Economic and Ecological Impact of Rabbits
"BREEDING LIKE RABBITS"
Control Of The Rabbit In Australia
Rabbits are one of Australia's foremost environmental pests. They have been one of the main causes of
habitat destruction, native flora and fuana extinction, land degradation and crop destruction. This site
explores the history of the rabbit and its impact on native Australian flora and fauna. Special emphasis is
placed on immunocontraception- a current research project in biological rabbit control.
Biological
History Impact
Culture
Control
To Submission
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History and Past Rabbit Control</head>
History of the
European wild rabbit in Australia
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Introduction and Establishment
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"The Grey Blanket"
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Past Control
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Traditional Control Techniques
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Photo Gallery
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References
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Home Page
Introduction and Establishment
Domestic rabbits were first introduced into Australia with the first fleet. They were imported on many
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History and Past Rabbit Control</head>
subsequent occasions but did not become feral except in Tasmania. It was after Thomas Austin brought
twenty four wild rabbits from England in 1859 and released them on his property in southern Victoria
that the rabbit became established on the mainland (Rolls,19). There may have been other unpublicised
releases in Victoria and South Australia at the same time, but Austin received the credit or rather, the
blame for the introduction of the rabbit to the mainland.
The establishment of the rabbit was initially regarded as a great success for the sporting gentleman. In
1866, only 7 years after its introduction, 14,253 rabbits were shot for sport alone on Austin's property
(Rolls, 28). This was Australia's first intimation at the amazing reproductive capability of the rabbit from
which the saying "Breeding like rabbits" would work its way into the Australian lexicon.
"Sometime in the 1850's a man was charged at the Colac (Victoria) Police Court with having shot a
rabbit, the property of John Robertson of Glen Alvie. He was fined 10 pounds. A few years later,
Robertsons son spent 5000 pounds a year in an attempt to control rabbits" (pg 21 Rolls). By 1869 it was
estimated that 2,033,000 rabbits had been destroyed on his property and that they were as thick as ever
(pg 35 Rolls). This illustrates beautifully what happened so often in different parts of Australia. Domestic
rabbits were initially highly prized and many attempts were made to establish them, until the inevitable
invasion of the wild rabbit only a few years later. To control the rabbit numbers once the rabbit had
invaded land was almost impossible.
The Grey Blanket
The spread of the rabbit across Australia
The rabbit spread from Austin's property and from other release points in both Victoria and South
Australia. (see map) The rabbit took 15 years to reach the NSW border, another 15 years to reach
Queensland and another 10 to reach Western Australia and the Northern Territory. Numbers were such
that the movement of rabbits across the landscape was refered to as " a grey blanket". Australia witnessed
the fastest rate of spread of any colonising mammal anywhere in the world. (Stodart & Parer)
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History and Past Rabbit Control</head>
The rabbit did not spread naturally across Australia. Its' social structure is such that only at the point of a
population collapse at the brink of starvation will the young bucks and subordinate does leave to
establish themselves else where. Floods, fire and other such extreme events such as hunting pressure will
also cause an exodus of rabbits. Spreading across Australia may have taken a lot longer if it weren't for
the sportmans and trappers who had an incentive to assist the spread of the rabbit to ensure their future
prosperity.
The English gentlemen felt quite at content being able to shoot as they did `back home'. They could also
congratulate themselves as accomplished shooters, shooting at times 1,200 in 3 1/2 hours, a figure
unheard of in England, but so too were the figures for the number of rabbits in the landscape. Rabbits
were also spread by those whose pastime was game shooting. These Gentlemen took rabbits from
shooting farms to establish them in their own regions and so the rabbit was transported around the
country as game for sporting purposes. "As the rabbits proliferated in numbers, the farmers began to
bitterly complain, the sportsmen who were delighted, regarded the farmers as universal spoilers of
gentlemen's sport" (pg 28, Rolls).
Past Control
Throughout Australia, shooters and
trappers were being hired as rabbits
devastated crops and reduced the carrying
capacity of the land dramatically. The
rabbiter did not attempt to eradicate the
rabbit as that would be workings ones
way out of a job. The rabbiters were
known to release rabbits whilst travelling
to ensure work in that area. In protest to
the NSW Minister for Lands 1888
decision to stop subsidising farmers to
pay bounties, the rabbiters simply
allowed the rabbit to procreate by not
killing the young and by releasing trapped pregnant does. It was also hypothesised that the only reason
that there were never plagues in Queensland was that there wasn't a meat or pelt industry.
Many fences were erected to control the spread of the rabbits, yet these were mostly unsuccessful. Early
fences were destroyed by wombats, rabbits, kangaroos, buried by sand drifts and because of the vast
lengths of the fences, they were poorly maintained. Often fences built to stop rabbits were not completed
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History and Past Rabbit Control</head>
until after the rabbit front had passed, such as the Queensland/NSW border fence and various fences in
Western Australia. Rabbits were sometimes stopped by fences, but in plague proportions, there were so
many rabbits piled up by the fences, that the rabbits acted as a ladder for others that simply walked over
the fence. Rabbits also will climb fences and they have been known to climb trees up to five meters.
The States response was often too slow and inefficient. South Australia produced the first legislation in
Australia concerning the rabbit which protected it during spring breeding and considered a valuable
resource. Shortly after this legislation, South Australia was also the first state to legislate a Rabbit
Destruction Act in 1875 (Williams,103). Other States legislated against rabbits with varying degrees of
success.
There were concerns about the effectiveness of early programs. A correspondent to The Observer in 1886
described the governments policies for this control of the rabbit in South Australia as ` trying to stop the
tide with a pitchfork' and almost all attempts rabbit control before myxomatosis could be described in
similar terms. Methods were indiscriminate and often resulted in substantial deaths of native wildlife and
considerable risk to people (Williams, 104).
The rabbit may have been contained by natural boundaries such as rivers and thick forest vegetation but
the rabbit spread over and through these barriers was assisted by Sportsman and Rabbiters whose interest
lay in its spread. The Squatters assisted the invasion of their own lands by clearing the very vegetation
that the rabbit would not penetrate and leaving the fallen trees as rabbit harbour.
Present distribution of rabbits in Australia
Traditional Control Techniques
Many techniques of rabbit control have been used in attempts to lower the rabbit population eg; fencing,
warren ripping, warren fumigation and 1080 poisoning. All of these techniques are expensive, time
consuming, labour intensive and often have to be repeated over consecutive years to achieve low
populations yet they are necessary if any attempt is to be made at rabbit control. Although historical
attempts at rabbit proof fences were largely unsuccessful, netted fences can be highly effective if
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History and Past Rabbit Control</head>
maintained and control measures are taken within the boundary.
All of the traditional techniques are effective if performed properly and consistently. The key word is
"consistently" and most farmers only respond with control techniques when a problem is perceived. This
is not a very effective or cost effective way of controlling rabbits. In the rangelands, where the rabbit is
periodically most abundant, traditional techniques are not regarded as being cost effective
(Williams,1993).
Groups of Farmers that establish a regional rabbit control strategy are more likely to meet with success
than a lone farmer. Such a strategy will lower rabbit numbers over a district and not merely push them
over the fence. Several Landcare groups have received subsidies towards hiring tractors and other
equipment, making a necessary job, quicker, easier and less expensive.
Although historical attempts at rabbit fences were unsuccessful, rabbit proof fencing can be highly
effective if control measures are taken within the boundaries.
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gallery
Historic Photo Gallery
A rabbiters camp
Shooting was both a past time and a method of control
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gallery
Australia exported tinned rabbit meat to England
The rabbits meat and pelt were both sold
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gallery
An early method of chemical control was to put foam filled with carbon monoxide into the warrens
and then seal the openings.
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gallery
Rabbits competed with native wildlife and stock for resources in the rangelands
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http://rubens.anu.edu.au/student.projects/rabbits/biblio.html
References
Anon, (1988). The economic impact of pasture weeds, pests and diseases on the Australian wool
industry. Report prepared by Sloane, Cook and King Pty Ltd for the Australian Wool Corporation.
Australian Rabbit Control Conference, Adelaide April 1993, pp. 26-34. Editor B.D. Cooke
CRC Promotional Folder for the Vertebrate Control Centre; The New Approach No.1 Oct 1992, New
Rabbit Biological Control; Strategies for the 90s in Aust, No 2 Oct 1992 Fertility Control of Foxes in
Australia
Fenner, F. & Ratcliffe, F.N. (1965) Myxomatosis,. Cambridge University Press, London.
Editors Coman,B.J &P Arundel,J.H Rabbit Control 1991, Australian Wool Corporation
Lange,R.T. & Graham, C.J. (1983) Rabbits and the failure of regeneration in Australia's arid zone.
Acacia. Aust. J. Ecol.8, 377-81.
Editors Levin,M. & Strauss,H Risk assessment in Genetic Engineering.1991 McGraw-Hill
Report by the House of Representatives Standing Committee on Industry, Science and Technology Feb
1992 Genetic Manipulation: The Threat or The Glory?Aust. Gov. Publishing Services
Editors Mooney,H.A. & Bernardi,G. Introduction of Genetically Modified Organisms into the
Environment Scope 44 1990, John Wiley and Sons, New York
Parer, I.P. PersComm, 5-14/5/1993. Research Ecologist, CSIRO.
Pickard,J. (1991). Sheep and Rabbits- the biological chainsaws. Search 22, 48-50
Fertility Control in Wildlife Conference, 21-24 November 1990, International House Uni of Melbourne,
Program and speakers papers.
Rolls,E.C. (1969) " They All Ran Wild", Angus and Robertson, Sydney
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http://rubens.anu.edu.au/student.projects/rabbits/biblio.html
Short, J.(1985). The functional response of kangaroos, sheep and rabbits in an arid grazing system. J.
Appl. Ecol. 22,435-47
Williams, K. Ecological and environmental risks in release of genetically modified organisms in
Australia; A discussion paper. Unpublished
Williams, K. Pers Comm. 25/5/93, Research Ecologist, CSIRO
Home Page
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Historycontrol
Techniques used to manage rabbit
populations:
Rabbbit proof fencing was used to varying degrees of success to
control the spread of the rabbit and to aid in the management of controling an isolated population. The
above photo compares the difference in vegetation cover between a paddock grazed by rabbits (left) and
a paddock with no rabbit population (right).
