Internet site called L337 (an urban dictionary, is another example
Kinds of Writing 1
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Both writing systems based on phonetic signs and/or on semantic signs are equally complex and neither is used by more
‘advanced’ cultures.
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Old-fashioned classifications were based on predominance of sign types
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Semantic vs. phonetic signs
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Ideographic/logographic vs. syllabic/alphabetic systems
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Assumed progression from semantic to phonetic
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Are now understand this path to be ethnocentric
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We will briefly discuss each of these systems listed here: 1) Pictographic; 2) rebus; 3) logographic; 4 syllabic; 5) logosyllabic;
and 6) alphabetic.
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Pictographic “Writing”
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Pictographic writing uses pictures or images represent things; most early attempts at keeping records were pictographic
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Generally, the pictures look something like the things they represent
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This symbol ( ☼ ) could represent the sun
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Pictographs alone are not complete writing systems in that pictographs generally can only represent what they draw. One
solution is that meanings can be extended:
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☼ can now mean warmth
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Extensions require cultural context
Kinds of Writing 2
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Rebus Writing
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Rebus writing uses a single picture to represent words that sound the same
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This is a way to move away from the concrete limitations of pictographs. For example, in English the words I and eye
sound the same. Also in English the words sun and son
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Rebus writing allows for sentences like: Eye sea ewe, Eye c u, Got 2 go
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Can be applied to any symbol not just pictographs.
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Example the English <2> can stand in for two, too, or to
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Much of texting using this type of writing
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Rebus writing was a major breakthrough in writing, which was independently discovered in Sumeria (3,000 BCE); China
(1,500 BCE) & Mayan America (0 BCE)
Kinds of Writing 3
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Logographic Writing (Also called Ideographic writing)
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Logographic writing uses graphic signs to represent words or ideas associated with those words
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Logographs are the signs in a logographic system
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Logographs are semantic signs in the fullest sense of the word.
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While this type of writing is called both logographic and ideographic these words mean slightly different things:
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Logograph means “word-sign”, and Ideograph means “idea-sign”
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Your author prefers logograph to represent both words and ideas
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Many logographs may have evolved from pictographs, but they became more abstract over time.
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Rebus writing allows for a single sign to represent more than one word, logographs move beyond this and assigns
individual signs to individual words.
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☼ = the spoken word “sun” [sǝn]
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@ sign = “at” (in English), “herring” (in Czech)
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They generally do not look like the word or idea they represent after a time
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Unlike rebus writing, the symbol used does not have to sound the same as the word/idea being represented
Kinds of Writing 4
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Syllabic Writing
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Syllabic writing uses graphic signs to represent individual syllables
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This was a significant development for writing systems
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This means signs can be used phonetically as well as (or instead of) semantically.
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Writing can also be more efficient.
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Hypothetical examples in English
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If we let @ stand for the sound of the syllable [æt] we could write cat as <c@>, catch as <c@ch> and so forth
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Or if ☼ is the sign for the syllable “sun” [sǝn]we could write ☼ken, ☼der, ☼dry, ☼shine
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Syllabaries (syllabic writing systems) work best in languages with mostly CV, VC, and V syllables (C is consonants and V as
vowels) Can be a problem as in scratch: CCCVCCC!
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They work best for languages such as Chinese, Cherokee, Mayan, Inuit, Vai and so forth
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They work worst for languages such as English, Czech and Russian
One of the best known Syllabaries is that of Cherokee (see next page).
Japanese uses two different syllabaries: Hiragana is the more commonly used one; Katakana is more for formal documents or
for borrowed words.
Cherokee Syllabary (Click to see image)
Kinds of Writing 5
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Logosyllabic Writing
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Signs carry both semantic and phonetic information
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A combination of logographic and syllabic signs
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Best known of these is cuneiform (wedge-shaped) writing of Sumeria, the Mayan glyphs and contemporary Chinese characters.
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Until recently each of these was thought of as entirely logographic, but now we know they are a combination
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Example: In cuneiform, ka is the semantic sign for mouth, the phonetic sign [me] you create the word for tongue, pronounced
[eme]
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Example 2: In cuneiform, ka is the semantic sign for mouth, the phonetic sign [nun] you create the word for lip, pronounced
[nundum]
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Note that [ka] does not contribute the way these words are pronounced.
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[ka] is acting as a semantic sign, helping you to think of other words related to mouth
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Both [eme] and [num] are acting as phonetic signs
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A logosyllabic system is useful in differentiating two or more words that sound the same.
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Chinese [yaŋ] = “sheep” & “ocean” --Same phonetic sign for both, but add the semantic sign for water and it clarifies
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Chinese [tʃan] = “to divine” & “to moisten --Same phonetic sign for both, but add the semantic sign for water and it clarifies
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Chinese [ma] = “horse” & “to mother --Same phonetic sign for both, but add the semantic sign for woman and it clarifies
Kinds of Writing 6
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Logosyllabic Writing (continued)
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Scholars use the term determinative to describe a sign added to another sign used to clarify meaning or create new words.
