Film Language and
Elements of Style
Scope & Sequence
Chapter 1 focused on film as a narrative art form, one with a significant cultural history.
Chapter 2 introduced students to the collaborative filmmaking process and the technology
used to make a film. Now that they understand these basic concepts—film as art, film as a
collaborative process—students are ready to begin analyzing film language.
CHAPTER
THREE
A fundamental principle of the Story of Movies curriculum is that film is more than entertainment or a showcase for stars. Film is a language. Understanding this language is critical in the
21st century when moving images are the source of information for so many aspects of our daily lives. In this chapter,
students learn and use film language. They will identify camera angles and distances, distinguish between high-key and
low-key lighting, and make associations between different camera shots and viewers’ responses. They will learn about
perspective, composition, and cinematic point of view. They will pay attention to how images are framed and sequenced
and combined with sound to create meaning. They will also learn about pacing, continuity, and transitional devices. All of
these are tools which filmmakers use to tell a story.
By the end of the chapter, students will have knowledge of how filmmakers communicate with images and sounds.
This knowledge will help students better appreciate movies they see for entertainment, but more importantly, it will prepare
them to become critical thinkers and critical viewers of the moving images they see every day.
Lesson 1
Activity A
Activity B
Activity C
Activity D
Camera!
Perception and Composition
Camera Distances and Angles
Perspective and Composition
Visual Effects in Motion Pictures
Lesson 2
Activity A
Activity B
Lights!
Light and Shadow
Cinematic Point of View
Lesson 3
Activity A
Activity B
Activity C
Lesson 4
Activity A
Action!
What’s in Motion?
Pacing and Continuity
Scene Transitions
Putting It All Together—Analyzing a Scene
Mise-en-Scène
Film Study Standards
1.0
Film Language. Students learn to read and interpret visual text by developing a film vocabulary, identifying editing
techniques, and analyzing film elements within selected scenes.
3.0
Production and Creative Expression. Students understand that a film is an expression of a director’s personal vision
produced through a collaborative process. Students understand and distinguish the various filmmaking roles that
contribute to the final work of art.
4.0
Viewers’ Response and Aesthetic Valuing. Students understand that a film is a work of art. Students describe,
interpret, and analyze a film’s visual design. They respond to and make informed judgments about a film, deriving
personal meaning from the work. They express their viewpoints through oral and/or written presentations.
5.0
Cross-Curricular Connections. Students first tap their knowledge of other disciplines to study a film. They then
apply what they have learned about film to other disciplines, making connections between film and literature/
language arts, film and history/social studies, film and other arts, and film and sciences.
59
1
2
3
4
Teacher Overview
Perception is making sense of images. Those images may be real, such as a tree along a riverbank. Or they may be created,
such as a photograph or a painting of a tree along a riverbank. Whether images are real or fictional, still or moving,
identifying and interpreting what we see is a necessary critical-thinking skill.
Composition is the art of creating images with a specific purpose or message in mind. Learning how filmmakers compose
images and why they compose them the way they do, therefore, is a necessary first step in learning how to read, or analyze,
a film.
Activity A introduces students to the frame as a format for composition. A frame is a single photograph on a strip of film,
but it is much more. The filmmaker must decide what to include and exclude and where to place one object or person in
relation to another. This arrangement is never random and always intentional. In activity B, students learn more about the
placement of the camera in relation to the characters within the frame—close or far, high or low, and how these distances
and angles can shape the viewer’s perception. Activity C introduces the concept of perspective. Perspective is the filmmaking
technique of creating the illusion of depth and texture. Perspective, in turn, shapes perception.
Learning Outcomes
Students will
define foreground, background, and middle ground;
define what composition is;
define what a frame is;
understand the difference between perception and perspective;
understand point of emphasis in a frame and how size, focus, and movement help create it;
define what a shot is;
identify four types of shots based on camera distance—long shot, medium shot, close-up, and extreme close-up;
identify three types of shots based on camera angle—high-angle shot, low-angle shot, eye-level shot;
understand how principles of visual design—contrast, depth, proportion, and balance—are used in composition
to create perspective;
identify line, shape, space, color, and texture as basic building blocks of visual design.
Key Terms
(Note: Most terms are defined within the activity text that follows. You may also refer to the glossary.)
foreground, background, middle ground, composition, frame, foreground framing, point of emphasis, shot, long shot, establishing
shot, medium shot, close-up, extreme close-up, high-angle shot, low-angle shot, eye-level shot, perspective, contrast, depth, proportion,
balance, line, shape, space, color, texture
Lesson Materials
Activity
DVD
Print
Activity A
Perception and
Composition
Still 3-1:
Perception Ambiguity—Animal
Still 3-2, A: Devils Tower,
Wyoming
Still 3-2, B: Devils Tower,
A Closer Look
Still 3-2, C: “Close Encounter”
with Devils Tower
Still 3-3: Klaatu’s Close Encounter
Still 3-4: The Professor
60
Lesson Materials (cont.)
Activity
Activity B
Camera Distances
and Angles
Activity C
Perspective and
Composition
Activity C
Visual Effects in
Motion Pictures
DVD
Print
Graphic Organizer 3-1:
Point of Emphasis
Graphic Organizer 3-2:
Camera-to-Subject Distances
Graphic Organizer 3-3:
Camera-to-Subject Angles
Visual-Thinking Activity 3-1:
Shots and Significance
Still 3-5: Active Vision—Woman
Graphic Organizer 3-4:
Three Principles of Visual Design
Graphic Organizer 3-5:
The Building Blocks of
Visual Design
Visual-Thinking Activity 3-2:
Analyzing Perspective in
The Day the Earth Stood Still
Still 3-8: Still Life and Street
Still 3-9: Klaatu and the Professor
Graphic Organizer 3-6:
A Brief History of Visual Effects
Still 3-12: Fay Wray in the Jungle
Stills 3-13, A–C:
Bluescreen Technique:
Background,
Foreground Elements, and
a Composite Image
Screening Sheet 3-1:
Introduction to Visual Effects
Teacher’s Note: No Screening
Sheet for Film Clip 3-2
Film Clip 3-1: Introduction to
Visual Effects
Film Clip 3-2, Enrichment:
Dancing on the Ceiling
1
2
Stills 3-6, A–H:
Shots and Significance
Still 3-7: Bobby Teaches Klaatu
Still 3-10: The Breakfast Table
Stills 3-11, A–E:
Analyzing Perspective in
The Day the Earth Stood Still
Concept
The composition, or arrangement of elements, of a single frame of film communicates
meaning. How a person perceives an image is based in part on its composition and in
part on the expectations and world-knowledge of the viewer.
Engage
Display
Still 3-1: Perception Ambiguity—Animal. Ask students to describe what they see. Some may at first
perceive the bill of a duck while others may perceive the head of a bunny. Allow students time to study the image to see
how many can perceive it as one thing (the duck) and then as another (the bunny).
Share this information with students:
The “duck-bunny” image is an example of how people bring their expectations, world-knowledge, and even memories into play when
interpreting images. Studies were done with children, in which testers showed them the image and asked them to identify what it was.
According to one study, children tested on Easter Sunday were more likely to see the figure as a rabbit. Children tested in October
tended to see the image as a duck or “a similar bird.” (Source for study: http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~kihlstrm/JastrowDuck.htm)
61
3
4
Ask: Why would the time of year influence how the children perceived the image? Encourage students to discuss how our personal
experiences influence our understanding of the world and our expectations.
Explain that this lesson’s activities are about perception, or how we view images; and about composition, how filmmakers, in
particular, arrange elements within images.
Explain & Explore
Display
Still 3-2, A: Devils Tower, Wyoming. Without identifying the
unusual land formation as Devils Tower, ask students to identify what is being
shown in this photograph. Encourage close observation by asking them to identify
several different objects in the photograph.
Guided Discussion
1. What do you notice first in this photograph? Most students will say they noticed the tower first because of its size.
Tell them that the tower is a monolith, a tall block of solid stone standing by itself. Located in Wyoming, the monolith
rises 1,267 above the Belle Fourche River.
2. What other elements besides the monolith do you see? grassy field, trees, clouds in the sky
Define foreground and background, using this image to illustrate both concepts. Foreground is the part of a picture or
scene which appears to be nearest the camera lens and therefore, the viewer. Directors may place objects of significance
in the foreground as a way to draw the viewer’s attention to that object. Background is the part of the picture or scene
which appears to be in the distance. Directors carefully plan what objects or people to place both in the foreground
and background of a shot as a way to create meaning or focus the viewer’s attention on a specific element.
3. In your opinion, why did the photographer choose to include the land surrounding the rock formation
in this image? How does this foreground shape your perception of the tower? By including the trees in the
foreground, the photographer conveys a better sense of the size of the rock formation. This composition
also suggests distance.
4. What single words might you use to describe this photograph? Answers will vary. Some students may simply
suggest specific details they can see, like rock, monolith, trees, mountain. Others, however, may suggest words which
are connotative, such as majestic, barren, cold, lonely. Accept all reasonable answers.
5. The name that non-native Americans have given this natural rock formation is Devils Tower (for Native
American names, see below). What does that name suggest? Answers will vary. Devils Tower suggests something
evil or menacing. Encourage students to comment on whether the image itself as shown suggests anything dark or sinister.
Display
Still 3-2, B: Devils Tower, A Closer Look. Explain that this image is
also of Devils Tower.
Guided Discussion
1. How does this image differ from the first image? This is the same monolith but
shown closer. The furrowed columns of the rock are more clearly visible in this image.
2. A photographer controls the camera and therefore controls what you see.
What does the photographer want you to notice in this image? Whereas the
first image seemed to emphasize the size of the tower, this image focuses more closely
on the texture of the stone itself.
Emphasize these two key points: (1) Images, like printed text, can be read; and (2) Images, like words, have both denotations
and connotations. In film study, denotation is the factual meaning of an image, or what is seen. Connotations, on the
other hand, are the associations a viewer makes with an image. Those associations are based on our past experiences
and our world knowledge and expectations. Connotations are not dictionary-specific. They are open-ended, meaning
that two viewers may have two different interpretations of the same image.
Continue to display
Still 3-2, B and share the information below with students. The text comes from the plaque
erected on the site by the National Park Service.
62
Devils Tower, an important landmark for Plains Indian tribes long before the white man reached Wyoming, was called Mateo
Teppe, or Grizzly Bear Lodge, by the Sioux. A number of Indian legends describe the origin of Devils Tower. One legend tells
about seven little girls being chased onto a low rock to escape attacking bears. Their prayers for help were heeded. The rock
carried them upward to safety as the claws of the leaping bears left furrowed columns in the sides of the ascending tower.
Ultimately, the rock grew so high that the girls reached the sky where they were transformed into the constellation known as
the Pleiades.
Ask students how this story changes their perception of the images of Devils Tower, especially the second closer-up
image. Encourage discussion to include why one group of people might perceive the rock formation as having been
clawed by a grizzly bear, and another group of people might perceive it as something evil. This goes back to the opening
point made in the Engage section of this activity, i.e., people’s perceptions are based upon their expectations, personal experiences,
and world-knowledge.
Display
Still 3-2, C: “Close Encounter” with Devils Tower. Explain that
this is a frame from the film Close Encounters of the Third Kind (1977, directed
by Steven Spielberg). Explain that the director shot some of the film on location
at Devils Tower in Wyoming. So while this is a fictional image, one created for a
movie, it does include a real geographic location.
Guided Discussion
1. How does this image of Devils Tower differ from the images you saw earlier? It is nighttime. Details of the
foreground and rock tower are indiscernible. The tower is a silhouette.
2. What other elements do you notice in this image and how do these elements alter your perception of what
you see and your interpretation of what may be happening? Answers will vary. The red lights above the tower may
suggest to some students a volcano erupting. Others may say the red lights are stars. Still others may identify the lights
as a spaceship. The blue lights at the base of the monolith may suggest a facility or compound of some sort. The straight
lines of bluish lights in the lower third of the image may suggest a road, a landing strip, or a building complex.
3. What emotions might the composition of this image suggest? Now that students know the name of the monolith,
Devils Tower, they may suggest danger, fear, or evil, suggested by the darkness and the contrast with the mysterious
lights. Others may associate this image with the legend of the seven girls saved from the leaping bears and transported
into the heavens and so they might provide very different emotions, having to do with freedom or rescue.