Warren ripping when combined with other methods such as
poisioning or fumigation (below) is an effective method of rabbit
control. To be successful in sustaining low numbers or elimimate
the rabbit population it is essential to have rabbit proof fences.
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Historycontrol
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Economic and Ecological Impact of Rabbits
Impact of the Rabbit in Australia
"The rabbit is one of the greatest pests of the pastoral industry in Australia, and has
fundamentally altered ecosystems" (Wilson et al,10).
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Economic Impact
Conservation
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Fauna
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Flora
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Soil Erosion
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Feral Animals
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References
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Home Page
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Economic and Ecological Impact of Rabbits
Economic Impact
It would be difficult to exaggerate the economic and ecological impact of the rabbit
prior to myxomatosis. In good seasons there may have been one billion rabbits. As 16
rabbits eat as much as one sheep (Short,1985), this is equivalent to approximately 60
million sheep and the consequent loss of production. The economic impact of present
day rabbit populations is not well quantified but is estimated to be in the order of 90
million dollars in lost production and about 20 million spent on control (Sloane et al.1988).
Conservation
A. Fauna
The rabbit impacts upon native wildlife in many ways:
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1. By directly competing for food and habitat the rabbit has displaced many small to medium size
marsupials such as the greater bilby, Macrotis lagotis (now an endangered species), and the
burrowing bettong Bettongia lesueur, (now extinct on the mainland). The disapperance of these
marsupials is reputed to have occured only after areas were invaded by rabbits. (Willson et al
10,1992)
Map of extinction intensity in Australia
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2. Due to selective grazing the rabbit has changed ecosystem composition radically. When an
ecosystem is changed, the dependant fauna are displaced by a depeletion in thier required food
source and breeding grounds. This has marginalised various species into smaller populations and
effected thier reproductive capability.
3. In its spread across Australia, the rabbit took advantage of pre-existing burrows and evicted
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Economic and Ecological Impact of Rabbits
various burrowing mammals such as the rufous hare-wallaby Lagorchestes hisutus, the bilby
Macrotis lagotis and the burrowing bettong Bettongia lesueur, from their burrows. This factor
contributed to the regional extinction of the bilby and of the burrowing bettong.
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4. A colony of rabbits will support a high number of predaters such as feral cat and foxes. These
predators put stress on small populations of native mammals. After a crash in the numbers of
rabbits during a drought, the predator numbers initially drop much less dramatically than the
rabbit and remain high putting intense pressure on the small populations of native mammals.
(Myer & Parker, in Williams et al, 79). Unlike the rabbit, which can quickly recover from a
population crash, native mammals are not such prolific breeders and their numbers increase
slowly. They rarely repopulate areas where they have become locally extinct due to isolation.
5. Wildlife were often killed by poisions and traps set for rabbits. Rat-kangaroos, tiger-cats and
magpies were some of the species inadvertently effected. Goannas, wombats and bandicoots were
often directly poisioned as they were percieved as a menace to the farmer (Rolls,173-5).
6. Late last century the populations of species plumeted as shooters hired to cull rabbits, also
culled wildlife for the pelt trade.
7. In South East Australia and South Australia bounties and bonuses were paid for wombats
scalps up untill 1966, as the wombat was destructive to rabbit proof fences (Rolls, 162-3).
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Economic and Ecological Impact of Rabbits
Endangered species of the arid zone
B. Fauna - Impact on vegetation
1. Due to selective grazing, the rabbit has changed ecosystem composition radically "Biomass and
cover are reduced as perennial grasses and shrubs are replaced with annual species and then an
increasing number of unpalatable and woody weeds" (Williams).
click to see another ringbarked tree
2. During drought, rabbits will kill trees and shrubs by ring barking and digging to eat the roots in
search of moisture. Hence, rabbits not only control species germination, but the species
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Economic and Ecological Impact of Rabbits
composition of mature plants thus effecting biodiversity.
C. Soil Erosion
Due to high population numbers, the impact of rabbits prior to the
introduction of myxomatosis was imense. In the semi-arid and arid zones
the rabbit continues to degrade the soil by destroying the stability of the
soil by the removal of vegetation cover. By denuding the landscape, as
rabbits will in droughts, it is leaving the soil highly susceptible to various
forms of erosion and loss of fertility. Phillip Island (above and below) has
severe erosion problems due to the presence of rabbits.
Home Page
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Introduced Wild Animals in Australia
Introduced Wild Animals in Australia
Introduction
There are now many animals living in Australia that have been deliberately introduced to the wild. Some
came by accident, others were escapees from aviaries, aquaria and zoos. They were introduced for a
number of reasons that now may sound quaint or impractical. It is a good history lesson to examine past
introductions so that the same mistakes are not repeated in the future.
When populations of domestic animals such as livestock or household pets become established in the
wild they are called feral animals. These include the feral cats, feral pigs, the hare, feral goats, and feral
horse or brumby. However, the introduced species that did not originate from domestic livestock are
referred to as exotics, exotic wild animals or introduced wild animals. Here are some reasons why these
wild animals from other countries were introduced into Australia and just a few example of the species
involved:
Biological control - cane toad, English starling, sparrow, mosquitofish
Sport hunting - rabbit, fox, deer
Fishing - trout, carp
Practical use - ostrich, camel, buffalo
Ornamental - blackbird, song thrush
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Introduced Wild Animals in Australia
Accidental - two species of rat, house mouse, European wasp, cattle tick
Escapees - Indian Palm squirrel, goldfinch.
The introduced wild animals have had a great impact on the Australian environment and the productivity
of many of its agricultural industries. The full impact of many species is still to be determined but
sufficient is known to warn against any further uncontrolled introductions for the following reasons:
Loss of biological diversity - introduced species may not have the same natural controls as in their
country of origin and can therefore displace Australian native plant and animals.
Disease and parasites - these usually are introduced accidentally such as the cattle tick that came
with cattle or goldfish ulcer disease which was introduced through the aquarium trade and spread
to wild stocks.
Pests - introduced animal pests now affect almost every aspect of the national economy and the
community. There are the obvious pests to agriculture such as the European wild rabbit, the house
mouse and the starling. Many of the birds and particularly the rodents, are serious pests in towns
and cities.
The brown hare
Early attempts to establish wild populations of the brown hare Lepus capensis in Australia failed. The
hare is now common through a wide belt of eastern Australia extending from central Queensland into
South Australia. It spread from a colony established on the shores of Westernport Bay, Victoria in 1862.
This was only a few years after the introduction of the wild rabbit but the hare has not spread as far as the
rabbit or caused the same amount of damage. However, the hare can be a problem where farmers are
trying to regenerate native vegetation or undertaking tree planting programs because it eats young trees
seedlings. The hare does not burrow or reproduce as rapidly as the rabbit can be more easily controlled
by shooting. It is not vulnerable to myxomatosis.
The European red fox
The European red fox Vulpes vulpes was released near Melbourne in 1845 for sport hunting. It spread
rapidly and took only 50 years to cross the Nullabor into Western Australia. The fox is now found on
most of the mainland except in the far tropical northern regions. It is not known whether climate or
higher concentrations of dingoes have limited the spread of the fox into this region. The fox has not
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Introduced Wild Animals in Australia
established in Tasmania but together with the feral cat and the house mouse it is one of the three most
widely distributed introduced wild animals in Australia.
It was believed that the only serious problem caused by the fox was that it preyed on lambs and goat
kids. However, there is now evidence the fox is causing the decline of certain species of Australian
wildlife. The smaller ground-dwelling native mammals are particularly vulnerable when their habitat has
been reduced by disturbance such as land clearing for agriculture. Predation by foxes can tip the balance
between survival and extinction for species such as the numbat and the black-flanked rock-wallaby.
Consistent fox control on nature reserves in Western Australia in recent years has resulted in dramatic
recoveries of populations of small native mammals such as the numbat.
The fox is also a potential carrier of rabies should it enter Australia. This disease primarily affects
members of the dog family but can also be transmitted to humans, livestock and native birds and
mammals. Rabies occurs in most parts of the world and is prevalent in South-East Asia and Indonesia.
There is a serious risk it could enter Australia through the illegal importation of an infected dog.
Wherever rabies has become established it has persisted despite all attempts to eradicate it.
The main forms of fox control are shooting and poisoning. A combination of both has proved successful
in and around nature reserves in Western Australia but there is an enormous cost in maintaining such a
program. In the past, commercial shooting of foxes for fur was a viable industry. This has changed since
furs are out of fashion and the market value of fox skins is unstable. As with the rabbit, one hope for fox
control lies in genetic engineering techniques that will induce infertility.
Deer
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Introduced Wild Animals in Australia
Wealthy colonists dreamed of being
able to live the life of European
nobility in the land they left behind
on the other side of the world. They
worked hard to make their dream a
reality by establishing wild
populations of deer to hunt. Dr John
Harris of Sydney imported the first
deer into Australia in 1803. They
were chital deer from India and were
running wild a few years later with
strenuous efforts being made to
protect them from poachers and
dogs.
These first wild deer in Australia
were seen as a great success and a
further five species of deer from
different parts of the world were eventually established in the wild. They were fallow deer, red deer,
sambar, rusa deer, chital and hog deer. However, none of them have become widely distributed. Each
species has a different and fairly narrow set of requirements so that they are now found in widely varying
climatic regions in small pockets of favourable habitat.
Only the sambar, found in the forested ranges of Victoria through to south-eastern New South Wales,
could be regarded as having the potential to increase its range. However, hunting appears to prevent this
deer from becoming a pest. Consequently, no species of deer is regarded as a serious pest and since their
numbers are limited by environmental factors such as climate, cover and food supply, they are more
likely to be viewed as a recreational resource. Farming deer for venison and antler velvet is a growing
industry with approximately 100 000 deer on farms in Australia.
Rodents
The house mouse, the black rat and the brown rat probably came in the holds and with the cargo of the
First Fleet but they could also have arrived with earlier seafarers that visited Australia's northern
coastline. These rodents benefit from human habitation and the changes brought about by crops and
horticultural practices. Both the black rat Rattus rattus and the house mouse Mus domesticus colonise
natural areas with the rat implicated in damage to seabird colonies on offshore islands.