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Phonetic determinatives help to suggest related words that are pronounced differently
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English <2> = “two” “second”
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Phonetic determinative <nd> produces “second”.
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Semantic determinatives help to separate different words that might be pronounced similarly
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The examples above of tongue and lip in Sumeria.
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The ancient Mayan glyphs are especially interesting for the way that they combine logographic, syllabic, and logosyllabic
strategies all in the same writing system.
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The king named Pakal can be written several ways: logographic, syllabic and logosyllabic
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See the drawings on page 205.
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Fun: Decode a stela
Kinds of Writing 7
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Alphabetic Writing
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Alphabetic writing uses graphic signs to represent individual consonants and vowels.
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English strings signs together, one after the other
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Arabic and Hebrew place the vowel signs above or below the consonants.
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For instance, one writes [ka] with two signs: < ‫> َ < & > س‬
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The first sign is for [k] and the second is for [a] to create: ‫ﮒ‬
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While the ideal alphabetic system would be one of a one sign to one sound this does not always happen. Example: x = ks
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Debate as to whether the Phoenicians (Akkadians) or the Greeks were the first to invent the alphabetic system.
Kinds of Writing 8
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Khipus
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All the examples to this point have been about making signs by placing marks on paper, clay, stone, the computer screen
and other surfaces, there is one kind of record-keeping that is not like these
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The Inka (Inca) system of khipu is one where knots are tied into cords
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Once thought to be a simple mnemonic for keeping track of things such as the days of the week or number of items.
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The early Spanish conquistadores spoke to their use for historical, mythological and astrological events.
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Today, with the use of computers, it is becoming more clear that this was a system of writing
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So far it is not completely deciphered! MIT is trying to crack this code
Issues of classification
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Read about the issues on pp. 207-208 if interested
Decoding a Writing System
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Determine the principles/strategies
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So determine which strategies are in place, such as syllabic, alphabetic, etc.
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Mostly it is an issue of whether the different symbols are meant to represent consonants and vowels, syllables, or
whole words
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Sometimes it is all three.
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For instance <a> as a vowel or as a single syllable (as a part of a word or as a separate word)
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Identify units
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Graphemes are the smallest segment of speech represented in a writing system: Sounds, syllables, whole words
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Allographs are predictable variants of graphemes: English print and cursive styles; initial and final shapes
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Lexemes are units of writing surrounded by white space, in this context.
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The process is very similar to that of substitution frames; look for minimal pairs, similarity of shapes
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What Does it Mean to Have Writing?
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Having Writing
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There is a stereotype that if a culture does not have writing it is uncivilized.
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It is less clear than one might think as to whether a group has a writing system
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The Lahu of Thailand have several writing systems developed for them by outsiders
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Does an introduced writing system “count?”
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Words on Paper
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The process of putting spoken words onto paper is called entextualization It is more than putting words onto paper.
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For instance most people do not speak in separate words
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Example: {dijt yεt] is how we tend to speak “Did you eat yet?”
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Writing systems are not perfect representations of speech, but how to explain differences between <going to> from <gonna>?
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This example is more about ‘categories of people’ and our expectations about them
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More educated as compared to folksy.
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Remember Sarah Palin controversy over her speaking style? Listen to Labov on NPR
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So the question are about power and who controls writing, what stereotypes exist, and what is correct?
Literacy and Literacies 1
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Writing, Reading, Identity, and Power
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How do individuals really learn to read?
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For Biblical missionaries: Can one retain attention if only religious literature is available?
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Does the ability to write cause people to think differently?
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In what was does writing represent actual speech?
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What does it mean to be literate?
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Are there different kinds of literacy?
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Is book literacy the same as map literacy? As computer literacy?
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There appears to be a real link between reading, writing and speaking when we talk about literacy
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Literacy as technology
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Could think of literacy as a kind of technology
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Some call it autonomous approach: the idea that literacy is an independent technology connected to civilization
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Writing is thought to be different from speaking.
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Once you master, though, it should be easy to decipher any piece of writing.
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Literacy as practice
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Of course we can interpret the marks written on a paper differently
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The practice approach to literacy (also called the New Literacy Studies) suggests that literacy is a set of habitual behaviors
(practices) exercised in specific cultural contexts and for specific reasons.
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National Endowments of the Arts reported that only 52% of Americans read a book in 2004.
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But the details tell us they asked about reading for pleasure
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And they defined reading “literature’ as pleasurable reading and ignored other options
Literacy and Literacies 2
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Are there benefits to literacy? Does it change the way you think and reason?
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Autonomous theorists say ‘yes’. That literate people see themselves and the world differently than oral peoples
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They argue that literacy is needed to think abstractly and critically!
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We are going to challenge this one!!!
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Literacy and orality
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We will use the term orality to discuss the ability to hear and speak
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Walter Ong (professor of English literature) saw differences between those who are ‘non- or pre-literate’ and those who are
literate.
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Obviously Western-biased, maybe even bigoted
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See pp. 219-222 for examples that counter Ong’s ideas.