Define frame and composition. A frame is a single photograph on a strip of film. Many thousands of single frames make
up a movie. Composition is the arrangement of all the elements within the frame. The elements work together to create
meaning. The arrangement of elements is never accidental; it always suggests meaning. Composition is one of the
primary means by which the filmmaker tells a story. Learning to identify elements of composition, therefore, is an
important visual-literacy skill.
Display
Still 3-3: Klaatu’s Close Encounter.
Guided Discussion
1. Who or what appears to be closest to the camera (and therefore the viewer) in this shot? Klaatu
2. Who or what appears to be in the distance? Soldiers with weapons
3. If there were no soldiers in the background, how would that change your
understanding of what is happening? Answers will vary. Students should note
that the soldiers appear to be approaching the figure on the ground. This suggests
that the figure is either in danger or dangerous. If the soldiers had no weapons
drawn, the meaning would differ somewhat.
If there were no soldiers at all, the suggestion of danger would be less obvious.
Define foreground framing. This is a visual effect created by enclosing or boxing a
subject in the middle ground (the space between foreground and background) or
the background with an object or objects in the foreground. This technique creates a three-dimensional effect, especially
when the foreground elements are in sharp focus.
Display
Still 3-4: The Professor as an example of foreground framing. Discuss the image as recommended below.
63
1
2
3
4
Guided Discussion
1. Where is the professor placed within the frame—foreground, middle ground
or background? Middle ground. Emphasize that the lamp, the bookcase and the
rear wall represent the background.
2. Who or what are the objects that frame the professor? The two men, one of
whom is Klaatu, stand in the foreground with their backs to the audience.
3. Are the foreground elements in sharp or soft focus? How do you know?
Sharp focus. We know because we can see the folds in the men’s clothing and other details including the collars of their
shirts and coats.
4. What purpose does foreground and/or background framing fulfill? It helps to focus the viewer’s attention to a
key object/person(s) in the frame. Some students may feel as if they are a part of the scene, standing behind the two men
in the foreground.
Close
Ask students to search through magazines and newspapers for photographs which make good use of foreground and
background and/or foreground framing.
On Location: American Geography and Hollywood
From sea to shining sea, American landscapes, cities, and monuments
have long had a starring role in movies. Perhaps the biggest star of all,
however, is Monument Valley, Utah. Learn more about the movies
filmed in this national park by going to The Story of Movies Web site,
www.storyofmovies.org.
$FWLYLW\% &DPHUD'LVWDQFHVDQG$QJOHV
Concept
Filmmakers use camera distances and angles to control how an audience views the characters and objects within the frame
and to suggest meaning about these characters and objects.
Engage
Display
Still 3-5: Active Vision—Woman. Ask students to stare at the image for at least 10 to 20 seconds. Then ask
them what they see. Some may see a young girl wearing a bonnet, facing away from the viewer. Others will see the face of
an old woman in profile.
If students look at the image long enough, their perception may indeed change so that those
who first saw the young girl now see the old woman and vice versa. Why does this shift in
perception happen?
While expectations and world-knowledge shape perception, so does viewpoint. In this image, the
perception reversal happens not only because of the composition but because the viewer’s eyes
focus on a different section of the image. Some regions of the image favor the orientation of the girl
and others favor the orientation of the old woman. For example, if students shift their angle of view
from the girl’s cheek/chin downward to what at first appears to be her choker necklace, their eyes
will interpret the lines and shapes differently, suggesting an old woman’s mouth. The girl’s cheek therefore becomes
the old woman’s nose; the girl’s ear becomes the old woman’s eye. The cheek/nose and ear/eye are intentionally drawn
to be ambiguous, and what we see depends on the angle from which we view the picture.
64
This image illustrates that vision is an active process which attempts to make sense of incoming information. After a few
minutes, most students will be able to switch easily—and quickly—from one perception or viewing angle to another.
Emphasize that moving images, like still images, also require the eye and brain to make sense of incoming information.
Explain & Explore
Display and/or distribute
recommended below.
Graphic Organizer 3-1: Point of Emphasis. Review the key terms on the illustration as
1
2
Point of Emphasis
The point of emphasis is the object which is most significant within a frame. The director and the cinematographer
work together to carefully plan each shot with the point of emphasis in mind. There are multiple ways to draw attention to the most significant object, including the following:
Size and Closeness of Object
Larger, closer objects draw the eye. Smaller, distant objects are less likely to catch the viewer’s attention initially.
Focus
Objects in sharp focus draw the eye more readily than objects which are slightly blurred. If a smaller, distant object
in the background is in sharp focus, it will catch the eye more readily than a larger, closer object in the foreground
which is blurred.
Movement
Motion or lack of motion will draw the eye. If the objects within a frame are static, the object which is moving
will be the point of emphasis. In contrast, if most objects within the frame are moving, very often what catches
our attention is the one object that is static. Explain that students will learn more about movement in lesson 3.
Display again
Still 3-3: Klaatu’s Close Encounter and
Still 3-4: The Professor. Discuss with students the
point of emphasis in each. In Still 3-3, the size and closeness of Klaatu make him the point of emphasis. Students may
also note that the other characters within the frame are looking at him and that, too, emphasizes him. In Still 3-4,
although the professor is in the background, he too is in sharp focus, which makes him the point of emphasis.
Define again shot. A shot is a segment of film. It is made up of a series of single frames set in motion.
Display and/or distribute
Graphic Organizer 3-2: Camera-to-Subject Distances to introduce students to four
different types of shots. Each position changes how the audience sees the people or objects within the frame. Review the
key points on the graphic organizer as suggested below.
Distance
In film language, distance is the closeness of a subject as determined by the placement of the camera. Filmmakers
use distance to establish size and settings or to direct the viewer’s attention to the most important elements in the frame.
Long Shot
The camera is far from the subject. The audience can look to the left or to the right and see any number of details in
the frame. In long shots, the subject generally appears small in relation to the surroundings. A long shot is often
called an establishing shot because it provides an overview of the time and place of the action.
Medium Shot
The camera has moved closer to the subject, usually showing the person from about the waist up.
Close-Up
A close-up allows the cinematographer to focus the audience’s attention on a specific detail. This detail fills the entire
frame. Faces, hands, or individual objects are often shown in close-up. Stress that filmmakers use close-ups and
extreme close-ups for a reason and not just to play with the zoom lens! The close-up provides what the filmmaker
believes is necessary or meaningful information for the audience.
Extreme Close-Up
In an extreme close-up, a small detail ordinarily lost in a long shot or medium shot, perhaps even in a close-up,
now fills the frame and becomes an obvious point of emphasis.
Display and/or distribute
Graphic Organizer 3-3: Camera-to-Subject Angles. In addition to distance, camera
placement can also determine an angle. Angles alter the way an audience sees the subject within the frame. Review the
key points as suggested below.
Angle
Angle is the direction from which the camera views the subject. Filmmakers use angles to create interest but also to
suggest meaning or relationships and sometimes to evoke a particular response in the viewer.
65
3
4
High Angle
In a high-angle shot, the camera is above the subject and looks down. This can make the subject
appear small, weak, or unimportant.
Low Angle
In a low-angle shot, the camera is below the subject and looks up. This can
make the subject appear large, powerful, or impressive.
Eye Level
The camera is neither high nor low but is focused on the subject at about eye-level, or straight on. The subject appears
in normal proportions, neither small nor large.
Distribute
Visual-Thinking Activity 3-1: Shots and Significance. Students will use this sheet while analyzing camera
distances and angles and points of emphasis for eight movie stills displayed on the DVD.
Display
Stills 3-6, A–H: Shots and Significance to illustrate camera distances and angles. Explain that distances and
angles give filmmakers ways to draw attention to the point of emphasis in the frame. Allow students time to record their
responses to each still before moving on to the next image. Recommended answers are below.
Answer Key for Visual-Thinking Activity 3-1: Shots and Significance
Image
Type of Shot
8
close-up,
high angle
9
medium shot,
low angle
:
medium shot,
eye level
;
What is the point of emphasis?
How do you know?
The shot shows the audience what the soldiers see as
if from their eyes—the device Klaatu was holding
when he was shot.
The camera looks up at Gort. He dominates the
frame and so is the point of emphasis. The low angle
suggests not only Gort’s height (he is larger than all
humans in the movie) but also suggests his power.
The frame has many characters but the point of
emphasis is not any one solider. It is the weapons
they hold. Their body positions, seen here in profile,
and the direction in which the weapons point tell the
audience that something is happening, or about to
happen, outside the frame.
The spaceship is the largest object in the frame and
so dominates it as the point of emphasis. The long
distance and high angle make the people indistinguishable. While the crowd is large, the spaceship
nevertheless is dominant.
long shot,
high angle
66
Answer Key for Visual-Thinking Activity 3-1: Shots and Significance (cont.)
Image
close-up,
eye level
<
=
>
medium shot,
eye level
extreme close–
up, eye-level
long shot,
eye-level
?
What is the point of emphasis?
How do you know?
Type of Shot
The point of emphasis is Gort’s visor, in particular the
ray of light. This light is the brightest element in the
frame but also it is centralized and at direct eye level.
The point of emphasis is neither one man or the other. While
Klaatu is physically taller, both men are presented as equals.
Remind students that Bobby has told Klaatu that the professor
is the smartest man in the world and so he is, at least on Earth,
equal to Klaatu. Some students may suggest that having them
on opposite sides of the desk suggests they come from different
worlds.
The point of emphasis is the diamond because it is
central, at direct eye level. The filmmaker wants the
audience to notice this as it will be the item that
convinces Tom Stevens who Mr. Carpenter really is.
The point of emphasis is Lincoln because his size is proportionately
larger than the other two characters’. However, draw students’
attention to Klaatu’s body position. He stands in profile, mirroring
Lincoln’s profile. Bobby is looking up at both of them. This
arrangement suggests a relationship between Klaatu’s aspirations
and Lincoln’s during the American Civil War. Lincoln fought to
save the Union; Klaatu will fight to save the universe.
Think More About It
1.
Why does a filmmaker shoot a scene from different camera distances and angles? Why not
keep a fixed distance and angle on the subject throughout the entire scene? Answers will
vary, and while some students may say “for variety,” they should focus on the main idea that camera
distances and angles control what the audience sees and how, and thereby create meaning.
2.
Why might a director decide to show a close-up of a character or an object? To direct the audience’s attention to an important detail, such as Gort’s death ray or a character’s facial expression
which suggests what the character may be thinking or feeling.
Close
Display
Still 3-7: Bobby Teaches Klaatu. Ask students if they recall the dialogue
between the characters at this point in the film. It isn’t necessary for them to remember
the exact words but rather the main idea that Bobby is showing Klaatu the memorials
and Arlington Cemetery where many soldiers are buried. Bobby is surprised when
Klaatu asks him about war.
Explain that in all the other shots thus far in the film which show Klaatu, he seems to
tower over the other characters. This image, however, suggests a different relationship between the two characters.
Ask students to write a paragraph on this image, describing the composition and providing an interpretation of why
the director decided to have Bobby standing and Klaatu seated.
67
1
2
3
4
Concept
Contrast, depth, and texture are three principles of visual design which a filmmaker may use when composing a shot.
Other elements of composition include proportion, balance, line, shape, space, and color—all of which contribute to
an image’s composition and perspective.
Engage
Display
Still 3-8: Still Life and Street. Tell students you will display the image for
three minutes. During that time they should study the composition, specifically noting
the objects and the placement of those objects one to another. Do not allow students
to comment aloud at first on the image, as each individual may not perceive it in quite
the same way.
Turn off the DVD player so that the image is no longer visible. Ask students to describe
what they saw. Record their observations on the chalkboard or overhead projector.
Responses will include but certainly are not limited to objects in the foreground, such
as the cards, the pipe, the books. Others will have noted the street, the buildings, the
laundry strung from one building to another. Allow students to interact, even debate
what was or was not included in the picture.
Ask: Was this a picture of items on a table top? Or was it an image of a city street? Again, allow time for students to respond.
Tell students that the picture was done by a Dutch artist named M.C. Escher. It was the first of a number of prints he
would make that captured “impossible realities.” He incorporated visual illusions into his images.