Modern hygiene has broken the link between rats and bubonic plague - the disease carried by the black
rat that affected humans so disastrously in the past. However there is still reason to be concerned about
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Introduced Wild Animals in Australia
the ability of this species to spread leptospirosis and cause salmonella poisoning. Other problems caused
by the black rat include damage to insulation covering electric conductors by chewing, and the increased
fire risk and cost of repair involved.
The house mouse reaches plague proportions in the wheat belt regions when soil moisture conditions that
allow easy burrowing coincide with abundant ripening grain. The plagues cause economic damage to
cereal crops and oil crops such as soya bean. They are also a nuisance in houses. There is no effective
control of mouse plagues. Research into biological control and improved methods of poisoning is
proceeding.
Birds
In the past, many different groups devoted their energies to introducing any bird that might have been
`useful'. The prevailing concept of usefulness covered the ornamental, sentimental and pragmatic. Birds
were easy to obtain, relatively easy to transport and could be nurtured in aviaries before release in to the
wild. For example, the house sparrow was introduced to alleviate the pangs of homesickness felt by
those so far away from the familiar species of the Old World. It is now regarded as a pest because of its
habit of nesting under roofs and fouling buildings with its nesting material.
The European goldfinch, now found in the farmlands of south-eastern Australia, was introduced as an
ornamental addition to our avian fauna. The ostrich was introduced for its feather and meat and there is
still a small wild population in South Australia. Other introductions for practical reasons, such as
biological control of insects and farm pests, were all outstanding failures and merely resulted in another
pest. The common starling is undoubtedly the best example of such a species. Apart from being a major
agricultural pest is competes with native birds for nest sites such as tree hollows.
Another species which is believed to compete with native species is the nutmeg mannikin which was
introduced from China as an Aviary bird but became established in the wild after escaping in Brisbane in
the 1930s. It is now common in many parts of coastal Queensland and is rapidly extending its range.
There are now as many as 20 introduced species of birds living in the wild in Australia. Introductions are
not a thing of the past. There are continuing efforts, both legal and illegal, to bring new birds into
Australia. Most are for cage birds but given the past record of the potential for escapees to become
established in the wild it is essential that extreme caution is applied when evaluating the risks of more
unwanted additions to the bird fauna of Australia.
The Cane Toad
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Introduced Wild Animals in Australia
The outward appearance of the cane toad is living proof that good looks are not the only road to fame.
This animal, introduced in 1935 to control two insect pests of sugar cane, has achieved a great deal of
notoriety and publicity. One reason for this is its characteristic warty appearance and poisonous glands.
The other reason is that its introduction as an agent of biological control was a failure. Both the insect
pests and the cane toad continued to thrive.
The cane toad now occupies a range of over 500 000 square kilometres. It has been able to spread
through a combination of natural advantages. It has a strong body covered with a tough skin and can live
up to 15-20 years. Females can lay up to 30 000 eggs per year while Australian native frogs usually lay
less than 1000 eggs per year.
In addition to such breeding efficiency, the cane toad is poisonous to native predators. The large glands
protruding from its shoulders exude a creamy white toxin. Frog-eating reptiles have been seen to die after
only grasping a cane toad between the jaws before rejecting it. There is no reliable safe method of
reducing the cane toad population over the extensive areas of northern Australia where it occurs. A
search for a disease that is specific to the cane toad is currently being undertaken by the CSIRO.
Fishes
The best known species of introduced fish are probably the brown trout and rainbow trout. They were
introduced during the latter part of the last century when people craved a wider range of sporting fish.
Trout have thrived in the cooler streams of south- eastern Australia and the extent to which they have
changed the abundance and distribution of native species is still poorly understood. However, research in
Tasmania strongly implicates the brown trout in the decline, almost to extinction, of native fish, the
Lake Pedder Galaxia.
Five species of carp were also introduced to enhance the sporting and aesthetic qualities of Australian
waterways. The common carp is the most widely distributed and is regarded as the worst pest. It is also
possible that land degradation, through soil erosion and salinity and pollution, has had the greatest impact
on reducing the stocks of native fish. The common carp has thrived under such conditions.
The mosquitofish was introduced to Australia from the Gulf of Mexico drainage system. It was released
in Sydney in 1925 and Brisbane in 1929 to control mosquito larvae in dams. This fish has had a certain
success in mosquito control but evidence is mounting that it also has a detrimental effect on native
aquatic fauna. The mosquitofish attacks native fish and causes substantial damage to their fins as well as
aggressively competing with them for food. It has caused the decline of a native fish on Stradbroke
Island, Queensland.
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Introduced Wild Animals in Australia
Insects and molluscs
Most of the well known pests such as the garden snail, the fruit fly and the cattle tick found their way
here by mistake and have become a great cost to Australian society. These accidental introductions are
still occurring, with one of the best known recent examples being the arrival of the European wasp.
A queen wasp probably hibernated among cargo on a ship in New Zealand where it had also become
established and was carried here to start the Australian population.
The honeybee was deliberately introduced but soon became established in the wild. The requirements of
the honeybee for nectar overlap with numerous native species, and there is now concern that this exotic
species is having a greater impact than previously thought. There is evidence that the honeybee is a more
efficient forager than native pollinators and therefore competes with them for food. However, it is a less
efficient pollinator than the native animals that have evolved with the Australian flora. This means that if
the native pollinators are forced out by competition for food then some native plants may remain
unpollinated and fail to reproduce.
Conclusion
With the great wave of animal introductions that followed Europeans into Australia came many species
that we could now do without. There was either no concern or no system for identifying the truly useful
from the truly troublesome. Consequently, there were many unforseen results from introducing a host of
new animal species into Australia without considering what impact they might have.
Unscrupulous collectors still attempt to smuggle birds, reptiles and fish into Australia that can carry
disease or become established in the wild if they escape or their owners tire of keeping them. With the
greater reliance on world trade in increased overseas travel, the opportunities for the accidental
introduction of new species has increased rather than diminished.
The major exotic animal pests now cost Australia many millions of dollars annually and this is why
continued quarantine vigilance is essential. The main method of preventing further entry of undesirable
exotic animals is to prevent the importation of all plants and animals without proper quarantine and
thorough biological screening procedures. The great challenge is to balance the desire to import new
species with the risk of them becoming pests.
Australia now has the knowledge and experience to make an even greater effort to protect its native
plants and animals and primary industries so vulnerable to introduced pests. If we have learnt anything
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Introduced Wild Animals in Australia
from the past then it is the need for constant vigilance. However, the task can not be left to governments
alone. A responsible and caring public is essential. Everyone eventually pays for the damage caused
when introduced animals arrive in Australia where they are neither needed or wanted, only to become a
pest.
There are few cases of introduced wild animals that are not controversial or without problems today.
Even those species that are considered desirable by some sectors of the community, such as trout, cause
concern and their impact is still be to be fully determined. A commercial use has been found for some of
the introduced species such as the rabbit and this serves to complicate their management because they are
both a pest and a resource. However, for the great majority of introduced wild animals in Australia there
is the wish that we could turn back the hands of time and assess the costs and benefits in the light of
current knowledge.
Further Reading
Feral animals in Australia Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Rural Resources.
Canberra. Information leaflet.
Breckwoldt, R., Wildlife in the home paddock: nature conservation for Australian farmers Angus &
Robertson, Sydney, 1936 (3rd ed.)
Readers Digest complete book of Australian birds Readers Digest Services Pty Ltd. Sydney, 1979 (2nd
ed).
Rolls, E., They all ran wild Angus & Robertson, Sydney, 1983.
Strahan, R., (ed) Complete book of Australian mammals Angus & Robertson, Sydney, 1983.
Wilson, G et al., Pest animals in Australia: a survey of introduced wild mammals Kangaroo Press/BRR
1992.
For further information contact either:
Australian Nature Conservation Agency
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Introduced Wild Animals in Australia
GPO Box 636
Canberra ACT 2601
or
Bureau of Resource Sciences
GPO Box 858
Canberra ACT 2601
Information on this page obtained from ERIN
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Endangered Species in the Arid Zone
Introduction
This is a story of arid Australia. It is part of the harsh, desert beauty of red sand and of weather-beaten
rock, of spinifex, saltbush and of desert sheoak. Some parts of the story are like tracks in sand. We know
some of what has passed but already the full story is lost. It is a story of earth, fire and water; of the
scarce nutrients in ancient, eroded soils, of the pattern of fires and of rain and the vegetation that these
produce. It is the story of foxes and cats, of lack of water, food and shelter, death and extinction. It is the
story of the last 200 years in arid Australia where there has been a massive loss of native animal species.
What happened?
About half the land mass of Australia is arid land. Twenty-eight non-flying arid species of mammals are
endangered or extinct. To this can be added other species, such as the brush-tailed possum, which are still
common in coastal areas but which have become extinct or endangered in the arid areas. This
catastrophic decline has no modern parallel in other continents. It is a uniquely Australian event which
has taken less than 200 years - a millisecond in geological time. Aboriginal people have been aware of
this decline but have been fighting their own battle for survival. Other Australians are only now
beginning to understand the extent of the arid lands tragedy.
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Drought refuges
Prolonged droughts are normal in arid regions. At the end of long droughts surface water and food are
restricted to isolated refuge areas. In times of prolonged drought many desert mammals are thought to
have either died or retreated to refuge areas.
One theory is that these refuge areas were special because there was extra run-off water from rocky hills.
In some cases refuges were formed where the ground water tables were close to the surface. Often,
because of the runoff, the soil in refuge areas was slightly richer in nutrients. Extra water and nutrients
create small oases where mammals could survive during droughts. With the return of the rains, desert
dwellers would radiate from the refuge areas. In this way desert animals survived hundreds of severe
droughts over many thousands of years.
Destruction of the refuge areas
Unfortunately, cattle, donkeys, camels and rabbits were also attracted to refuge areas. They ate the
vegetation and what they did not eat, they often trampled. They fouled the waterholes. Their hard hooves
cut up the soil and created erosion, filing the waterholes. The delicate balance between desert plants and
plant eaters, forged over millennia, was shattered.