Literacy and Literacies 3
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Literacy and permanence
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Another suggested benefit of literacy is permanence
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If something is written down it is there forever, in this view
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This is a comment on the ‘lack of permanence’ of oral traditions
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But, as anyone who has crashed their computer knows, permanence is not always a part of literacy!
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Also, written documents can be changed/revised.
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Spoken words are becoming more permanent with recordings and such
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Photographic records can also act in place of written words (see the example called “Photographic Truths” on pp. 224-225).
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Literacy and linguistic awareness
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The civilizing effects of literacy have been linked only to alphabetic literacy and not to the other kinds of literacy we outlined
earlier in this chapter.
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Obviously wrong, but literacy can alter how we are aware of the elements of language as a consequence of how we represent
them.
Literacy and Power 1
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By now we are aware of the many ways to define literacy and the many ways to read and write.
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The ethnography of reading
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How these different literacies play out in different cultures is gaining the attention of researchers.
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The ethnography of reading is inspired by Hymes ‘Ethnography of Speaking (Chapter 5)
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Shirley Brice Health used Hymes model to develop the ethnography of reading.
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She looked at literacy events: The occasions in which individuals attempt to read and/or write
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She found that peoples in different communities approached the task of reading in different ways.
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A complete discussion of her findings is on p. 214.
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As we have seen certain kinds of literacy are rewarded and others are less acceptable. This statement reveals a power
relationship with literacy
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Issues of access: Who should read?
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In the Middle Ages, it was appropriate for the elite to be illiterate; scribes did this work
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During the Enlightenment, Western attitudes changed and the elites were literate, but feared the masses if they were
literate.
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This idea was then applied to African American slaves in the US.
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At the end of the 18th century, limited literacy of the working classes was seen as more efficient in the new
industrialized world.
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Public schools grew out of charity schools and had a significant impact on US populace.
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Immigrants were seen to be assimilated through education.
Literacy and Power 2
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Issues of colonialism: Denying literacy, imposing literacy
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Referring back to the Spanish conquest of the Maya, the conquerors were puzzled.
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They had only had experience with non-literate groups and so thought all non-Western were not literate.
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They defined the Mayan writing as pagan and tried to stamp it out.
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Cracking the Mayan Code
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The Mayan shifted to an oral tradition
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Another example of imposed colonial ways is seen in New Guinea.
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Among the Kaluli, the missionaries imposed a writing system they developed.
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Books became a new type of authority, which challenged discussion and consensus.
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The result is a new elite: Those who can read
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Issues of standardization: How to spell
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With people we see that spelling can DIFFER
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<night> versus <nite> for instance
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Remember prescriptive and descriptive grammars? (Chapter 4)
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For Europe, attempts were made as early as the 8 th century
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Written Roman became the standard throughout the Roman Empire.
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Romance languages were a product of applying writing to local venaculars, rather than using the ‘correct’ Roman forms.
The standardization of a writing system and an a spelling system often legitimates particular dialects.
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This is often a political issue
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In the US, the Midland dialect is the standard
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Standard American English
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Literacy and Power 3
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Issues of reform: Changing spellings, reforming scripts
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At American independence, there was the suggestion that we create an independent spelling system.
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Webster slowly ‘Americanized’ the spelling of English words
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He promoted the use of <s> over <c> in words like defense
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Also <er> instead of <re> in words link <center>
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Other examples can be read on p. 219
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Spelling can become linked to cultural identity; we know if a writer is American or English by the spelling.
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Ukrainians and Russians by the re-introduction of <r> or [g] back into the Ukrainian alphabet
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There was a Turkish scriptal reform from 1928-1931 when the Arabic alphabet shifted to Roman.
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One effect of this shift was a change in the number of literate persons
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Due to required coursework, 75% of men and 43% of women were literate in the Roman script (as compared to the 9%
in Arabic prior to the shift)
Ways of Reading, Ways of Writing
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Is the new electronic communication changing the way we read?
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It is blurring the line between written and spoken communications.
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Writers use asterisks, capital letters and such to interject spoken intonation. (I learned this when I capitalized an
announcement in my OL class, meaning to make it stand out, and learned I had shouted at everyone!)
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The new abbreviations in electronic discussion boards are moving into speech (lol, for instance)
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Linear versus Multimodal reading and writing
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She is talking about whether you are a person who reads from start to finish (Linear) or one who bounces between tasks
(Mulitmodal, or what I would call a multitasker)
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Interestingly, she talks to the trouble multimodals have with the creation of outlines (which are linear)
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She mentions a website I love: The Machine is Us/ing Us
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Public versus Private reading and writing
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Reading and writing are often thought of as a solitary activity
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Public reading and writing are being developed
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Blogs is one example, but look more like slowed-down conversation
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An example of an attempt at communal writing shows that this type of writing is likely to be limited
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Michael Stephens tried to write a book online and asked for feedback
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In 2006, he retreated to his office to ‘digest’. Back to the solitary writing.
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Wikipedia and other wiki’s
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Here is an interesting site: How to be a model Wikipedia contributor
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Who writes Wikipedia?
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A different example: A vision of students today
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