Display
Still 3-8 again. Ask students to explain what the “impossible reality” is in this image. The foreground of
the image is a desk and yet the background is a landscape of buildings and a narrow street which seems to disappear
around a corner in the distance. The image is two-dimensional and yet, in addition to placing a village on a table top,
Escher creates the illusion of a third dimension—depth. He does so with lines and shapes, shadings and textures.
Explain & Explore
Define perspective. Perspective is a technique for representing three-dimensional space on a flat surface. A movie screen
is a flat surface. The images on that screen are two-dimensional, that is having both width and height but not depth.
Filmmakers can create the illusion of depth, however.
Display and/or distribute
Graphic Organizer 3-4: Three Principles of Visual Design. Explain that a principle
is a guideline or a theory. When composing images—whether photographs or paintings or a shot for a film—the artist
is aware of and follows certain artistic principles. However, a guideline is just that—a way of doing something, and
filmmakers, like all artists, often purposely break the rules in order to create a more interesting image or to suggest
meaning. Discuss the key concepts as recommended below.
Contrast
In photography, contrast is the difference between light and dark areas. Filmmakers, too, use contrast when composing shots. In high contrast shots, colors are sharp and clearly defined. In black and white films, like The Day the
Earth Stood Still, high contrast will eliminate shadings of gray. In low contrast, a black and white film will have no
pure blacks or whites but rather tones of gray predominate.
Note: Students will learn more about how lighting affects contrast in Lesson 3.
Depth
Depth is the distance or measurement of something, either from front to back or top to bottom. In photography,
depth is the perception of distance. A photograph is flat and has no depth. It is two-dimensional. And so the
photographer must suggest depth through composition. The movie screen is also two-dimensional. And so the
filmmaker, like the photographer, must create the perception of depth when composing shots for
a scene.
Proportion and Balance
Proportion is the size or shape of something. In paintings or photographs, proportion results when the sizes and
shapes of elements within the composition are combined harmoniously.
Balance is the relative visual “weight” of the objects within the frame. Ask students to imagine a playground teetertotter. Two children of equal weight will be able to balance the teeter-totter horizontally, one opposite the other on
68
each seat. If one child is larger or weighs more, or if two children sit on one side, the teeter-totter becomes
unbalanced. In art, balance involves the placement of elements within the frame. Symmetrical balance is when
objects of approximate equal size or weight appear on both sides of the frame. An asymmetrical balance is when
one side is more heavily weighted.
Display
Still 3-9: Klaatu and the Professor. Ask students to comment on the
proportion and balance in this image. Note that while Klaatu is taller, both men are
in proportion to one another. Klaatu is not giant, and the professor is not tiny. Also,
the image has near symmetrical balance (not completely balanced) with one character
on each side of the frame, looking at one another. Emphasize too that the bookcase
in the background as well as the wallpaper add depth to the image.
Display
Still 3-10: The Breakfast Table. Ask students to comment on
the depth, proportion, and balance in this image. Note that Klaatu is alone on
his side of the table and three other characters sit opposite him. This image is more
asymmetrical, and it is so for a reason. Klaatu is the stranger, the alien. He is not one
of the humans.
Display and/or distribute
Graphic Organizer 3-5: The Building Blocks of
Visual Design. How do artists create contrast, depth, proportion, and balance in visual compositions? They use some
basic tools. Discuss the key concepts as recommended below.
Line
A line is a basic building block for visual design. Lines can be both straight and curved. Straight lines are static
while curved lines are more dynamic, suggesting motion. Line direction includes horizontal, vertical, and diagonal.
Line can lead the eye from one area of the composition to another. Artists and filmmakers often use diagonal lines
to create depth.
Shape
Shapes are created when lines form a square, rectangle, triangle, circle, or other regular shape. Shapes can be
geometric (like a triangle) or naturalistic. An example of a naturalistic shape is the irregular shoreline of a lake.
A lake is rarely a perfect circle but rather has inlets and peninsulas.
Space
Space, or the area between and around objects, will likewise affect perception of an object. A great deal of space
around an object can give it greater emphasis or it can make it appear small. Crowding objects tightly together will
have a very different visual effect. Emphasize this key point: the empty spaces within a frame are just as significant
as the occupied areas. The use of space is intentional and suggests meaning.
Color
Color, including the colors black and white and different shades of gray, is another important element of visual
design. Color can define shapes and forms and space. Color can communicate in other ways as well, creating points
of emphasis and symbolic associations.
Texture
Texture is the quality of a surface which can be felt or seen. In real life, people can run their fingers over a
surface and feel its smoothness or softness, hardness or roughness. They cannot do this with a photograph or
motionpicture, for the surface is flat. Instead, texture must be implied or suggested through visual design.
Ensure that students understand the difference between a 3-dimensional object, such as a rock, and films, which
are 2-dimensional, having just width and height but no depth. Adding texture to visual design can suggest depth.
Distribute
Visual-Thinking Activity 3-2: Analyzing Perspective in The Day the Earth Stood Still. Students will
use this sheet while analyzing Stills 3-11, A–E, presented on the DVD.
Stills 3-11, A–E: Analyzing Perspective in The Day the Earth Stood Still to illustrate examples of line,
Display
shape, space, texture and color.
69
1
2
3
4
Answer Key for Visual-Thinking Activity 3-2:
Analyzing Perspective in The Day the Earth Stood Still
Still
Perspective
How does the filmmaker create contrast, depth, and/or proportion and balance
in this image? Consider the use of line, shape, space, color, and texture.
8
9
:
;
The vertical cell bars draw attention upward to Gort; the horizontal bar
draws our attention to the legs just below it. Gort’s head is shiny and contrasts
with the other dull and darker elements so that even though proportionately
much smaller, Gort is what the viewer notices. By allowing Gort’ s head to be
visible between two of the cell bars in the foreground, the filmmaker creates depth.
Students should note the use of lines and angles in this shot. Not only do we have
vertically striped wallpaper on the right and in the background, but there appears
to be a vertical shadow as well, which helps to create height. The banister’s angle
and newel post draw our attention to the people climbing the stairs. Some students
may also note that the characters’ clothing is a contrast of light (Mrs. Crockett)
and dark (Klaatu).
Gort is so large in the foreground and Helen is so small in the background that
the viewer perceives depth. The fact that Helen is sitting and Gort is apparently
standing also makes Helen appear even smaller. Some students will note that
her feet appear not to be touching the floor, again suggesting a larger space.
The balance here is asymmetrical—Gort is larger and so has greater visual
weight (again intentionally). The horizontal lines of the background wall suggest
an open circular space, but there are also vertical lines (one directly behind
Helen) as well as diagonal lines. Once again, Gort’s shiny, smooth texture
contrasts with the softer lines of the background.
By placing Klaatu’s body to the left in the image, the composition emphasizes
the size of the unseen inner chamber of the saucer. Some students may comment
on the repeated use of lines in the composition of many the shots in this film.
Here again, line and angle create the illusion of the interior of a circular spaceship.
The pattern created by the lines and angles helps create texture so that the viewer
perceives a circular interior wall rather than a flat surface. Encourage students to
look more closely at the texture of the floor in the lower right corner of the frame
and compare that to the texture of the floor to the left where Klaatu is. The lines
are more clearly seen on the right foreground than where Klaatu is. This use of
gradient, or gradually less detailed, texture also helps create depth.
70
Answer Key for for Screening Sheet 3-2:
Analyzing Perspective in The Day the Earth Stood Still (cont.)
The composition uses foreground framing and proportion to create depth.
Students should note the placement of the characters, especially on the left.
Instead of showing them with their backs completely to the viewer, one behind
the other, the placement of the characters creates a curved line directing the
viewer’s attention to what the characters are seeing—the television set in the
background. The vertical lines of the curtain in the background help to create
height and the perception of a larger room. All characters are in proportion but
the balance is asymmetrical in that we have multiple (though smaller) people on
the left. The single character on the right is in the foreground and larger and so
he adds balance to the composition.
<
Think More About It
In Still A, Klaatu is imprisoned. In Still C, Helen is imprisoned. How does the use of lines in Still C suggest this?
Although Helen is not in a jail cell, the use of lines in the shot, although horizontal, suggests bars.
Close
Ask students to explain in their own words how perspective in an image helps to shape their perception of that image.
Ensure students understand the difference between these two visual literacy concepts: perception is how a person interprets an image; perspective is a visual design technique that creates contrast, depth and texture and in this way shapes
our perception.
Emphasize the difference between the composition of still images and moving images: A photograph or a painting is static.
That means no matter how long you stare at the image, it will not change. Visual design in a motion picture uses the same elements and principles of visual design as a photograph or a painting does. However, a film is dynamic. It is always changing.
Activity D Visual Effects in Motion Pictures
Concept
The technology of special effects has a rich history. Many of the techniques developed in the early decades of the 20th
century are still used by filmmakers today.
Engage
Ask students to explain in their own words what visual effects might mean, relative to moving images. The following
definition comes from Public Broadcasting’s Web site for Nova, a science program: effects achieved with the aid of
photographic or digital technology, occurring after the principal photography, or main shooting, of a film; includes miniatures,
optical and digital effects, matte paintings, stop-motion animation, and computer-generated imagery (CGI).
Display
Still 3-12: Fay Wray in the Jungle. Explain that this image is a still from the 1933 movie King Kong
(directed by Merian C. Cooper and Ernest B. Schoedsack). Ask students to explain how the filmmakers, without the
use of computers which were not around in 1933, might have created the image so that King Kong is so much larger
than the woman on the branch. Some students may suggest creating miniature models of either the ape or the woman.
In this activity, students will have the opportunity to view a scene from this film and to learn more about the early
technology used in this film to create this and other special effects.
71
1
2
3
4
Explain & Explore
Emphasize that while many present-day filmmakers use computers to generate visual effects, the techniques developed
by artists and filmmakers in the first half of the 20th century (prior to computers) are also still used. Learning some of
those basic techniques is a critical skill for becoming cinema-literate.
Display
Graphic Organizer 3-6: A Brief History of Visual Effects. Review the key terms on the organizer as
recommended below:
Early SFX Timeline
SFX
This is a common abbreviation for special effects. Special effects are techniques filmmakers use to create an
action or image that cannot practically be achieved through normal physical means. Special effects can be both
visual and/or audio.
Substitution Shot
The camera is stopped and actors freeze while an object or actor is exchanged for another. The first use of
this technique appears to be in the 1895 film The Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots (directed by Alfred Clark).
Mary is a historical figure who was beheaded. In the film, just moments before the execution, the actress
portraying Mary was replaced with a dummy.
Stop Motion
Stop motion is a filmmaking technique where objects appear to move naturally when in fact the object has
been physically manipulated between each frame of film. When the frames are played in sequence, the object
appears to move on its own. A French magician named Georges Méliès used stop motion when making his
film A Trip to the Moon in 1902.
Matte Shot
A matte is a visual mask. It covers part of the picture in a frame so that it is not exposed. Once the mask is
removed, another image can be put in its place. A matte shot therefore allows filmmakers to combine more
than one image on the same frame of film. One of the first films to use this technique was the 1903 film
The Great Train Robbery (directed by Edwin S. Porter). The shot featured two images combined together on
the same frame of film, a train and a window. Put together it appeared to the audience as if they were looking
at a train through the train station window.
Matte Painting
Matte painting is a visual technique where a realistic, hand-painted image is combined with live action footage.
The painting generally suggests the actors are in a location other than a film studio set.
Miniatures, Models & Sets Built to Scale
Creating miniature models of humans and animals as well as objects, buildings or settings is another type of
visual effect. This technique can be found in the 1925 film The Lost World (directed by Harry O. Hoyt), a story
about a land where dinosaurs still lived. The dinosaur models, as well as stop motion photography, created the
illusion that the creatures (and therefore the “lost world”) were real. Decades later, in 1970, miniature models
of two U. S. World War II battleships, the USS Oklahoma and the USS Nevada, were realistically built for the
film Tora! Tora! Tora! (directed by Richard Fleischer). Those battleships were sunk during the Japanese attack
on Pearl Harbor but through special effects, audiences could relive that historic event.