A fire is a fire is a fire... or is it?
One fire looks much the same as the next but the similarity often hides significant differences. The
difference between fires, and patterns of fires is the difference between survival and extinction for many
desert mammals. Animals depend on plants and many Australian plants depend on fires of a certain
temperature, or fires at a certain time of year in order for seeds to germinate. Too frequent fires can cause
some plants to disappear. Mulga, a very important arid plant, is an example. This shrub dies when burnt.
The seeds germinate after fires and new stands of mulga appear. If another fire occurs before the young
stands of mulga have had the chance to develop seed, then mulga disappears from the area. Fires which
are too infrequent enable fire sensitive plants to crowd out other plants thus reducing species diversity in
a particular area. It is now considered likely that much of the pattern of vegetation which existed in
Australia in 1788 was the direct result of a pattern of fires which Aboriginal people lit deliberately as
well as those caused by lightning.
In arid areas, the complex pattern of patch burning developed by Aboriginal people created a patchwork
of areas of older vegetation and areas of vegetation with different food plant species, fresh shoots and
vigorous young growth. The desert animals frequently used patches of older vegetation for shelter and
fed on the patches of young vegetation.
The patch burning ceased when Aboriginal people were driven from their traditional country. Fuel built
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up and huge wildfires swept over vast tracts of the arid country. Mammals which had developed a
delicate balance with a patchwork of vegetation were either destroyed by the huge fires or found that the
huge tracts of single-age vegetation no longer provided the variety so necessary for their continued
survival.
What of the survivors?
Some of the desert species are still struggling for survival. Although extinct on the mainland, some
species survive on small isolated islands off the coasts of Western Australia and South Australia. They
have not had to deal with introduced foxes, cats, cattle, donkeys, camels and rabbits. The burrowing
bettong and the banded hare- wallaby are examples.
Other species survive on the mainland, often in small isolated populations, which have somehow escaped
a fatal combination of circumstances.
Some mammals have had an assisted passage to survival. The mala, or rufous hare- wallaby, has been
bred in captivity by the Conservation Commission of the Northern Territory (CCNT). Its habits and
habitat have been studied by scientists. Aboriginal people have given vital information on behaviour,
habitat needs, and the appropriate fire patterns required to maintain suitable habitats. Based on this
information, a cooperative attempt is being made between the Commission and Aboriginal people to reestablish the mala in the Tanami Desert. Partly funded through the Federal Government's Endangered
Species Program, it is too early to tell how successful this recovery project will be.
In the 1970s there was increasing concern that the range of the numbat was dwindling. Scientists from
the Western Australian Department of Conservation and Land Management studied the biology of the
and showed that a big threat to the survival of this species is predation by foxes. Despite adequate food
and shelter, despite breeding amble young to reproduce the species, the numbat could not replace the
large number of individuals being taken by foxes. The species was in decline. Experiments with fox
control showed that numbat numbers climbed quickly once foxes were removed.
This goes with this goes with that goes with this
In less than two hundred years since 1789 there has been a catastrophe. We are unsure exactly why each
of the extinct species died out. For some the only traces are in museums and in the memories of old
Aboriginal men and women... the last people to know them from seeing them alive in the wild.
We do know that mala, the rufous hare-wallaby, can survive in the desert provided the area is burnt in the
traditional Aboriginal way; and there are no rabbits and foxes. We are becoming increasingly certain that
the availability of nutritious food during times of drought stress has also been critical.
We know that some of these mammals are gone forever. Some of them were ordinary and some beautiful
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but each was a unique part of our natural heritage.
On the other hand we know that some mammals which are on the brink of extinction can be saved.
Dingoes, foxes and cats
Scientists believe thatdingoes were brought to Australia at least 15 000 years ago by Aboriginal people.
Although it is not certain, it is believed that dingoes had an impact on the native animals. For example,
thethylacine (Tasmanian tiger) and the Tasmanian devil disappeared from mainland Australia but
survived for much longer in Tasmania where dingoes were absent. The surviving desert animals have had
about ten thousand years to adjust to dingoes. By 1788, a new balance had been achieved.
The introduction of cats and foxes fatally altered this balance. Some species simply fell off the scales and
disappeared forever. Others maintain a precarious grip. Some mammals which have become extinct on
the mainland survive quite well on islands. These islands do not have introduced foxes, cats and rabbits.
Some of the victims
It is painful to think about some of the arid mammals which have become extinct in our lifetime. For
some we have beautiful illustrations by the early naturalist John Gould. The illustrations capture the light
earthy colours so typical of many of the arid animals; their bright eyes and alert stance give a hint of
quick, sure movement. But now they exist only in books. Examples of extinct desert mammals are the
lesser bilby, the pig- footed bandicoot, and the central hare-wallaby.
Size is not everything?
A feature of the story is that 90 per cent of all mammal species with adult body weights between 35 and
5 500 grams are either extinct or endangered. It has paid desert mammals to be big or small but not
medium. Why? The short answer is that we do not know for sure. One theory is that mammals which
weighed less than 35 grams could survive in smaller-scale habitats and somehow missed the general
destruction created by introduced animals and alterations to the fire patters. Larger mammals have the
capacity to move along distances to surviving patches of habitat, as well as being too large for foxes and
cats to attack.
Definitions
Several words are used to describe the population of a species:
Extinct: Species not definitely located in the wild during the past 50 years.
Endangered: Species in danger of extinction and whose survival is unlikely if the causal factors
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continue operating.
Vulnerable: Species believed likely to move into the‘Endangered’ category in the near future if the
causal factors continue operating.
The future
For many desert mammals there is no happy ending to this story. They are gone. The quality of our lives
has been diminished by the loss of the rich variety of animals. For the survivors, it is now a story of a
race against time and circumstances. We are in a position to alter those circumstances. We can tip the
scales one way or the other.
Whether desert mammals survive, depends on the choices we make. We can make choices through
governments by making laws to protect and conserve; through conservation agencies by making and
carrying out management choices; through non-government organisations by increasing awareness and
support for appropriate action;
and as individuals by choosing to consume less in order to put less pressure on the environment. We
know that the choices are often difficult to make but we also know that all choices count.
Choices
We can choose:
●
To use less resources in our personal lives. Every bit of paper, metal, wood, and energy comes
from somewhere. The wastes from their production and use all go somewhere. Those
`somewheres' are where animals live.
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To reserve areas of habitat and protect them from disturbance.
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To control exotic plants and introduced animals.
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To err on the side of caution. Once a species is extinct it is too late to go back and make the right
decision.
To learn more about how animals depend on their habitats and about how habitats are affected by
our actions.
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To farm in a way which supports wildlife; for example, by planting shelter belts of native plants.
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To join a group which seeks to support the needs of endangered species and their habitats.
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●
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To grow native plants in your garden or town park as an example to others that people care
enough to act for the environment.
To talk with family and friends about the choices which can be made.
Endangered Species Program
In response to the crisis, the Commonwealth Government has taken a number of steps:
●
●
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It is seeking to develop a nation-wide endangered species and habitats strategy, in cooperation
with the States and Territories.
It has established an Endangered Species Advisory Committee to provide expert scientific advice
from interested groups such as farmers and non-government conservation groups.
It has funded an Endangered Species Program. This year $4.6 million has been allocated to 100
projects aimed at reducing the threats to endangered species.
Endangered mammal species of the Australian arid zone
●
long-tailed dunnart Sminthopsis longicaudata
●
Sandhill dunnart Sminthopis psammophila
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numbat Myrmecobius fasciatus
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western-barred bandicoot Perameles bougainville
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bilby Macrotis lagotis
●
brush-tailed bettong Bettongia penicillata
●
burrowing bettong Bettongia lesueur
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rufous hare-wallaby Lagorchestes hirsutus
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banded hare-wallaby Lagorchestes fasciatus
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bridled nail-tail wallaby Oncychogalea fraenata
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●
greater stick-nest rat Leporillus conditor
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Shark Bay mouse Psudomys praeconis
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dusky hopping mouse Notomys fuscus
Extinct mammal species of the Australian arid zone
●
desert bandicoot Perameles eremiana
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lesser bilby Macrotis leucura
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pig-footed bandicoot Chaeropus ecaudatus
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desert rat-kangaroo Caloprymnus campestris
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eastern hare-wallaby Lagorchestes leporides
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crescent nail-tail wallaby Onychogalea lunata
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white-footed rabbit-rat Conilurus albipes
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lesser stick-nest rat Leporillus apicalis
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central rock rat Zyzomys pedunculatus
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Alice Springs mouse Pseudomys fieldi
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big-eared hopping mouse Notomys logicaudatus
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short-tailed hopping mouse Notomys amplus.
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The Strategy for Biodiversity
Conservation
Written by Randel O'Toole
http://www.fen.cug/fen/pageone/strategy.html
The goal of biodiversity conservation is broad, and support for biodiversity must likewise be broad.
Successful action should address the full range of factors causing the loss of biodiversity and embrace the
opportunities that genes, species, and ecosystems provide for sustainable development.
The campaign can be broken down into three basic elements: saving biodiversity, studying it, and using it
sustainably and equitably.
Saving Biodiversity means acting to protect genes, species, habitats and ecosystems. The best way to
maintain species is to maintain their habitats by effectively managing and protecting natural ecosystems
and preventing their degradation. The program must include measures to maintain diversity on lands and
water that have already been disturbed.
Studying Biodiversity means documenting its composition, distribution, structure and func tion;
understanding the roles and functions of genes, species and ecosystems; and using this understanding to
support sustain able development. It must build public awareness of biodiversity's values by providing
opportunities to appreciate nature's variety.
Using Biodiversity Sustainably and Equitably means using biological resources so that they last
indefinitely and are shared equitably. The best economic use of biodiversity may be to maintain it in its
natural state for its ecological or cultural values. Biodiversity con servation must take place at all levels,
from the individual through the global. Immediate action is needed. Irreplaceable genes, species, and
ecosystems are disappearing at a rate unprecedented in human history.