Emphasize this key point about miniatures and models: Filming the model/miniature involves more than just pointing the camera and shooting. Camera angles and distances as well as types of lighting can make a model look realistic.
Conversely, if the cinematographer just aims and shoots, the models/miniatures can look to be just what they are—imitations of the real thing.
72
Bluescreen
Bluescreen is a type of matte shot. In this process,
the actor works in front of a blue (or sometimes green)
backdrop. The blue is later replaced by another image.
The result is that the actor appears to be in another environment when in fact the actor was filmed in a studio.
Example: A nanny named Mary Poppins hovers in the
sky over London, seemingly able to fly with the use of
her umbrella. In reality, the nanny is in a studio but the
use of a bluescreen allows the filmmaker to insert the
image of sky in the background. The 1933 film King
Kong also used the bluescreen technique.
Display
Stills 3-13, A–C: Bluescreen Technique:
Background, Foreground Elements, and Composite Image
to illustrate how the bluescreen process works. Be certain
students understand the difference between background (the
part of the image that appears to be in the distance), foreground
(the part of the image that appears to be close), and composite
(an image created by combining two different images onto one
piece of film)
Continue discussing key elements on
Still 3-13, A:
Background.
2
Still 3-13, B:
Foreground Elements.
The actors perform in
front of a bluescreen.
Objects, if needed, are
also added.
Still 3-13, C:
Composite Image. The
background shot and
the foreground shot
are combined to create
a third image.
Graphic Organizer 3-6.
Motion Control
This technique uses a computer to operate the camera for the effect of duplicating the same movement repeatedly.
The 1977 film Star Wars (directed by George Lucas) used this technique. It allowed the movement of models and
live actors to be filmed more exactly and therefore more realistically.
Motion Capture
This technology refers to the process of capturing real-life movements and then applying them to a computergenerated image. Example: Director Peter Jackson used motion capture technology to make his trilogy of films,
Lord of the Rings. The director first recorded the movements of actor Andy Serkis and then in the studio incorporated Serkis’ movements into the computer-generated character known as Gollum. Facial motion capture is the
same process but focusing on facial expressions.
Distribute
Screening Sheet 3-1: Introduction to Visual Effects. Explain that they will see segments from three
different films: King Kong (1933, directed by Merian C. Cooper and Ernest B. Schoedsack), King Kong (2005, directed
by Peter Jackson), and The Thief of Bagdad (1940, directed by Ludwig Berger and Michael Powell). These films will
illustrate the special effects terms discussed on Graphic Organizer 3-6. Teacher’s Note: SOM recommends that you
screen each segment twice. During the first screening, the students will watch to see what happens; in the second
screening they will focus more specifically on how the visual illusions may have been created.
Prior to screening the first segment, share with students this information about the 1933 version of King Kong.
The 1933 film King Kong was one of the most influential films ever made, due in large part to its use of visual
effects. Many of the techniques used by artist and animator Willis O’Brien in 1933 continue to be used in presentday films.
The story takes place, in part, on a “lost island” where dinosaurs still live -- as do giant spiders and a giant gorilla.
O’Brien created his creatures as miniature models. In most frames that show Kong from head to toe, the creature
is an18-inch metal skeleton with ball-and-socket joints to allow its arms and legs to move. Padded cotton covered
the skeleton to give Kong his girth. O’Brien used rabbit skin to suggest Kong’s fur. For close-up shots, O’Brien built
a large bust (shoulders and head) of Kong, placing it on a dolly or platform with wheels so that it could move.
The camera focused, of course, on the head and shoulders and the audience never saw the dolly underneath.
In other scenes in the movie, the filmmaker created a giant gorilla hand. Actress Fay Wray wriggles in the clutch
of Kong’s fingers.
View
Film Clip 3-1: Introduction to Visual Effects, Part 1—King Kong, 1933.
73
1
3
4
Allow time for students to record their observations, then discuss their responses. Please note that students may need
to refer to Graphic Organizer 3-6 on visual effects to make inferences based on their observations. Recommended
answers are below. These answers include some additional information you can share with the students on how the
effects were achieved.
Answer Key for Screening Sheet 3-1:
Introduction to Visual Effects, Part 1—King Kong, 1933
Illusion
How did the filmmakers create the illusion?
A long shot of King Kong climbing the
Empire State Building in New York City
.
Answers will vary. Accept all reasonable responses, then share
this information with students: King Kong is a miniature and
the building itself is also a model built to scale. Stop motion
photography gives the impression that the ape is climbing.
King Kong strikes his chest in a show
of ferociousness
Since King Kong is a miniature model, this is achieved through
stop motion photography.
King Kong’s fur appears to ripple in the
wind as the planes buzz past him
Answers will vary. Many students who listened carefully
to the introduction above will remember that the miniature
of the ape was covered in rabbit skin. The stop motion
photography and movement of the miniature’s arms and
legs give the impression of the fur moving.
Airplanes dive-bomb King Kong as he
clings to the Empire State Building
The long shot of the airplanes, showing the city below,
was achieved by various means: model airplanes plus a
full-scale (life-sized) model or mock-up of a plane’s
interior, with a gun on a swivel mount –the latter for
close-up shots of the pilots. Some students may also
correctly note that live action of the airplanes seems to
be included in the segment. The planes were Curtis 02C-2s
and the pilots were real-life Navy flyers.
Teacher’s Note: Since this film was made in 1933 before computer technology, neither motion control or motion
capture could have been used.
Prior to screening the second segment, share this information with students:
In the 2005 film version of King Kong, the filmmakers used motion capture technology to create a computer generated image
(CGI) of the great ape. The movements for Kong were created by an actor wearing a lycra body suit in a studio. Taped onto his
suit—the arms, legs, stomach, shoulders, back—were approximately 60 small reflective tags, or markers. These were similar
to the reflectors that are often used on running shoes or on bicycles. Imagine this scenario: A person is jogging (or riding a
bicycle) down the street at night. A car comes around the corner. The headlights strike the reflective material on the shoes or
bike, allowing the driver to see the person. In the movie studio, the filmmakers employed the same concept. The reflected spots
of light on the actor’s suit would allow the computer to “see” the actor’s movements.
74
More than 50 cameras were set up around the studio to capture the reflected light of the markers on the actor’s suit. Once the
cameras began rolling, the actor went to work. He growled, pounded his chest, and climbed a scaffold. The reflectors beamed
his movements into the cameras and the cameras input the movements into a computer. Later, the computer specialists
imposed the image of King Kong over the movements. The result was a very realistic giant ape.
View
Film Clip 3-1: Introduction to Visual Effects, Part 2—King Kong, 2005.
Allow time for students to record their observations, then discuss their responses. Recommended answers are below.
1
2
3
4
Answer Key for Screening Sheet 3-1:
Introduction to Visual Effects, Part 2—King Kong, 1933
Comment on the scene, comparing and contrasting the effects in this 2005 version with the 1933 version.
Answers will vary. Many students may find this version more realistic—close-ups of Kong, in particular, show muscular
structure and movement. His face, too, has expression—anger, fury. Some students may also note the effects of the glass
falling in shards to where the character Ann Darrow is cringing. Draw students’ attention to the various camera angles
and distances as well as camera movement. At one point, for example, we view Kong from above, as if we are in the
airplane diving down upon him. At another point, we view Kong’s face coming closer to the screen, as if we are in the
airplane flying right into him.
View
Film Clip 3-1: Introduction to Visual Effects, Part 3—The Thief of Bagdad.
Allow time for students to record their observations, then discuss their responses. Recommended answers are below.
Answer Key for Screening Sheet 3-1:
Introduction to Visual Effects, Part 3—The Thief of Bagdad
This film uses matte and bluescreen technology. Which shots, in particular, might have been created by
using either a matte or a bluescreen to create a composite image? Answers will vary but should include the
shots where the giant Djinn interacts with the human Abu. Also point out that the shot where Abu is about to be
crushed by the Djinn’s giant foot involved a model of a foot that could lift and fall.
75
Enrichment
Tell students they are going to see a short scene from a movie called Royal Wedding (1951, directed by Stanley Donen).
In this scene, actor Fred Astaire is in love and expresses his feelings in a most unusual way.
Teacher’s Note: There is no screening sheet to accompany this film clip.
Screen
Film Clip 3-2, A—Enrichment: Dancing on the Ceiling. Allow students to view the scene. Then stop the
DVD and ask students to suggest how the filmmakers created the impressive special effect of Astaire dancing on the
ceiling. Emphasize that this film was made in 1951 before computers were used to create special effects on film.
Screen
Film Clip 3-2, B—Enrichment: Dancing on the Ceiling. In this version, the students will see the screen
seemingly rotate. After viewing, again ask students how did they do that?
Share with students this information about the scene they just viewed:
The production crew at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (the movie studio that produced Royal Wedding) built a full-scale
room that had a floor, a ceiling, and three walls—right, left, and rear. They anchored the furniture to the floor and
then mounted the camera on the room’s floor. They also built a large, rotating barrel in which to place this room.
As the barrel rotated, so did the room. The camera itself remained “stationary” where it was mounted on the floor.
In other words, as the barrel slowly rotated, so too did the room with the anchored furniture and the anchored camera.
It created the illusion that Fred Astaire had defied gravity and could dance not only on the walls but also the ceiling.
Close
How can a young person prepare for a career in visual effects? Ask students to comment on what skills or talents a person
might need in order to create models of giant apes. Many students will suggest that skill in computers and /or in drawing or
sculpting or building models would be valuable. That’s true. But professionals who work in special effects for movies and
television also have knowledge of science. For example, an understanding of animal behavior and physiology is needed to
create a puppet of a giant ape that on film suggests the real thing.
Emphasize that there are many different types of special effects professionals. Building giant mechanical puppets, for example, requires different skills than working with motion capture. However, one thing most special effects people agree upon
is that a person who wants to enter this industry can start by learning to observe carefully the world around him or her—
including plants and animals as well as humans.
76
/HVVRQ /LJKWV
Teacher Overview
Cinematography requires knowledge not only of cameras and lenses but also an understanding of the properties of light.
It requires, too, creativity and craftsmanship, for the cinematographer is an artist who paints with light. This lesson explores
in more detail how the cinematographer uses light to communicate to an audience.
Activity A explores the relationship between light and shadow. Students learn to identify high-key and low-key lighting and
interpret the emotional impact that lighting choices may have on the audience. Activity B introduces students to cinematic
point of view. The camera can explore multiple points of view, but this activity focuses on two basic concepts: objective and
subjective point of view.
Learning Outcomes
Students will
explain how light and shadow can suggest meaning and contribute to the mood of a scene;
distinguish between high-key and low-key lighting;
understand the difference between lighting intensity, direction, and quality;
distinguish between two different cinematic points of view—objective and subjective.
Key Terms
(Note: Most terms are defined within the activity text that follows. You may also refer to the glossary.)
key lighting, high-key lighting, low-key lighting, backlighting, under lighting, front lighting, side lighting, cinematic point of view
(POV), objective point of view, subjective point of view
Lesson Materials
Activity
Activity A
Light and Shadow
DVD
Print
Graphic Organizer 3-7:
What Is Light Intensity?
Graphic Organizer 3-8:
Three Ways to Control Light
Screening Sheet 3-3:
The New Boarder
Still 3-14: The Stranger
Film Clip 3-3: The New Boarder
Still 3-15: The Elevator
Activity B
Cinematic Point
of View
Graphic Organizer 3--9:
Cinematic Point of View (POV)
Screening Sheet 3-4:
Identifying Point of View
Part 1—Signaling Gort
Part 2—The Diamond
77
Stills 3-16, A-D:
Looking Through the Window
Film Clip 3-4:
Identifying Point of View
Part 1—Signaling Gort
Part 2—The Diamond
Concept
1
Light draws attention to key, or principal, areas within a frame. Where and when to use light and shadow are not accidental
but are conscious decisions made by the director and cinematographer to control not only what the audience sees but how.
2
Engage
Discuss shadows. Ask:
What creates a shadow? There are both natural (such as the sun or moon) and artificial (electric light, fires) methods of
creating shadow.
Why do shadows change in size and strength? Movement and/or position of light source will affect the size and shape of
a shadow. The intensity of the light source will affect the shadow’s strength.
How can a cinematographer communicate with shadows? Answers here will vary. Some students will suggest that
shadows suggest mystery or danger. Others may state that the cinematographer uses shadows to communicate a time of day.
Both responses are valid. Light and shadow can communicate literal as well as figurative information.
Explain & Explore
Display
Still 3-14: The Stranger. Ask students to comment on the use of light and
shadow in this still. Remind them that this is the first time the residents of the boardinghouse see Mr. Carpenter. Encourage critical thinking by asking the following questions.
Guided Discussion
1. What is the camera distance and angle of this shot? long shot (we see the full figure of a person as well as the
surrounding environment), low angle
2. Within the frame are numerous props or furnishings. The point of emphasis, however, is the stranger. Why did
the director and the cinematographer decide to place the props in more light than the stranger, who is in shadow?
The shadow lends mystery. Although the audience knows who Mr. Carpenter is, the residents of the boardinghouse do
not. Some students may suggest that Mr. Carpenter is “hiding” his identity.
3. Pay attention to the use of lines in this frame. What vertical, horizontal, or diagonal lines do you notice?
The wallpaper is striped, running vertically. The shadow on the rear wall to the left of the stranger comes at an angle
suggesting a shaft of light from another room but also, in a way, pointing or drawing the viewer’s attention to the
stranger. Some students may note, too, that Klaatu himself is like a vertical pillar, standing foot to head almost the
entire height of the frame.
Emphasize this important point: Compositional elements work together to create an overall or total impression or viewer
response. Taken all together, the framing, the camera distance and angle, and the lighting create a sense of foreboding
or fear. And that is exactly how the boarders who live in this house react when they first see Klaatu.
Display and/or distribute
Graphic Organizer 3-7: What Is Light Intensity? Explain that key means principal or
primary, so key lighting is the principal, or predominant, lighting in a shot. Tell students that light and shadows within a
frame are not accidental but rather used as purposeful decisions by the director and cinematographer to communicate
to the audience. How does light intensity communicate? Simply put, the use of light affects what we see—or do not
see—and how we see it. That in turn determines what we think and feel about the characters or the situations on the
screen. Review the key concepts on the graphic as suggested below.
Light Intensity
Light intensity determines how much light the cinematographer allows into a frame or shot.
High-Key Lighting
High key is bright light, and therefore the audience can see more detail. Brightness often suggests cheerfulness,
openness, optimism, or confidence, etc.
3
4
Low-Key Lighting
Low key is less light, and therefore the audience sees less detail. The shadows and contrast of light
and dark areas create a mysterious or secretive mood or atmosphere. Shadows can also suggest
sadness, despair, suspense, or uncertainty, etc.
Graphic Organizer 3-8: Three Ways to Control Light. Review the key concepts on the
Display and/or distribute
Graphic Organizer as recommended below:
Direction of Light
The angle of the light creates different effects. Backlighting, for example, can minimize shadows, or, if bright
Still 3-14, where Klaatu stands at the entrance of the
enough, can create a silhouette. This is the effect in
boardinghouse living room. Under lighting – that is, placing the light source below a subject, or side lighting, placing
the light source to the left or right of the subject, also creates different types of shadows across the subject surface.
Front lighting is placing the light source in front of the subject. Controlling the direction of the light, therefore, can
strongly shape how a viewer sees the subject and influence his or her perception of that subject.
Intensity of Light
Intensity, as students should recall from the previous graphic organizer, means strength, or amount, of light. Highkey lighting is bright light; low-key lighting is subdued. By controlling light intensity, a cinematographer likewise
controls not only what the viewer sees but how. Light intensity can focus attention on details of most importance
while obscuring other, less-significant details. Sometimes, however, the cinematographer wants to direct the attention of the viewer to the darkness. A person standing in shadows, as is the case in
Still 3-14, may suggest the
person’s dark intentions or unknown identity.
Quality of Light
Light can be hard or soft. On a bright, sunny day with few clouds, the light from the sun will be hard, providing
sharp contrasts and shadows. On a cloudy day with little direct sunshine, the light is soft with little contrast and
few if any shadows. A cinematographer controls the quality of light in order to achieve specific effects. Soft lighting
is diffused so that the light doesn’t shine directly on the subject. Hard lighting, on the other hand, strikes the subject directly and results in a harsh or even glaring effect. Medium light is even, neither harsh nor soft. For clarification, ask students whether candlelight would be hard or soft, and whether a police spotlight would be hard or soft.
Distribute
Screening Sheet 3-3: The New Boarder.
View
Film Clip 3-3: The New Boarder. After viewing, allow time for students to record their observations.
Discuss their responses. Recommended answers are below.
Answer Key for Screening Sheet 3-3: The New Boarder
Shot Description
What do you see?
(What is in light? What is in shadow?)
J_fk(1
Bobby turns and
says, “Hey, who’s that?”
J_fk)1
A stranger stands in the
foyer of the boardinghouse.
Light Intensity
(Is high-key or
low-key light used?)
The television screen is in light; the floor and parts of the tenants’
bodies, their arms, backs, and a bit of their faces are in light. Bobby’s
face is in both light and shadow. The room itself has many objects
which are visible but also many shadows, suggesting the tenants are
in a darkened room.
low-key
The background, the foyer of the house, and some props are in light;
what matters most, however, is that the stranger is in complete darkness, almost a silhouette.
low-key
79
1
Answer Key for Screening Sheet 3-3: The New Boarder (cont.)
Shot Description
What do you see?
(What is in light? What is in shadow?)
J_fk*1
The tenants react.
J_fk+1
The stranger sets down
his suitcase and walks into
the room.
J_fk,1
The tenants turn off the television and turn on the lights.
J_fk-1
The stranger faces the tenants.
J_fk.1
The owner of the boardinghouse asks what he wants.
J_fk/1
The stranger introduces himself.
Light Intensity
(Is high-key or
low-key light used?)
A pool of light is still on the floor but all the characters remain
outside this light source. Even as they stand, their faces and
bodies are mostly in shadow.
low-key
The foyer, its walls and doors, are in bright light, but as the
stranger walks forward, he remains almost completely in
shadow. The room into which he steps is dark.
low-key
The light begins to change in this shot. First, as the landlady
turns off the television set, we see her in light, but the room
becomes for a moment even darker. As one of the tenants turns
on a light, the room brightens. Nevertheless, as in previous
shots, the people are mostly in shadow.
low-key
The stranger’s face is now in bright light. The audience can
see details of his expression, his clothing .
high-key
For the first time, we can clearly see the faces of most of the
tenants. Bobby’s face remains somewhat in shadow until he
walks forward..
The stranger’s face is still in bright light. The landlady and
Bobby stand with their backs to the viewer and are in shadow.
80
high-key
high-key
2
3
4
Answer Key for Screening Sheet 3-3: The New Boarder (cont.)
Think More About It
1. Why did the director choose to have the tenants watch television in a darkened room? It allows the cinematographer
to set the mood for what will follow in this scene. If the room is already dark when Klaatu arrives, it will enhance the suspense
of the scene. You may also wish to share with students these facts about television broadcasts of the early 1950s: The sets were
generally small, all images were in black and white, and reception was not always clear. Many families in fact gathered around
the television (those that had them, as many did not) and watched the images in a darkened room to increase the contrast.
2. How does the change in lighting reflect what the tenants are feeling? While in the dark, the sight of the stranger startles
the tenants. They are afraid, apprehensive. The lack of light echoes their fear of the unknown. Once the lights are turned on
and the room is brighter, they can see his face—normal in every way—and they begin to relax. Still, it isn’t until he says he
has come to rent a room that their relief is clearly obvious.
Close
Display
Still 3-15: The Elevator. Ask students if they recall the dialogue in this scene. It is not important for them to
recall specific lines but rather the main idea that Klaatu tells Helen about his mission on Earth. He needs her help.
If she believes what Bobby told her and reports him to the military, dire consequences will occur.
Knowing the basic context of this shot, ask students to write a paragraph describing the composition, with specific
attention to the use of lighting, shadow, and lines. What meaning do the shadows suggest about Helen’s situation, and also
about Klaatu’s? Most students may describe the shadows as looking like bars. Some may note that Helen is trapped inside
the elevator with Klaatu. But she is trapped in another way. If he acts and destroys the Earth, she is truly trapped. On the
other hand, if Helen turns him in, then Klaatu is trapped. He needs her cooperation to complete his mission.
$FWLYLW\% &LQHPDWLF3RLQWRI9LHZ
Concept
A filmmaker may use two cinematic points of view—objective and subjective—depending on the dramatic situation and the
filmmaker’s intended meaning.
Engage
Ashcan, cone, obie, sun gun—these are names of different types of lights which cinematographers may use when designing
a shot. An ashcan is a 1,000-watt floodlight. A cone is a lamp with a particular shape—narrow at one end and wider at the
other; an obie is a small spotlight. A sun gun is a portable but high-intensity light.
Each type of wattage and shape creates a different lighting effect, but cinematographers are always experimenting with light
sources and adaptations to create new effects. The names they call these lighting innovations are often interesting.
Ask students to guess what a “coffin light” might look like. (It is rectangular, with an adjustable black skirt to control the amount
and direction of light). And how might that differ from a “chicken coop”? (It has six lamps attached together to broadly light a
large area.)
Explain & Explore
Display and/or distribute
graphic as suggested below.
Graphic Organizer 3-9: Cinematic Point of View (POV) Review key points on the
Cinematic Point of View
Point of view is a way of seeing the action on the screen. Cinematic POV differs from literary POV in this
significant way: in film, POV refers to and is created by the placement of the camera.
81
Objective POV
The objective camera is like a window. The audience is outside the window and viewing the action
through the window. The placement of the camera allows the audience to view the characters as the
action unfolds. A good part of a film’s story is often told using objective point of view. The filmmaker
may move the camera closer to or farther away from the subject and may change the camera’s angles,
but the audience remains outside, looking in, like a spectator.
Subjective POV
The subjective point of view is created by placing the camera so that the audience can see the action
through the eyes of one of the characters. The audience sees what the character sees.
Share this information with students:
Very often POV cannot be determined by examining a single frame or even a single shot. POV is often communicated
through the juxtaposition of images—how one shot follows another. For example, in The Day the Earth Stood Still, Klaatu
stands at his hospital window and looks out. This shot is objective. The viewer sees Klaatu. No one else is apparently in the
room, and so the viewer sees Klaatu as if looking through the lens of the camera. In the next shot, however, the viewer sees
a high-angle long shot of the hospital grounds. This long shot, by following the shot of Klaatu looking out the window, is
subjective. The viewer sees what Klaatu sees.
Display
Stills 3-16, A and B: Looking Through the Window to illustrate the point made above. The first shot
(A) shows the characters peering through Professor Barnhardt’s window. The next shot (B) shows the audience what
Klaatu and Bobby see through the window—Professor Barnhardt’s chalkboard covered with complicated equations.
Ask: How do you know this is what Klaatu and Bobby see? Neither Bobby nor Klaatu state directly that they can see the
chalkboard. Our understanding that this is what they see comes from the juxtaposition, or the placement of one shot
after the other. Juxtaposition is another way filmmakers communicate with the audience.
Display
Stills 3-16, C and D: Looking Through the Window. Ask students to explain the difference between
these next two images and the previous two images they just viewed.
Guided Discussion
1. What is the difference in camera distance in still C, as compared to still A? Whereas still A was a medium shot
of Klaatu and Bobby, still C is a close-up shot of Klaatu only. Furthermore, he has moved closer to the window pane.
2. What is the difference in camera distance in still D, as compared to still B? Still B was a long shot to show the
chalkboard in the professor’s study. Still D, however, is a close-up shot of a portion of the chalkboard.
3. Whose point of view is being communicated to the audience in still B? in still D? In still B, it is the POV of both
Klaatu and Bobby. We infer this from the previous shot showing both characters looking through the window. However,
still D is the viewpoint of Klaatu only. Again, we infer this from the shot which iimmediately preceded it, showing only
Klaatu peering through the window.
Distribute
Screening Sheet 3-4: Identifying Point of View. Now that students have had practice identifying point
of view shots in still images, they will apply what they have learned to moving images. Review the directions.
View
Film Clip 3-4: Identifying Point of View, Part 1—Signaling Gort. Allow time for students to
record their observations, then discuss their responses as recommended below.