Effective conservation efforts begin where people live and work: in the fields, forests, watersheds,
grasslands, coastal zones and settlements. Unless local munities have the incentive, the capacity, and the
license to manage bio diversity sustainably, national and international actions are unlikely to produce
results. Local biodiversity conservation cannot succeed unless communities receive a fair share of the
benefits. But this will be achieved only if conservation actions have an economically sound basis.
Benefits to local communities must be increased through such mechanisms as nature tourism and the
sustainable use of non-timber forest products.
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Refugia for Biological Diversity in Arid
and Semi-arid Australia
MANAGEMENT ISSUES FOR THE ARID ZONE
The terms of reference for our investigation ask for consideration of the types and extent of threats to
biological diversity in refugia, of the potential to reverse degradation within them, of the possibilities of
eliminating threats, and of current land uses and land management. Our approach is first to ask whether
the threats to biological diversity within the refugia we have recognised differ in any important ways
from those discussed in the wider literature concerning arid Australia. It becomes quickly apparent that
such is not the case. The threatening processes that have been identified and discussed repeatedly over
the last 20 years or more are precisely the same ones mentioned in numerous other places (e.g. Foran et
al. 1990; Morton and Price 1994; James et al. 1995). They are as follows:
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• Land degradation and potential loss of biological diversity resulting from over-grazing by
domestic stock. This vital issue has been the subject of substantial debate, research, and extension
and management effort. Although there is dispute as to the exact extent and significance of
degradation, all scientists who are active in the arid zone agree that it continues to occur (e.g.
Morton and Price 1994).
• Land degradation resulting from over-grazing by feral animals (horses, donkeys, goats, pigs, and
camels) and rabbits. Again, the losses to animal production in the rangelands and the potential
loss of biological diversity are widely recognised by land-managers and scientists alike (e.g.
Morton and Price 1994).
• Alterations in hydrology due to human activities, primarily but not exclusively drawdown in the
Great Artesian Basin due to numerous uncapped bores (e.g. Harris 1992).
• Removal of the environments on which animals depend through clearing. This effect is
occurring only at the margins of the arid zone, where land is still being cleared for agriculture
(e.g. Noble et al. 1990).
• Depredations of exotic predators, the fox and the cat, but in some insular situations also
introduced rats and mice. Many authors have identified these animals as a serious threat to the
persistence of the vertebrate component of our fauna (e.g. Kinnear et al. 1988; Burbidge 1989;
Newsome 1993).
• Invasions by weeds constitute an acute and formidable problem for biological diversity.
Although arid Australia seems to be experiencing relatively fewer problems in this regard than
other parts of the continent, invasions tend to be focussed on certain key habitats (Humphries et
al. 1991).
• Uncontrolled fire is significant in some places (e.g. Pearson 1991).
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Each of these threatening processes has been discussed at length elsewhere. Each has the potential to
compromise the integrity of the refugia we have nominated. Indeed, some of the refugia exist primarily
because some or all of those threatening processes do not exist in a particular location; this is the case
especially with the Islands, which escape the effects of most of these problems (and, for that reason,
managers fully understand the importance of continuing to ensure the exclusion of such effects from
these islands). Although we have not exhaustively surveyed the management plans that might apply to all
the refugia described here, it is clear that there is widespread recognition among managers of these
problems. There are formidable technical barriers to be overcome, as well as social and political effects,
before such threatening processes can be brought under control. What is the prognosis for such
advances?
●
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• The causes of land degradation by grazing stock are well understood, and the scientific solutions
are also moderately clear, i.e. at critical times, reduce the numbers of herbivores that are eating
too much plant biomass on land of inherently low productivity (Pickard 1993). However, these
problems will not be solved until the key social and political issues are the subject of public
debate.
• Land degradation springing from feral herbivores is technically more difficult to solve than that
caused by domestic stock because the animals causing the damage are uncontrolled and usually
economically less valuable than stock. Intensive efforts continue into improvement of traditional
methods of control as well as investigations of novel techniques.
• Drawdown of artesian waters has long been recognised as a substantial problem, and efforts
have begun to cap bores and thereby limit the problem. The primary limitation here is money to
complete the process.
• Clearing of land seems to be continuing apace. Solutions to this problem must involve careful
cost/benefit analysis, land-use planning and public debate.• Control of exotic predators relies upon
the same suite of issues as discussed above under control of feral herbivores.
• Control of weeds is dependent upon better management of grazing animals, both domestic and
feral; on more stringent control of plant introductions (Lonsdale 1994); and on protection from
invasion of areas with high conservation value, such as refugia. In instances of existing weed
invasions, some direct control measures may be urgently required.
• The principles of fire management are, in general terms, understood well enough for action to
begin: protect fire-sensitive environments by burning away from them at strategic times;
elsewhere, create a diversity of fire regimes by judicious intervention. The major limitation is
financial, although debate may sometimes be necessary to convince the public that management
burning is necessary for persistence of biological diversity in certain places.
Is there any evidence that refugia might be important for maintenance of natural populations which help
regulate pest outbreaks, or assist in reducing land degradation? The only example which emerged from
our literature review concerns the straw-necked ibis Threskiornis spinicollis, which depends for breeding
on some of the wetland refugia which have figured so prominently in our review. Straw-necked ibis are
major predators of Orthoptera (grasshoppers and crickets) in farmlands (Carrick 1962), and thus the
protection of their breeding refugia may enhance pest control. The Macquarie Marshes constitute an
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example of such an effect (Brooker 1992).
In brief, then, refugia in arid Australia suffer from the same threatening processes that affect the
remainder of the landscape. Thus, management of refugia requires that the same suite of issues be
addressed as have been widely discussed with respect to arid Australia in recent times. Despite the
universal nature of these management issues, though, it must be recognised that the refugia identified in
this report require the utmost care if their relictual, endemic and significant species are to persist. These
refugia are some of the places where our community stands to lose the most unusual organisms unless
our management improves. They might act as a stimulus to action, such that mitigation of the threatening
processes described above benefits refugia first of all but spreads outward into the rest of the arid
landscape.
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http://rubens.anu.edu.au/student.projects/rabbits/numbat.html
Numbat - an Endangered species
Australian Endangered Species Profile Sheet
Common Names: Numbat, Banded Ant-eater, Walpurti
The name 'Numbat' comes from Aboriginal people in the York and Toodyay districts (east of Perth), and
the name 'Walpurti' is used by desert language groups in parts of Western Australia, South Australia and
the Northern Territory.
Scientific Name: Myrmecobius fasciatus
The scientific name comes from myrmex meaning ant, bios meaning life, fasciatus meaning striped or
banded.
Conservation Status: Endangered
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DESCRIPTION
Amongst the most beautiful of marsupials, Numbats are mostly reddish brown with a horizontal black
stripe through their eyes. On the animal's rump are from four to 11 wide black and white bands. Each
Numbat can be recognised by its individual pattern of bands. Under their body, Numbat's have off-white
hair and their tails are covered with long brown hairs, some with white tips. The underside of the tail near
the body is brick-red.
Adult Numbats have a head and body length of 20 to 25cm and a tail length of 15 to 18cm. Females
weigh about 500g while males are usually heavier weighing around 700g. Numbats have a small flat
head with a long nose, pointed ears and a very long tongue. They also have 50 to 52 small teeth.
DISTRIBUTION
Numbats were once spread widely but sparsely through much of southern Australia from the west coast
to western NSW. Numbats disappeared from New South Wales soon after 1900 but were in north-west
South Australia until about the 1950s. In Western Australia Numbats were still widespread in the 1950s
but disappeared from the arid zone between the 1950s and 1970s. Numbats decreased to about seven
small populations in the 1970s, and by 1986 only two populations were left.
Since then, Numbats have begun to make a comeback as a direct result of recovery actions. There are
now three populations in a small area of south-west Western Australia, with another three being reestablished nearby.
HABITAT
Numbats used to occur in a number of different habitats including eucalypt forest and woodland, mulga
woodland and spinifex country. They are now mostly found in shrubby Eucalypt woodlands in the
wettest parts of their former range. These woodlands provide Numbats with hollow logs and branches for
shelter, and termites to feed on. Numbats will only live where termites are available for food.
ECOLOGY
Numbats feed only on any species of termite available. They also eat ants by accident with the termites.
Numbats detect termites in shallow soil using their front feet to dig an access hole into the insect's
gallery, then rapidly extract them with their long sticky tongue. Each individual eats from 15 000 to
20000 termites in a day.
Unlike most marsupials, Numbats are active during the day and rest at night. They use hollow logs or
burrows for resting at night or during the day as a refuge from predators. Burrows are mostly used in
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colder weather and for rearing young. They are one to two metres long with a nest at the end made from
bark and leaves. The entrances are well hidden under logs or piles of branches.
Numbats usually have up to four young, born between late January and late February. Adult females
have four teats and no pouch. The young attach themselves to the teats and grip onto the short hairs
surrounding the nipples. After six months the young are placed in a burrow and the mother continues to
suckle them. Juveniles are carried on the mother's back if she has to move them from one nest to another.
By October the young feed independently, but they do not leave their mother's home range until
November or December, when they are at least nine months old.
Numbats are solitary and territorial. Once a juvenile has established its home range, it will stay in or
close to that area for the rest of its life.
THREATS TO SURVIVAL
Numbats have disappeared from more than 90% of their former range for several reasons. Their habitat
has been cleared in many places for agriculture and housing, and in other places the fire pattern has
changed. Fox numbers have increased in recent years and are causing problems for much of Australia's
wildlife. Feral cats are also becoming a greater problem.
RECOVERY ACTION
In 1982 fox control was started in one of the few remaining woodland areas where Numbats could be
found. This was very successful and Numbat numbers increased dramatically. All Numbat populations
are now protected by fox control.
Putting Numbats back into areas where they used to live (reintroduction) has also helped numbers to
increase. If there are only one or two populations left then Numbats are more likely to become extinct
because of predation or disease. Each new population also allows for more Numbats in total.
Numbats have proven difficult to breed in captivity, and most of the animals released into other areas
have come from wild populations. It is useful to have Numbats breeding in captivity for education and in
case something drastic happens to the wild populations.
Numbats now occur in areas secure from clearing, mostly in State Forests and Nature Reserves. But even
in these areas of good habitat, Numbats have recently disappeared. By keeping suitable habitat and
constantly controlling foxes, we may be able to save Numbats.