82
1
2
3
4
Answer Key for Screening Sheet 3-4:
Identifying Point of View, Part 1—Signaling Gort
Shot Description
What is the cinematic point of view,
and how do you know?
Shot 1: Klaatu stares through
the grate in the window.
.
Objective. The camera is placed so that the audience sees Klaatu from the side,
in a medium shot. Some students may argue that Bobby is watching Klaatu and
while that is true, Bobby is farther away. If this shot were from Bobby’s POV,
Klaatu would have to be much smaller.
Shot 2: Gort stands still,
under military guard.
.
Subjective. The previous shot showed us Klaatu looking through the grate. This shot
shows us what he sees. We know this because we see the back of Gort, not the front
as would likely be the case in an objective shot. But more importantly, the distance
is correct. This is a long shot of Gort, relative to where Klaatu is standing.
Shot 3: Klaatu raises the flashlight to the window.
.
Shot 4: A small beam of light
flashes on and off against the
barricade wall.
Objective. Again, the camera records the action and the audience sees it as a spectator.
Objective. Stress the difference in this shot as compared to shot 2. This is a close-up of
Gort’s head, so it cannot be Klaatu’s POV. Klaatu is still standing outside the barricade,
a further distance away.
Shot 5: Klaatu, at the window,
.
operates
the flashlight.
Objective. The camera is placed inside the barricade looking at Klaatu, and so it cannot
be from any other character’s POV. Some students may suggest it is what Gort sees.
But Gort has not yet turned around.
.
Shot
6: Gort begins to turn.
Objective. The close-up suggests this is something the filmmaker wants the audience to
notice, but again, it is not shot from the POV of Klaatu, who is still farther away.
.
View
Film Clip 3-4: Identifying Point of View, Part 2—The Diamond. Allow time for students to record
their observations, then discuss their responses as recommended below
Answer Key for Screening Sheet 3-4:
Identifying Point of View, Part 2—The Diamond
Shot Description
What is the cinematic point of view,
and how do you know?
Shot 1: Tom enters
Mr. Carpenter’s room.
Objective. Although Tom looks about and notices something on the floor and picks
it up, the camera remains at the same distance from him and at the same angle.
We can deduce, based upon Tom’s behavior, that Klaatu is not in his room, and so
the audience is watching Tom as if through a window.
Shot 2: Tom holds a
diamond in his palm.
Subjective. This close-up follows right after Tom has picked up the object from the
floor. The audience sees at that moment what Tom is looking at closely.
Shot 3: Tom hurries down
the hallway toward the stairs.
.
Objective. We watch Tom leave rather than see what Tom sees as he hurries down the
hall and the stairs. Since there are no other visual clues that someone else may be watching (a door slightly opening and eyes peering out, for example), we deduce that Tom
is alone; so we, the audience, and not another character, are watching Tom’s movements..
83
Share this information with students:
A single camera captures a single image. Shooting a film, however, involves more than placing actors on a stage and recording their performances. When filming a movie, the director generally captures the same action from different distances and
angles, often using multiple cameras. The film editor, working with the director, selects the best shots. The decision of which
footage to use depends in part on the quality of the camerawork and lighting, the quality of the acting performance, and the
overall meaning of the shots.
Teachers Note: Tell students they will learn more about film editing in lesson 3 of this chapter.
Close
Discuss with students why cinematographers shift from objective to subjective POV. Why not show all the shots with the
same POV, as if, for example, the story were a play being performed on a stage in front of an audience? Encourage discussion to include the following key points:
•
First, POV relates strongly to the dramatic situation in the story. In an emotional or key moment, the filmmaker
might wish to bring the audience closer to the action so it can be experienced more personally.
•
Second, shifts in POV, when planned carefully, create a more visually interesting viewing experience. A story told
completely in the objective POV might eventually become boring.
Film Clip 3-4 , the shift between the two POVs accomplishes both of these goals: it communicates
In part 2 of
clearly what is happening and does so in an interesting way, letting the audience experience more closely what the characters
are experiencing.
84
1
2
3
4
/HVVRQ $FWLRQ
Teacher Overview
Motion makes film unique. Just as camera angles and distances and lighting are visual elements in composition, so too is
movement. Movement creates the illusion of three dimensions, allows the director to tell a story from multiple viewpoints,
and adds visual interest. Motion of a figure or an object (such as Gort or the sliding spaceship port) within the frame can
also direct the viewer’s attention to an important detail and create suspense or suggest meaning.
Movement happens both in front of the camera during production, as actors perform their lines, and in the studio during
post-production, as the editor and director work together to assemble a rough cut of the film from many, many hours of raw
footage. Each time a viewer sees a shift from one image to another on the screen, that is an editing decision. Transitions
between scenes, such as dissolves and wipes, are also editing decisions. These cuts and transitions as well as the sequence
of images suggest not only movement but also the passage of time.
Movement as a compositional element in visual storytelling is the focus of this lesson’s activities. Activity A introduces students to camera movements and challenges them to identify what is in motion—the camera or the subject. Students will
also learn how the editing process controls the pacing and continuity of moving images, which in turn communicate
information and shape viewer response.
Learning Outcomes
Students will
understand two basic methods of creating movement in film and identify fixed-camera and mobile-camera shots;
understand the difference between real time and reel time;
understand how a film editor creates pacing and continuity in a film;
identify four transitional devices the editor uses to move from one scene to another—fade, dissolve, wipe, cut;
identify how a soundtrack reinforces pacing and mood in a film scene.
Key Terms
(Note: Most terms are defined within the activity text that follows. You may also refer to the glossary.)
fixed camera, mobile camera, pan, tilt, zoom, dolly, tracking shot, crane, real time, reel time, film sequence, pacing, continuity, scene
transition, fade in, fade out, dissolve, wipe, cut
Lesson Materials
Activity
Activity A
What's in Motion?
DVD
Print
Graphic Organizer 3-10:
Camera Movements
Film Clip 3-5: Motion Detection
Screening Sheet 3-5:
Motion Detection
Activity B
Pacing and
Continuity
Graphic Organizer 3-11:
Editing Decisions—
Pacing and Continuity
Film Clip 3-6:
Reel Time in the Old West
Screening Sheet 3-6:
Reel Time in the Old West
Activity C
Scene Transitions
Graphic Organizer 3-12:
Editing Decisions—
Scene Transitions
Screening Sheet 3-7:
Around the World in
Just a Few Shots
85
Film Clip 3-7:
Around the World
in Just a Few Shots
$FWLYLW\$ :KDW·VLQ0RWLRQ"
1
2
3
4
Concept
Movement creates the illusion of three dimensions, introduces information to the audience, and often draws attention to
important details within a frame. Movement can also bring the audience close to the action and increase its involvement
with the characters and the situation.
Engage
Ask for three volunteers. Hand each volunteer an index card. Select students who will perform with some animation the
directions on the index cards. Ask them to read their cards silently. The first card will read: Leave your desk and walk out of
the room as if you are late for your next class. The second card will read: Leave your desk and walk out of the room as if you are
angry. The third card will read: Leave your desk and walk out of the room as if you are sneaking away without anyone seeing you.
Tell the first student to perform the task on the card. Wait a moment, then tell the second student to perform the task on
the card. Again, wait another moment or two, then ask the third student to leave the room. Ask the three students to return
to the classroom and to their seats. Then discuss with the class what they observed. How did the behavior and movements
of the three students vary? What did the class observe about the volunteers’ body language?
Write these three words on the chalkboard or overhead projector, in alphabetical order: anger, sneakiness, urgency. Ask the
class: Which student expressed anger in his movement when leaving the room? Which expressed sneakiness, and which
expressed urgency?
Explain and Explore
Share this information with students:
A characteristic of film is continuously moving images. And so the cinematographer usually designs movement into each shot.
Movement is not random or unplanned. Movement can communicate the passage of time, a change of location, expressions of
emotion, or a struggle between characters. But it is not just the actors who move. The placement of the camera and its movement can also bring the audience closer to the action and increase the audience’s involvement with the characters. For example, a camera which follows a character as he or she walks down the street helps create the impression that the audience
is likewise moving down the street with the character. Movement has still another purpose. It can help to create depth.
A character who walks from the foreground into the background, becoming smaller, suggests distance and space.
Review the definition of shot. A shot is a segment of film. It is made up of a series of single frames set in motion.
Explain that there are two basic methods of capturing movement on film:
1. Filming the subject as it moves within the frame while the camera remains in a stationary position.
2. Moving the camera itself to follow the subject.
Further explain that in some scenes both the camera and the subjects move.
Display and/or distribute
Graphic Organizer 3-10: Camera Movements. Review key points on the graphic
organizer as recommended below.
Fixed Camera
The camera is mounted on a stationary platform. The camera itself, however, can move in three ways: It can pan,
meaning it moves from side to side; tilt, meaning it moves up and down; or zoom, meaning the camera lens moves
forward or backward.
Mobile Camera
The camera is mounted on a platform which can move around the set or on a track. A number of devices enable
the camera to move forward, backward, to circle, or to sweep. A dolly is a type of platform with wheels. It allows
86
the camera to move throughout the set. A track allows the camera to move along with the subject at various
speeds. The film crew actually lays rails to allow the camera to roll smoothly. The camera operator may ride on
the platform with the camera, or the crew may operate the camera by means of remote control. A crane shot is one
in which the camera is mounted on a boom or a mechanical arm so it can move through the air. Cinematographers
often use this mechanical crane for getting an overhead or high-angle shot of a large crowd or area.
Distribute
Screening Sheet 3-5: Motion Detection. Tell students that you will stop the DVD after each segment
(and if necessary replay the segment) to allow them time to record their observations.
View
Film Clip 3-5: Motion Detection. Discuss students’ responses. Recommended answers are below.
Answer Key for Screening Sheet 3-5: Motion Detection
Film Segment
Identify and Describe
the Movement of the Subject
and Its Significance
Fixed Camera or Mobile Camera?
State a reason for your answer.
Klaatu walks down a street. He walks leisurely,
confident that he won’t be spied. His movements
are relaxed, not drawing attention to himself.
He also swings a suitcase. This movement
draws the viewer’s eye and may be an intentional way of getting the viewer to notice
Klaatu’s complete costume.
Mobile. Although the subject is walking
down the street, the camera, too, is folloing him. We know this because as the
shot begins, the viewer is behind Klaatu,
and as the shot progresses the camera
(and the viewer) come up alongside him
and then nearly in front of him.
B—Room for Rent
Klaatu sets his case down, looks at and tosses
out the cleaner tag, and adjusts his suit, indicating he isn’t completely comfortable in it.
He looks up and sees a sign across the street.
Fixed. The camera is stationary as Klaatu
fidgets in the street. Even at the point where
the camera cuts to show the audience the
“room for rent” sign, the camera remains
fixed. Stress this important point: Although
the camera position may change between
shots (as it does here, facing Klaatu in the
first image and then facing the “room for
rent” sign across the street in the next),
during the shot the camera does not move.
C—The Chalkboard
There is no movement of a subject. We see
only the chalkboard. The lack of movement
is necessary for us to understand that no one
is there and also that Klaatu is reading the
equation on the board.
Fixed. The camera is in one position
but pans from left to right.
A—Klaatu’s
New Identity
87
Answer Key for Screening Sheet 3-5: Motion Detection (cont.)
Film Segment
Identify and Describe
the Movement of the Subject
and Its Significance
Fixed Camera or Mobile Camera?
State a reason for your answer.
1
2
3
D—The Fatal Shot
A cab pulls to a stop in a street. Klaatu gets
out of the cab and runs away from the cab
and toward the camera. Shots are fired and
Klaatu falls. Helen rushes and kneels beside
him, cradling his head.
Fixed. There is a lot of movement of
subjects in this series of shots.
Students should once again note that
the position of the camera changes
between shots but is fixed during the
action in each shot.
E—Klaatu’s Ultimatum
Klaatu stands on his spaceship to address
the world’s scientists.
Mobile. The camera is on a crane which
moves in from a long shot to medium to
a close-up of Klaatu’s face.
Close
Encourage students to apply what they have learned about movement in film to other moving images they may encounter
daily, specifically news broadcasts or television programs. How does the subject of the news or the program affect the movement of the subjects and/or the people or characters?
Concept
Pacing and continuity are two factors that determine which shots the film editor selects when assembling the rough cut
of a film.
Engage
Write the word pacing on the chalkboard or overhead projector and ask students to explain what it means relative to
participation in sports. Why must an athlete pace himself or herself? Does pacing mean being the fastest runner in the
race? Those students who participate in sports will likely understand that pacing means to set or to control speed.
Make a connection between the concept of pacing in sports and pacing in film editing by sharing with them this quote from
director Robert Wise: “Pace is interest. Pace is not speed.” Ask students what they think Wise means.
Share this information with students:
One of the film editor’s tasks is to set and control the pacing of a film. That means determining how long or short
a shot should be, or how many cuts to use in a scene in order to build suspense. The purpose of pacing is to tell a
story in an engaging and interesting way and not to fill the screen with as many images as possible.
Explain & Explore
Write these two phrases on the chalkboard or overhead projector: real time, reel time. Explain to students that real time
is the actual time required to complete an action. Reel time, on the other hand, is time that has been compressed or
expanded for the sake of telling a story on film in about two hours. Hours, days, weeks, months, even years can pass
within seconds or minutes on film through the use of carefully planned shots and sequences. Or an action which might
take just a few seconds in real time, can be slowed down to minutes in reel time in order to build suspense.
Next, write the word sequence on the chalkboard or overhead projector. Explain that a sequence is a series of related
events. In film, sequence has a more technical definition—a series of shots assembled one after the other. The shots may
88
4
show different people, different locations, different times of day or night. Even so, the shots are related in some way.
Some controlling idea or thread links the images. And so, even though the images may look different, they are related.
Emphasize this important link between reel time and film sequence: the film sequence is a way to compress or expand
real time into reel time.
Display and/or distribute
Graphic Organizer 3-11: Editing Decisions—Pacing and Continuity. Review the key
points as presented on the graphic.
Pacing
Pacing is the overall rhythm of the scenes. If a scene runs too long, the audience may become bored. If a scene runs
too quickly, the audience may not take in all the information the director provides. Either way, the director’s intended meaning and effect may fail. The film editor, therefore, is responsible for ensuring that a scene communicates all
it must and in a way which engages the audience and controls their attention. The pace will vary depending on the
type of film—comedy or action-adventure, for example—and the director’s intended meaning for a scene.
Use the example on the graphic organizer to explain further the concept. If the film editor had just used two shots
in this sequence to show Bobby following Mr. Carpenter, the action might have occurred without much suspense.
On the other hand, if the film editor used ten shots of Bobby following Mr. Carpenter, the pace would have slowed
too much and the audience might have lost interest.
Continuity
Continuity creates the impression that events flow smoothly in sequence, one after the other. In The Day the Earth
Stood Still, for example, it is likely the director shot the opening scene where Klaatu arrives about the same time or
soon after he shot the closing scene where Klaatu departs. Why? Setting up equipment and managing crew, costumes, and sets makes it more efficient to shoot similar shots together. So even though one scene opens the movie
and another ends it, they were likely shot out of chronological sequence and only in the editing room arranged in
the correct order.
Use the following examples to emphasize how the sequence of the shots shapes meaning. Rearrange the shots as
suggested below and ask students to explain how the sequence alters what happens and why. Emphasize this key
point: Without step #3, #2 can’t happen unless Klaatu uses some other means.
Bobby follows
Mr. Carpenter to
the spaceship
Distribute
Mr. Carpenter
signals Gort, and the
robot comes to life.
Bobby gives Mr.
Carpenter a flashlight.
Screening Sheet 3-6: Reel Time in the Old West. Review the Word Builder terms.
View
Film Clip 3-6: Reel Time in the Old West. This segment has two clips. The first is from Once Upon a
Time in the West (1968, directed by Sergio Leone) and the second, from The Searchers (1956, directed by John Ford).
Play part 1, then stop the DVD to discuss student responses. Recommended answers follow. Then play part 2 and again
stop the DVD to discuss responses and to compare the two film clips.
89
Answer Key for Screening Sheet 3-6:
Reel Time in the Old West, Part 1—Waiting for the Flagstone Train
Action
Describe what happens
in this sequence of shots
and the order in which
the action occurs.
Pacing
Describe the overall rhythm
of this sequence. How does this
rhythm help create interest
and mood? How does
the soundtrack reinforce or
enhance the pacing?
The pace is slow, quiet, suspenseful. The first shot indicates a door opening, but we do not see who has opened
it. Not until the camera slowly tilts upward to the face
do we understand that someone has in fact entered.
The movements of the characters are also slow and
deliberate, almost as if they are moving in slow motion.
Emphasize, for example, how the chalk barely moves
on the chalkboard, how the man slowly reaches for the
station agent’s neck. At the point where he does, a rooster
crows (an invisible sound off-screen). Ask the students to
comment on why a rooster is crowing and why at that
specific point in the action. Some may associate a rooster
crowing with being roused out of a sleepy state—just as
it startles the viewer to hear it now. This helps to build
the suspense and create viewer interest. Who are these
men? What do they want? Are they going to kill the station
agent and the woman? When the door closes and the
screen goes black, it is an abrupt, almost startling change.
Emphasize, too, that the soundtrack reinforces the pacing,
e.g., the repetitive creaking of the windmill and the chittering of birds adds to the hesitant mood. When the door
slams shut at the end it reinforces our fear and concern
for the old man.
While it isn’t necessary for students to list every
shot in this scene, they should make an effort to
include a number of different shots in sequence.
These are: the door swings open, the aging station
keeper turns from the chalkboard, and a boot closes
the door; the camera tilts from the boot upward,
revealing a gun, bullets, and eventually the somber
face of a man; the station keeper turns and sees two
other men standing in other doorways; the camera
pans to the left and we see a woman and the original man who opened the first door; the men enter;
the woman attempts to leave but the man nearest
her pulls her back—not roughly but with determination; the station keeper attempts to tell them
to purchase their tickets elsewhere, but a piercing
look from one of the three men silences him;
another man whistles and chatters at a bird in a
cage; the station keeper presents three tickets to
one of the men and asks for the fare, but the man
tosses the tickets away; the same man takes the
station keeper by the neck and pushes him into a
closet; a door slams shut, and the screen goes black.
Think More About It
1. This film segment runs just under 3 minutes. Did it seem longer to you? Why or why not? Answers will
vary. Accept all reasonable responses, but point out that the slow pacing makes time seem to stretch.
2. How do the close-up shots as well as the lighting, colors, and sounds in this sequence contribute to the
pacing and mood? Answers will vary. Lingering on the close-up shots allows the audience to notice details of the
characters’ facial expressions, which contributes to the tense mood, and the close-ups also slow the pacing.
The lighting inside the station is subdued. The colors are browns and rusts, dull and not cheerful. The bird in the
cage chirps. The soundtrack includes other sound effects—squeaking, chalk scraping on slate, boots stepping on
planks one foot at a time—slow deliberate sounds which reinforce the slow pacing.
90
1
2
3
4
Answer Key for Screening Sheet 3-6:
Reel Time in the Old West, Part 2—Surrounded by Hostiles
Action
Describe what happens
in this sequence of shots
and the order in which
the action occurs.
Pacing
Describe the overall rhythm
of this sequence. How does
this rhythm help create interest
and mood?
The pacing changes from slow to fast. The movements
of the riders, both those on the ridge and those below in
the open space are unhurried but the viewer understands
from the dialogue and the body language of the riders that
they are controlling the pace of their horses, not falling
behind and not breaking away from the others. The music,
too, is controlled, not soft but not loud. At the sheriff’s
command, the movement of the horses and the tempo of
the musical score increases. Multiple things happen at
once—shots beginning to be fired, horses stumbling in the
river, men pulling their horses onto the riverbank; Native
Americans falling from their horses into the water. The
pacing helps to create a mood of excitement and adventure.
The viewer wonders what will happen next. How will they
get out of this situation?
A line of riders, including a sheriff in a top hat cross
a stretch of open country; a horseman appears on a
ridge to their left; the riders below notice him but
keep moving; the horseman on the ridge raises his
hand and other riders—Native Americans—ride up
behind him; the line of riders look to the left and then
to their right and see another group of horsemen
appear on the ridge to their right; the sheriff ties a
scarf over his hat and then gives the command to run;
the riders gallop across the open space with the Native
Americans following behind; the first group of men
reach the river and their horses struggle to cross; a few
of the Native Americans ride into the river but are
unhorsed; the first group makes it to the opposite river
bank, leaping from their horses, grabbing their guns
and taking cover behind the trunk of a tree washed
up on shore.
Compare and contrast the two film segments, both the settings or situations and the use of camera angles and distances.
The settings differ. The first is an interior space, and the close camera shots and angles tend to make viewers feel as if they are
there in the station with the three intruders, the camera brings the viewer that close to the action. The second segment is set in a
wide-open space, and the camera shots are not close-ups but rather long shots which capture the sense of open space. The lighting
is much brighter in the second segment so we can see the dust rising as the horses pound past the camera.
Share this important point about pacing: it affects the overall rhythm of the entire film. In other words, pacing is integral
to the director’s vision. The pacing may be consistent throughout, or the director may choose to vary the pace of different scenes
depending on the characters and the situation. The pacing in a film, therefore, cannot be determined by looking at just one scene
but rather at how the pacing of each scene relates to one another.
Close
Tell students that there is another way a camera can control movement—by varying the speed of the camera – that is,
by showing an action in slow motion or fast motion or time-lapse (extreme fast motion). Even then, however, the decision
to speed up or slow down the film must have a purpose that relates to the characters and/or the conflict. Ask students to
comment on why a cinematographer might choose to use slow motion. To emphasize a dramatic movement or moment, to
suggest a character’s thoughts, etc.
You might wish to share with students this bit of behind-the-camera trivia about the scene in which Gort first steps from the
spaceship: the director felt that the people were not moving away from the spaceship quickly enough when they first caught
sight of Gort. So in order to adjust the pacing and mood, he ran the film in fast motion to communicate more panic in
this scene.
91
Time-Lapse Photography
Film can compress and expand time. In this sense, the motion picture
camera can function in a way similar to the microscope or telescope.
Learn how time-lapse, in particular, can reveal phenomena otherwise
invisible to the natural eye, by going to The Story of Movies Web site,
www.storyofmovies.org.
Concept
A transition is a visual effect which signals the end of one shot or scene and the beginning of another.
Engage
Ask students what a transition is and why it is an important element of good writing. Transitions can be single words,
such as then, since, now. Or they can be longer phrases or sentences, such as The next morning . . . ; As I have shown . . . ;
or Based on this information, one can make the following conclusions. . . .
Transitions are like bridges which link paragraphs, showing a relationship between ideas in those paragraphs. Sometimes the
relationship is a comparison or a sequence. Sometimes it may provide an example. Without transitions, a piece of writing
can seem disorganized or incoherent.
Filmmakers also use transitions for much the same reason—to show relationships between scenes. Prose writers use words
to create transitions. A cinematic transition, however, is visual. Ask students to explore how filmmakers create transitions so
that the storyline moves forward smoothly and coherently.
Explain & Explore
Display and/or distribute
suggested below.
Graphic Organizer 3-12: Editing Decisions—Scene Transitions. Review the key points as
Scene Transitions
Transitions are visual effects which bridge one shot or scene and another. The film editor creates transitions in the
studio during post-production. Scene transitions include the following:
Fade
The image evenly appears (fades in) from a black screen or disappears (fades out) into a black screen.
Dissolve
One image slowly melts away while another image gradually appears or overlaps to take its place.
Wipe
A vertical bar, like a wiper blade, moves across the screen, removing one image as another takes its place.
Cut
An abrupt change from one image to another without a fade, dissolve, or wipe.
Screening Sheet 3-7: Around the World in Just a Few Shots. The screening activity has three segments,
Distribute
each showing the world at a standstill. Each segment illustrates a different scene transition—dissolve, wipe, and cut.
92
1
2
3
4
(Teachers Note: There are no examples of fade in this screening activity.) Explain that transitions, like sequences, are
used by filmmakers to convert real time into reel time. Review with students the Word Builder terms on the Screening
Sheet.