RELATED SPECIES
Numbats are the only species in the family Myrmecobiidae. Their closest relatives are the carnivorous
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marsupials of the family Dasyuridae, which includes the Chuditch and the Red-tailed Phascogale, both
endangered species found only in Western Australia.
DEFINITIONS
Presumed extinct: An animal or plant species that has not been found in the wild during the past 50
years, despite thorough searching.
Endangered: An animal or plant species that is in danger of extinction and will probably not survive if
threats to it continue.
Vulnerable: An animal or plant species that will probably become endangered if threats to it continue.
MORE INFORMATION
Friend J A (1994) Numbat Recovery Plan
Available from the Australian Nature Conservation Agency for $10.
Flannery T (1990) Australia's Vanishing Mammals. R D Press, Sydney.
Endangered Species Unit
Australian Nature Conservation Agency
GPO Box 636
CANBERRA ACT 2601
Phone: 06 250 0200
February 1994
URL: http://www.erin.gov.au/portfolio/anca/esu/numbat.html
Last modified: 21 September 1995
Information on this page obtained from ERIN
ERIN Home Page
Home Page
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The Easter Bilby The Rabbits Rival
Bunny or Bilby ?
Although all the cultural conditioning of the many famous bunnies exist in Australia, we do not think too
fondly of the dear little critters. We may cringe to see one squashed on the road and may not approve of
animal testing but when an animal has been a primary cause in the extinction of native flora and fauna, a
cause of major land degradation and a financial burden to the country, we just dont think that the rabbit
makes a good role model to represent Easter.
Easter is the time to celebrate new life and although the rabbits certainly represent new life, (a female as
young as 6 months can produce up to 50 young a year) thats not the kind of life Easter is in celebration
of. The Easter Bunny may now be in decline due to a movement that set out to change the look of the
supermarket shelves, but more importantly, the attitudes of the Australian Pshyce. Australia has recieved
a new Easter mascot, the Bilby.
The greater bilby Macrotis lagotisis a small mammel whose populations and potential habitats have been
severly depleted due to direct competition of rabbits and foxes. There is presumed to be only several
hundred left in the wild and predicted to become extinct in the wild. The lesser bilby Macrotis leucra is
presumed extinct(Hoser, R. 1991). The bilby resembles the rabbit in only two ways, it has large ears and
digs burrows. The one significant difference is that the bilbly's population and habitat has suffered from a
sharp decline. This is largely to the rabbit, foxes and farming which have either destroyed the bilby or its
habitat. Let us hope that this new mascot of life may benefit, not just by populating the supermarket
shelves, but by an awareness of Australians that may help the Bilby raise its own population and save it
from extinction.
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Home Page
Return to Cultural Perceptions
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Economic and Ecological Impact of Rabbits
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL
"Control or Curse ? "
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Myxomatosis - A current reality
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Immunocontraception- A future reality?
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Rabbit Calcivirus Disease- A future reality?
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References
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Home Page
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Economic and Ecological Impact of Rabbits
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Economic and Ecological Impact of Rabbits
Myxomatosis
Myxomatosis is a benign disease of the American cottontail rabbits transmitted by fleas and mosquitos. It
is specific to leporids and is caused by the myxoma pox virus.
It was first field tested in 1938 and successfully released in Australia in 1950 (Fenner and Ratcliffe) and
resulted in a estimated 99% mortality rate. In the first two years it reduced the rabbit population from 600
million to less than 100 million. However at Cowra rabbit numbers recovered to approximately half of
premyxomatosis levels only two years after the first outbreak.
The innate resistance of rabbits to myxomatosis increased rapidly in the first few years after its release
and the rabbits with a genetic resistance to the disease became more common. Resistance appeared to
reach a plateau until 1968. Recent evidence suggests that rabbits in Victoria developed an increased
resistance to the myxoma virus between 1975 and 1985, an by 1990 even the highly virulent Lausanne
strain of myxoma (Willaims).
The impact of the disease was greatest in the semi-arid areas where the carriers (vectors) of the virus,
mosquitos are seasonally abundant. Myxomatosis was not as successful in spreading in areas where there
are few mosquitos, such as Tasmania, Western Australia and some tableland regions. The introduction in
1968 of the European rabbit flea (Spilopsyllus cuniculi), an alternative, more perennial vector, resulted in
large reductions in rabbits populations in Tasmania, south-western Western Australia, on tablelands, and
in parts of South Australia. The 1993 introduction of an arid adapted Spanish flea(Xenopsylla
cunicularis) is intended to cause a similar reduction in the drier rangelands and its spread and efficacy are
currently being evaluated (Williams).
Most field strains of myxoma are now of intermediate virulence and rabbits infected with these strains
have relatively long survival times (>20 days) and have a high titre of virus in the skin; both of these
factors promote transmissibility. Highly virulent strains do not transmit well because of short survival
times and highly attenuated strains do not transmit well because they do not have a high titre of virus in
the skin (Parer).
The efficacy of myxomatosis declined in the 1950Õs but has remained more or less constant since then
and myxomatosis still plays a major role in limiting rabbit numbers. The present density of rabbits in
Australia compared to the situation before myxomatosis is not known. On average, rabbit numbers are
thought to be about 5% of premyxomatosis abundance in the higher rainfall areas and perhaps 25% in the
rangelands. Although the resistance of the rabbits to the virus has increased, this has probably been
balanced out by the evolution of more virulent strains of the virus. The effectiveness of the virus in the
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long term cannot be predicted, so no reliance should be placed on its continued effiacy (Fenner &
Ratcliffe).
Rabbits with some degree of genetic resistance were selected for and populations became more resistant.
Myxomatosis now kills about 50% of susceptible rabbits which are infected. In many areas this degree of
myxoma mortality is sufficient to keep rabbits at low numbers. As rabbits become more resistant stronger
myxoma strains are selected for to maintain transmissibility and the percentage mortality remains about
the same. Until the virulence of the myxoma virus reaches some biological limit myxomatosis can be
expected to exert about the same level of control in the future as it does at present.
Home Page
Biohome Page
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ImunoControl
IMMUNOCONTRACEPTION
Fertile Grounds For Debate?
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Will it work
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Bioethics
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Conclusion
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References
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Home Page
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Introduction
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The Co-operative Research Centre
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Why Biotechnology?
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How does it work ?
Introduction
Immunocontraception is a new and exciting CRC research project that is taking bold steps in genetic
manipulation. The aim is to manipulate the fertility of rabbits through gene insertions on the myxoma
virus, rendering the infected rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) infertile.
It is a new approach to rabbit control in two ways - one is that it uses genetic engineering and the other is
that, contrary to all usual methods of rabbit control, it effects the birth rate rather than the death rate. As
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the project is a new and attractive hi-tech approach costing a considerable amount of money there is the
possibility that it will be enthusiastically promoted and adopted without due consideration. As in any
genetic manipulation the ethical issues, the possible social and ecological outcomes, both positive and
negative should be considered.
It is not my aim to encourage or discourage the project, but to review it and to examine the issues that it
raises.
The Cooperative Research Centre
The Co-operative Research Centre for biological control of vertebrate pest populations (CRC) was
established in 1992 by the Commonwealth Government for the purpose of bringing together all the
necessary specialists from a wide range of specific disciplines to work on the project.
Initial development on the concept from 1985-92 was funded by the Wool Research and Development
Corporation and CSIRO. The CRC is funded by five partners which are:
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Commonwealth Government
CSIRO
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Why Biotechnology?
Problems with some of the current control methods such as 1080 poisoning are that they affect
other species, native and exotic and are seen as inhumane. The perception of a declining impact of
myxomatosis along with the environmental and ethical aspects of current control technique
provided an impetus to explore a control that would be less labour intensive, more species
specific, more inhumane and have a permanent effect on the population. Most control methods
except for warren ripping are just temporary measures, as the population may rebound to pre
control levels in 1-2 years if there is no follow up treatment.
Relevant Links
Biotechnology Resource List
Ethics in Science
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How Does Imunocontraception Work ?
"Immunocontraception is the process of preventing fertilisation by inducing the body's immune
system to attack the reproductive cells of its own species. This process prevents the normal
recognition between sperm and egg, impeding fertilisation." If enough individuals were infertile,
the population would eventually decline (CRC, No.2).
Species specific proteins from the sperm and egg are isolated and the corresponding DNA is
inserted into the DNA of the myxoma virus. The myxoma virus is injected back into the rabbits
blood via a vector and the immune system then makes antibodies to these proteins. The antibodies
attach themselves to proteins on the sperm or egg, preventing fertilisation.
The genetically modified myxoma will differ from other genetically modified micro-organisms in
one very important respect. This is that the modified myxoma will and must to be successful,
spread from animal to animal. Other genetically modified micro-organisms have been designed to
not to spread. This difference makes species specificity of the utmost importance with the
modified myxoma virus.
Regulating the numbers of a pest species through controlling it's fertility by using an
immunological approach has very significant advantages. The virus species specific and it does
not involve toxic chemicals that would non target animals. Infected rabbits that become prey to
other species do not infect the predator. It controls numbers by regulating births in the population
rather than trying to kill large numbers of animals. Animal Welfare organisations consider it is
more acceptable than the traditional control by mortality.
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Will It Work ?
In an ideal situation, the virus would infect 100% of the population and infected individuals will
either die or become sterile. This is a somewhat optimistic situation which will be difficult to put
into practice in the field for the following reasons;
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(a) It is not known yet if 100% of infected animals can be made sterile and it is not known
how long the sterility would last.
(b) About 50% of rabbits in field populations have antibodies to myxomatosis and are
therefore not highly susceptible to infection. Repeated introductions over many years will
need to be made to sterilise a high proportion of the population. If an introduction in one
year fails then it is back to square one as there will be many fertile young in the
population. Recent results indicate that more than 80% of the population has to be
sterilised before the population declines.
(c) When there are sufficient vectors available to spread the modified myxoma virus then it
is probable the field myxoma will be competing/ spreading at the same time and rate. Even
if the modified myxoma spreads as well as the field myxoma, only half of the susceptible
population are likely to become infected by it.
(d) The cost of spreading the modified myxoma over Southern Australia every year has not
been estimated but could be in the order of 50-100 million dollars per year. The cost of
warren ripping in the same area may be in the order of 400 million dollars with a annual
maintenance cost of 50 million.
(e) One of the major vectors of myxoma, the European rabbit flea (Spilopsyllus cunicului)
depends on rabbit breeding for its own breeding and its populations may fall to levels at
which the myxoma virus may not spread well in some areas.
(f) Each experiment conducted by the research team must apply for approval from the
Genetic Manipulation Advisory Committee. GMAC has strict guidelines that must be
adhered to in regards to security and ethics and it is possible that GMAC may not approve
the release as it is new and high risk.
(g) In the field, the modified strain may be selected against and if sterility and death rate is
not 100%, it could lead to selection of genetically resistant animals. Apart from nullifying
the sterilising virus this will also remove potentially the most effective present day control
on rabbit populations.
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There is another side to the CRC's project that needs to be mentioned here and is discussed in
Impact. The rabbit is a major food supply to foxes and when rabbit numbers are low the foxes turn
to prey upon native species. If rabbit populations were to decrease, then to stop the fox having
from impacting severly on native species, its' population also needs to be controlled. Research
into finding a vector and a species specific virus is under way to introduce imunosterilising
antigens into the fox, but it will take a long time to find either. If the immunosterilisation of the
rabbit is successful, the same success for the fox is predicted to take a lot longer.
Conclusion
The reasons advanced for the rabbit immunocontraception project are that it will;
❍ (a) be more effective and cost effective than existing control methods
❍ (b) promote regeneration of rangeland plants and re-establish populations of endangered
animals.
❍ (c) cause less suffering of rabbits and the Australian ecosystem in the long run.
At present there is lot of enthusiasm, yet considerable doubt as to weather the scientific aims will
be successful. It is impossible for we as humans to make a ethical decision about the natural
environment without that decision being tainted by our own anthropocentricism and limited
understanding of the whole and by our vested interest in the continuation of our own species.
There will always be tension concerning the most appropriate actions when dealing with the
manipulation of life. All thoughts are valid and should be respected. My own view is that as the
rabbit is an exotic species that brings detriment to the Australian environment, its' numbers should
be controlled by human interference that has minimal negative effects. Whether the
immunocontraception myxoma virus will do this will remain a matter of conjecture for some time.
Because of the many uncertainties in the new technology of genetic manipulation, the final
decision should be conservative as the manipulated virus can always be used at a later date when
some of the uncertainties have been resolved.
Home Page
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BioHome Page
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http://rubens.anu.edu.au/student.projects/rabbits/ethics.html
BIOETHICS OF GENETIC
MANIPULATION
"The potential economic and environmental advantage of the technique needs to be weighed up against
social, ethical and ecological considerations"
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The ethics of uncertainty
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International ethics
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Genetic Manipulation Advisory Council
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Rabbits in Research
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Philosophy and Ethics
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Animal Rights
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Ecological Ethics
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References
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Home Page
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The Ethics of Uncertainty
All introductions of biological control agents or genetically modified organisms involve some degree of
risk, as there is always uncertainty; In most cases even the degree of uncertainty is uncertain, the
immunocontraception myxoma program is no exception. The perceived uncertainties concerning risk
must be balanced against benefits, which are also uncertain. In this situation the perceived benefit has to
be very, very large and the perceived risk has to be very, very small for it to be ethically sound for an
introduction to proceed.
International Ethics
In Australia the rabbit is a pest and the myxoma virus carrying the sterility gene would be encouraged to
spread to every corner of the country . There is no way, once the virus is released that it can ever be
captured and stopped, and there is no way it can be isolated to Australia. There is a very slim chance that
it could spread to other countries where the animals are native or do not pose a threat as a pest. Both
China and France have a high population of domestic rabbits bred for human consumption. In France
there is currently a research project under way to produce a vaccine to the myxoma virus to protect their
meat industry. It could be potentially devastating if the immunosterilising virus found its way into either
country.
The Genetic Manipulation Advisory Council (GMAC)
Having a body such as GMAC for approving the release of genetically modified organisms relieves the
scientists from much of the burden of having to worry about unexpected consequences of a release.
There is, however a more insidious problem with a existence of body such a GMAC. Not unnaturally
scientists involved with a program such as the immunocontraception program tend to be somewhat
blinkered about the risks because they wish the program to proceed to its "logical" conclusion. These
blinkers become even larger because the scientists have to argue a case to GMAC for release (and argue
that same case for further scarce funding). This is unfortunate as these scientists are the very ones who
could best appreciate the risks if they did not have these blinkers. GMAC however is a nuetral body
whose final decision is based on careful consideration of all facts and the precuationary principle.
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Laboratory Rabbits In Research
Many laboratory rabbits will be deliberately infected with myxoma and apparently suffer. The rationale
for allowing this suffering can be either a greater economic good, for the land or for the greater good for
rabbits as a species. The argument for the rabbits benefit is that if the immunocontraception program
works, then many rabbits will remain unborn and not suffer from field myxomatosis, from conventional
control methods or any other unpleasent death. The greater good for humans and rabbits will only result
if the program works but this is uncertain and therefore the ethics of infecting rabbits is presumably on
uncertain grounds. Animal welfare in scientific experimentation is another concern but regulatory bodies
addressing this:
" At a national level there is an Australian code of practice for the care and use of animals for scientific
purpose. The code requires that proposals involving the use of live non-human vertebrate animals in
genetic manipulation research work must be submitted to the institutions' Animal Experimentation
Officer for approval. The experiments must be set out in accordance to GMAC (Threat or Glory,101 ).
It can be assumed that the laboratory rabbits used in any experiments are being treated in accordance to
GMAC guidelines. Spokespersons for the CSIRO have stated that they are committed to developing
controls that are humane and consider immnocontraception to be such. Animal welfare groups are
concerned about any control that will inflict unnecessary pain in an animal and the CRC have received
no resistance from welfare rights groups but in fact have received support.
Relevant Links
Australian and New Zealand Council for Care of Animals in Research and Training -ANZCCART
Philosophy and Ethics
For a long time, our connection with the natural world was one of deep social, personal and spiritual
significance, as societies developed and became 'civilised' this relationship changed dramatically. The
Greek intellectuals were perhaps one of the first to begin to order nature. "The Great Chain of Being",
where God was invariably the highest, followed by the angels, humans then animals then plants were
hierarchical ordered with inanimate objects being considered to lowest form of being. Christianity
fostered anthroprocentrism and it has since been the dominant way of relating to the natural environment
in the western cultures, where human needs are placed first and nature being used for our benefit only.
What is our relationship with nature and wild animals now? Science in the past few centuries has given
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non-human life little value, regarding it as objects to be used, understood and changed for our own
purposes and everything became describable in quantitative terms.
As the environmental and ethical minority groups become larger and their message is spread, people are
becoming increasingly aware of humans impact on the earth. At the same time our science and
technology is developing at a exponential rate which gives us more to be concerned about as
biotechnology and genetic manipulation effect in our daily lives.
If we were to allow the elimination of a species in a particular environment, the question is now posed,
how do we justify radical scientific interventions to be the benign killer, one that interferes in the life
cycle of an animal itself? Genetic engineering may be percieved to be one further step to subduing
nature, reshaping it and directing it towards our needs.
Does the wild animal or the natural environment have priority in a case where their interests conflict?
Animal Rights
Animal welfare groups argue against genetic manipulation on the moral judgement that it is wrong to
cause unnecessary pain and suffering to creatures. Concern for Animal rights is often accused of being a
mere extension of anthropocentricism as the animals that they are concerned about are those that have
human qualities, ie intelligent, cute and cuddles, as they arouse a positive emotion in us. For the
argument it is important to know that animal ethics ascribes rights to animal as individuals. If this is so,
and the rabbit in Australia has individual rights, humans violate that right when trying to eradicate or
control their population. At this point it is also useful to note, although it is obvious, that the regard for
the well being of an animal is not always consistent for the greater whole. This can be clearly illustrated
in Australia, If we respected an animals right to live and to be killed without anxiety, it would be
extremely detrimental to the land and to native fauna and flora.
Spokespersons for the CSIRO have stated that they are committed to developing controls that are
humane and consider immunocontraception to be such. Animal welfare groups are concerned about any
control that will inflict unnecessary pain in an animal and the CRC have received no resistance from
welfare rights groups but have received support.
For a myxoma strain to be efficiently transmitted, it needs to be highly infectious and relatively slow
killing ie 25 days to allow exposure to the vectors. So the perfect strain of myxoma is one that produces a
slow death, this does not appear constant with a humane and painless death.
Scientist do not know exactly how the myxoma virus kills rabbits, but like AIDS, the virus is
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immunosuppressive and many rabbits die from secondary diseases. A bacteria that grows on the rabbits
eyes is the most common indicator that the rabbit is infected with the virus.
Ecological Ethics
Deep Ecology and other eco-ideologies emphasises the intrinsic interconnectedness of reality and nature
as a whole. In this philosophy the whole overrides the interests of the individual. The focus is on
maintaining a balance and equilibrium in the environment. It takes a holistic approach and an animals
value is measured by its contribution and function in the ecosystem. This view implies we have the right
to control or eradicate a species that is imbalance with the whole, and clearly the rabbit falls into such a
category.
According to deep ecologists, it may be ethical to eradicate a species in one ecosystem and not from a
neighbouring one. This ethics falls a bit short where viruses are concerned as they know no moral
boundaries.
Home
Page
Return to Immunosterilsation
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Rabbit Calcivirus Disease
READ THIS Latest Development - Escaped Virus !
Rabbit
Calcivirus Disease (RCD), also known as viral haemorrhagic disease (VHD) and rabbit haemorrhagic
disease (RHD), is caused by a calicvirus which has potential as a biological control agent. It appears to
be a new disease of rabbits which possibly crossed from another mammal host species. It was first
observed in China in 1984 and in Europe in 1988. In Italy it is estimated to have killed 30 million
domestic rabbits. In Czechoslovakia, retrospective examination of earlier blood samples of rabbits
showed that antibodies to the virus were present in blood samples collected 12 years before the virulent
strain was detected. The disease in now endemic in populations of wild rabbits in Europe. Studies to date
indicate that the disease is species specific, infecting the European wild rabbit and the domestic strains
derived from the wild rabbit.