View
Film Clip 3-7: Around the World in Just a Few Shots. The DVD will stop between segments. Give students
sufficient time to take notes on each segment before you move on to the next. You may need to show each film segment
more than once. Discuss each transition, identifying the type of transition and the time-frame suggested by the
transition. Recommended answers are below.
Answer Key for Screening Sheet 3-7: Around the World in Just a Few Shots
A—Dissolve
1. What do you see at the point the first shot dissolves out? A close up of Helen and Klaatu’s faces in the elevator
2. What do you see when the next shot dissolves in? A city street with cars and a bus at a standstill
3. How does the sound change during this scene transition? In addition to dialogue, the soundtrack while Helen and Klaatu
are in the elevator is soft, slow music—not a melody but rather notes which create a musical effect. As that image dissolves out and
the city street image dissolves in, the viewer hears much louder music and harsh chords striking.
4. At what point do you notice a second dissolve between shots? Describe the two images. The man cranking his tractor or
mower dissolves out and Professor Barnhardt in his office dissolves in.
B—Wipe
5. How many wipes did you notice in this sequence? Describe at least two. Five. The wipes primarily separate cities and/or
countries. The first occurs wiping away the image of D.C. from right to left and replaces it with an image of Times Square in
New York City. Other wipes separate New York from London and London from Paris, etc.
6. How does this transitional technique suggest or communicate different locations? The wipes “clean the slate,” as in a slide
viewer, moving from picture to picture and place to place. The images show us landmarks, such as Times Square, Big Ben, and the
Arc de Triomphe, to help us understand the shift of location.
C—Cut
7. Some shots follow one another abruptly without a visual transition. Identify at least three or four points in the clip
(there are 14 in all) where you noticed a cut rather than a dissolve or a wipe. Answers will vary. Among the cuts students
may list are: city street to another city street where a police officer tries to kick start his motorcycle; high-angle shot of Times Square
followed by another NYC street scene (at eye level) where a taxi cab has its hood up and the Fifth Avenue Coach Company bus is
at a standstill; long shot of Big Ben in London , followed by a shot of two men talking near a Piccadilly Circus bus; the image of
the Arc de Triomphe (again a long, establishing shot) followed by a closer image of a woman praying outside a café. Additional
cuts include a shot of the printing press at a standstill, followed by a train, followed by a woman pulling dripping laundry from
her washing machine, etc.
Think More About It
How do the transitions help explain the story? The transitions show that the entire world and not just
Washington, D.C. is “standing still.” The transitions show not only where this phenomenon occurs but also
the effects on humans. Their reactions are bafflement and fear. The transitions also suggest the passage of
time – that is, they suggest that this standing-still phenomenon lasts for a period of time.
93
Ask students to comment on the pacing and continuity of this montage. Did the sequence have too many shots? Or too
few shots? Discuss the decisions the film editor and director made while selecting and arranging the shots. Why, for
example, do you think he included a woman removing wet laundry from a washing machine, or a waitress unable to
make a milkshake? Those machines aren’t nearly as important as automobiles or trains. Also ask: what machines did the
editor not show which might have been more dramatic?
Close
Discuss with students our country’s—and even our planet’s—reliance on power plants and energy. Although the entire Earth
has not “stood still” for a single hour all at once, countries have experienced power failures with very serious consequences.
Explore with students what some of those consequences today might be. Encourage those who have an interest in learning
more about power surges and failures to research past events when this happened in American cities.
94
1
2
3
4
Teacher Overview
In this chapter’s lessons 1 through 3, students focused on isolated elements of composition—framing; camera angles,
distances, and movement; lighting; and scene transitions. Students will recall from chapter 2 that sound, too, is a cinematic
device. With this basic understanding of film language, students are ready to move into scene analysis.
In activity A, students complete a mise-en-scène activity. Mise-en-scène is a type of analysis in which the student identifies
elements of composition in a single scene, explaining how the elements work together to communicate mood and meaning.
This type of film analysis is challenging, in part because students must not only identify multiple elements of composition
but also use critical-thinking skills to comprehend what those elements mean – that is, how the parts contribute to
the whole.
Learning Outcomes
Students will
•
analyze cinematic devices in a single scene;
•
use film language to describe and interpret a scene.
Key Terms
(Note: Most terms are defined within the activity text that follows. You may also refer to the glossary.)
cinematic devices, mise-en-scène
Lesson Materials
Activity
Activity A
Mise-en-Scène
DVD
Print
Graphic Organizer 3-13:
What Are Cinematic Devices?
Screening Sheet 3-8:
Mise-en-Scène—
The Breakfast Table
Film Clip 3-8: Mise-en-Scène—
The Breakfast Table
95
Concept
1
A discussion of mise-en-scène includes identifying elements of composition in a single scene and explaining how the elements
work together to communicate mood and meaning.
2
3
Engage
4
Ask students to comment on which aspects of film language they enjoyed learning about the most—composition and perspective;
lighting and its effects on the audience; or the editing of movement and sound for pacing and continuity. Ask them also to comment on what they might need to study if they wished to become a cinematographer, a film editor or a sound editor. Is science
necessary? What other subjects do these filmmakers require an understanding of?
Share this information with students:
While the cinematographer (sometimes called the director of photography or DP) is responsible for lighting and photographing
a film, he or she does not work alone. A crew of qualified people is necessary. These include camera operators; assistant camera
operators who maintain the equipment, including lenses; gaffers, or chief electricians who oversee the other electricians on the
set; and grips, the persons who move lights and other filmmaking equipment on the set.
Explain & Explore
Graphic Organizer 3-13: What Are Cinematic Devices? Explain that a filmmaker communicates
Display and/or distribute
through cinematic devices (much the same as a poet or a novelist communicates using literary devices). This graphic organizer
summarizes the key concepts presented in this chapter. Review each as recommended below.
Composition
Composition is the arrangement of visual elements within a frame. When selecting and placing these elements, a filmmaker
often follows principles of visual design—creating depth, texture, and contrast.
Cinematography
Cinematography is the art of lighting and shooting a movie. When deciding how to film a shot, the director and the cinematographer consider various camera angles and distances as well as lighting effects.
Pacing and Continuity
Pacing is the overall rhythm of a scene. Continuity is the impression that events flow seamlessly from one shot to another.
In post-production, the director and the film editor control pacing and continuity through (a) the selection of shots, (b)
the sequence of the shots, (c) the timing of the shots, and (d) the transitions between shots.
Soundtrack
The soundtrack (discussed in more detail in Chapter 2, Lesson 4) is the final composite of all sounds heard in the film:
dialogue, sound effects (both visible and invisible) and music.
Layers of Meaning
A film is very much like an onion. As you peel away one layer, you discover another. All these cinematic devices taken
together create meaning.
Define mise-en-scène. Mise-en-scène is a type of analysis in which the student identifies cinematic devices within a single
scene, explaining how the elements work together to communicate mood and meaning.
Explain that in this activity, students will work with a partner to analyze a single scene from The Day the Earth Stood Still. In
their analyses they will identify as many elements of composition as they can. Tell them that they can use any of their notes
and/or graphic organizers from this chapter.
Teachers Note: You may wish to run the film clip more than once, allowing time between the viewings for students to
access their notes. To expect students to complete all answers on the Screening Sheet in one viewing is not recommended.
Distribute
Screening Sheet 3-8: Mise-en-Scène—The BreakfastTable. Review each section of the sheet so that
students fully understand what they are to observe and record. Remind them that in identifying and analyzing elements,
they should use whenever possible the film-specific terms they have learned in this chapter, such as close-up, high-angle,
high-key lighting, etc.
View
Film Clip 3-8: Mise-en-Scène—The Breakfast Table.
96
Answer Key for Screening Sheet 3-8:
Mise-en-Scène—The Breakfast Table
Arrangement of People and Objects Within the Frame
1. In the opening shot, the audience sees Mr. Krull and Mr. Barley and no one else. Identify objects
in the foreground, the middle ground and the background and explain why you think the
filmmaker arranged them in this way. Foreground—cups, saucers, napkins, glasses. Some students will
note that the position of the camera is such that with these objects in the foreground, it gives the viewer the
sense that he or she is also seated at the table. Middle ground—a radio is on the table between the two
men, included because it provides information to which the boarders will react. Background objects include
curtains and window shades, pictures on the wall. These add depth to the scene, suggesting a dining room
in a real home and not a make-believe set.
2. At the beginning of the scene, which characters are not reading a newspaper? What are these
characters doing? Helen appears to be listening to the radio or perhaps lost in her own thoughts (as she
later tells the others.) Mr. Krull is busy eating.
3. Which character isn’t a part of this scene? Why do you think the director decided not to include
this character at the breakfast table? Bobby. Answers will vary but should focus on the idea that if Bobby
were there, quite possibly he’d dominate the conversation in his chipper way (as he did the night before
when Mr. Carpenter arrived). Without Bobby, Helen and Mr. Carpenter can interact directly.
4. Comment on where the people are seated around the table. Why do you think the director
placed Helen where she is and not in some other chair? Answers will vary. Students must infer from
what Helen says that she is not convinced, as the other three to the right of her are, that the spaceman is a
menace. And so by placing her in the middle of them and Mr. Carpenter, she becomes an intermediary, a
visual and metaphoric bridge, someone who tries to bring about agreement between two parties.
5. At the end of the scene, Helen leaves. How does this change the composition of the breakfast
table? Helen’s empty place at the head of the table leaves Mr. Carpenter alone on one side and the other
three, who believe the worst about the spaceman, on the other side.
Camera Distances and Angles
6. Identify and describe a reaction shot in this scene. Students may choose Klaatu’s reaction as he
listens to the radio broadcaster describe the spaceman as a monster who intends to harm the people of
Earth. Some students may describe his expression as scornful or indignant or even amused. Others may
focus on Mrs. Barley’s surprised reaction when she sees the newspaper illustration of aliens from Mars
invading Earth.
7. Identify and describe a close-up shot in this scene. The first CU is of the newspaper article Klaatu is
reading with the headline “Savant Calls Meeting to Study Spaceship.” Another is the illustration in the
newspaper Mrs. Barley reads.
8. Identify a subjective point of view shot in this scene. Again, there are two. First we see Mr. Carpenter
reading his newspaper and in the next shot we see a close-up of the newspaper article so that the audience
can read what Carpenter is reading. In the other, we see Mrs. Barley reading and then her surprised
reaction, followed by a close-up of the Mars invasion illustration.
97
Answer Key for Screening Sheet 3-8:
Mise-en-Scène—The Breakfast Table (cont.)
1
Lighting
9. Describe the lighting in this scene. What, in your opinion, is its intended effect on the audience?
High-key lighting. There are no shadows crossing the characters’ faces. This seems to be a bright, sunny
morning and the bright lights allows the audience to see the characters’ faces and reactions as they discuss
the spaceman mystery. Students may note that the first shot, a close-up on Krull, is somewhat low-key,
which lets us concentrate more on the radio broadcast.
Movement
10. Identify a point in this scene where the camera is fixed. For most of the scene the camera appears
to be in a fixed position at the end of the table somewhere between Mr. Krull and Mr. Carpenter. In the
opening shot of Mr. Krull and Mr. Barley, the camera is fixed. We view them as if through a window.
When the camera shows the group as whole, the camera is fixed.
11. Identify a point in this scene where the camera is moving. What do you think might be the
purpose of this movement? A pan begins, showing first Mr. Krull and Mr. Barley, and then slowly
moves to the right, showing Mrs. Barley, then Helen, and ends on Mr. Carpenter. The movement informs
the audience who is at the table and also shows simultaneously what they are doing.
Sound
12. What information does the soundtrack contribute to this scene? Students may initially comment on
the dialogue, which is part of the soundtrack. The dialogue reveals the boarders’ fears. But students may
also note the information provided by the radio broadcast regarding the missing alien. This provides not
only factual information but also lends some irony to the scene, in that Klaatu is right there among them
and the boarders don’t know it.
Close
Ask students to comment on how their viewing skills have changed throughout this chapter. What do they now notice when
they see moving images, in films or television programs or news broadcasts? Do they tend to pay more attention to camera
placement and angles, lighting, and movement? More importantly, ask them to comment on why—or if—understanding film
language is a necessary critical-thinking skill.
98
2
3
4