There are no external signs of the disease until 24 hours after infection, when the rabbits become listless
with a high temperature. Rabbits at the CSIRO high security laboratory in Geelong died quietly 30-40
hours after infection with no indication of distress. At autopsy the spleen and liver are swollen. Due to
extensive death of cells, the liver is pale and crumbly. The effects on the lungs are variable but they may
fill up with fluids and the blood vessels blocked by fibrin. The cause of death is probably and acute lack
of oxygen and heart failure.
Nestling rabbits, less that 18 days old, do not die, but excrete the virus and develop antibodies. The
mortality rate of at Geelong to the virulent strain was 50% for 4-5 weeks old rabbits and more than 95%
for rabbits nine weeks or older. It is not known whether rabbits would be susceptible to a second
infection. The disease is highly infectious by contact and there are indications that it may also be spread
by insects. Despite the short period of infectivity, RCD spread rapidly through the wild populations in
Spain, 15 km per month, with infection rates and mortality rates of about 90%. It is not known how the
disease persists in the field. Carrier rabbits are a possibility, although there is no evidence for this. The
virus can be detected in frozen rabbit meat and may persist in protected environments, such as warrens
for six months.
Promising results from preliminary testing at the Australian Animal Health Laboratory mean that it is
now appropriate to assess the possibility of releasing the virus into the filed. Should the release occur, it
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would require the approval of the Commonwealth Minister for Primary Industries and Energy, whose
Department administers the Quarantine Act. Other Ministers, notably the Minister for the Environment,
may well be involved in the ultimate decision. Their decision on the release of RHD will rest on an
assessment of the scientific evidence relating to (1) host specificity; (2) economic and conservation
impacts; (3) animal welfare considerations; (4) effectiveness; (5) community views on the potential
release of a relatively new and unknown virus. It will be a significant decision.
The information on this page was imported from the publication "Managing Vertebrate Pests" CSIRO
Divsion of Wildlife and Ecology. See References
Home Page
BioHome Page
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October 18th 1995
The CSIRO, farmers, environmentalists and rabbits all recieved a shock on Sunday 14th
October 1995 when a disease, currently being researched for potential release on the
mainland and was quarantined on an island off the South Australian Coast, was found on
the South Australian mainland.
This has serious ramifications for CSIRO who are researching the potential of RCD (rabbit calciferous
disease) and highlights that scientific rigour is falible and questions the safety and ethics of importing
diseases into Australia.
"Farmers cheer rabbit virus research"
Read Below
NSW farmers have hailed the South Australian experiments with the deadly rabbit virus RCD (rabbit
calcivirus disease) as potentially the best news rural Australia has had for many years.
Vice-president of the NSW Farmers' Association, Rick Wright, said yesterday media suggestions that the
virus could represent some type of an environmental disaster was "laughable".
Mr Wright said there was absolutely no danger to farmed or pet rabbits as an effective vaccine was
available and was going through government accreditation.
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However, the "escape" of the virus from the quarantine net around the experimental site on Wardang
Island in Spencer Gulf to the mainland has alarmed domestic rabbit breeders, wild rabbit trappers and
environmentalists.
Australia's only licensed exporter of rabbit meat, Outback Foods, has been stopped shipping rabbit
following the discovery of the virus on the South Australian mainland. Managing director, Graham Hack,
said the release of the virus would end rabbit exports.
RSPCA president Hugh Writh has called for an end to the tests saying foreign viruses have a habit of
behaving in a different way than scientists expect.
The deputy director of the National Farmers Federation. Robert Hadler, said that whilst there was
concern about the escaped virus the CSIRO was confident it could be contained.
The federation endorsed the sentiments of Mr Wright but accepted that caution was needed and the
community needed to be confident that only wild rabbits would be the only victims and that native
wildlife would not be harmed.
Mr Hadler was concerned that the "knee jerk" reaction of some people could undermine the research
program.
He said it should be remembered that rabbits did significant damage to the environment.
It had been estimated that rabbits cost for South Australian graziers about $20 million a year and this
could be extrapolated to about $100,000 Australia wide.
Mr Hadler said that the discovery of the virus on the mainland had put the research back a step but the
federation was looking forward to the virus being officially released with community backing.
He said the former prime-minister, Bob Hawke, had launched the billion trees program by personally
planting a tree in the Riverina area but within a week it had been eaten by rabbits.
This artical was obtained from "The Canberra Times" 18/10/95
Home Page
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Cultural Perceptions
Famous Bunnies and the Easter Bilby - The Rabbits
Rival
Famous Bunnies
The Bilby - The Rabbits Rival
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Famous.html </head>
Famous Bunnies
Western Culture has immortalised several bunnies and this cute little animal has burrowed its way into
the hearts of many young children and into the pysche of nations. This cultural phenomon has taken
place via fairy tales and folklore to more recently and quite possbily much more effectively through
television and supermarket shelves.
Who could have gone through childhood without hearing about dear little Peter Rabbit "little Peter
Rabbit had a flie upon his nose..." or the rabbit in Alice in Wonderland " I'm late!, I'm late for a very
important date!". Walt Disneys cartoon character Bugs Bunny has had the best marketing manager whilst
the Easter Bunny, who has no identifyable face, is best known through the stomach.
The rabbit has had an alias to hide behind as it has created environmental havoc in Australia. For the
acceptance of necesscary rabbit control, community views must overcome the anthropomorphised
character portrayed in popular culture.
Home Page
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The Greater Bilby
Australian Endangered Species Profile Sheet
Common Names: Greater Bilby, Rabbit-eared Bandicoot, Bilby, Dalgyte, Ninu
Scientific Name: Macrotis lagotis
Conservation Status: Vulnerable
DESCRIPTION
Bilbies are the largest of the bandicoots with a body up to 55cm long and a tail as long as 29cm.
Adult females weigh about one kilogram and males almost twice that. Bilbies have soft silky fur,
which is ash-grey in colour except for on the belly where it is white or cream. The tail is grey near
the body, black further down and white on the last half. The long tail hairs form a crest and the tail
ends in a spur which has no known purpose.
The long hairless ears of Bilbies are probably important in keeping them cool as well as for hearing
predators. Bilbies have long snouts and long slender tongues. Although they have poor vision, their
senses of smell and hearing are very good. This is important for finding food and avoiding danger.
The strong front limbs have three toes with claws and two without claws which Bilbies use to
burrow rapidly. The hind limbs are slender and rather like a kangaroo's with a very large middle
toe. The hind limbs are used for grooming.
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DISTRIBUTION
In the late 1800s and early 1900s Bilbies were extremely common. They lived in most of the
southern half of Australia from the coast of Western Australia to mid-west New South Wales and
south-west Queensland. In the 1950s the biologist Finlayson described Bilbies as "one of the most
plentiful and universally distributed of central Australian mammals".
Bilbies are now only found in scattered parts of the Tanami Desert in the Northern Territory, in
the Great Sandy Desert, Gibson Desert, Pilbara and Kimberley regions of Western Australia and
an isolated population lives in south-west Queensland.
HABITAT
Bilbies used to live in many different habitats across Australia wherever the climate was fairly dry.
Areas with better soils and rain were changed by farming and grazing, leaving only the very dry
regions of inland Australia.
Bilbies are now mainly found in grasslands and acacia shrublands with spinifex and tussocks. They
only live where there are few rabbits and foxes.
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ECOLOGY
Bilbies build burrows that spiral downwards to a depth of about two metres. Each animal may use
up to a dozen burrows, each with only one entrance that is usually hidden by a small bush, grass
tussock or termite mound.
Bilbies are nocturnal (active at night) and shelter in their burrows from the heat of the day. At
night, a Bilby may travel up to five km as it searches for food. Bilbies are omnivorous (feed on
animals and plants) and will feed on whatever food is available each season. They eat insects and
insect larvae as well as bulbs, fruit, fungi and seeds which they lick from the ground with their long
tongues. Bilbies also use their front feet to dig for food.
Generally, Bilbies live alone but they may live in small groups of two to four animals, when the
home ranges of an adult male, female and their young overlap. It is possible for young to be born
throughout the year, but breeding may depend on rainfall and the amount of food around. Bilbies
have from one to three young which stay in the pouch for about two and a half months. They stay
with their mother for another two weeks before leaving the home burrow. No one knows how long
they live in the wild, but captive Bilbies can live for about five years.
THREATS TO SURVIVAL
Early this century Bilbies were hunted for their skins, and many were caught in rabbit traps and
killed by poison baits.
Bilbies are preyed on by foxes and feral cats. They have to compete for food with rabbits and
livestock. Their supply of food has also been affected by changes in the number and strength of
fires since European settlement in Australia.
Bilbies can move around to find food but in severe drought they depend on areas with a good
supply of food. Other animals, including rabbits and cattle, also depend on these patches, which
become overused, and may not be able to keep Bilbies and other native species alive during
drought. After a long drought, colonies of Bilbies may have a smaller chance of increasing in
numbers. In this way the Bilby population could decrease every time there is a long drought.
Bilbies now live in small scattered populations often a long way from other Bilby populations.
These populations may not be able to survive a disaster such as disease, fire or severe predation.
RECOVERY ACTION
Some Bilbies are kept in captivity so that they can be studied. Bilbies breed well in captivity and
could be put back into areas where they have died out. This could only occur if the causes of their
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disappearance are understood and controlled.
In Western Australia, Bilbies live on protected land in the Gibson Desert Nature Reserve, in the
Great Sandy Desert at Rudall River National Park and the proposed Percival Lakes Nature
Reserve.
In the Northern Territory studies over the next few years will look at the movement, growth,
breeding, habitat use and survival of Bilbies in the wild. This should show if numbers are
decreasing or remaining the same, what is stopping the population from increasing and spreading,
and how much predation Bilby populations can survive. Since 1980 there have been some attempts
to reintroduce Bilbies into Watarrka National Park (350km south of Alice Springs). These did not
succeed partly because of cat predation.
In south-west Queensland Bilbies live in the new Diamantina Lakes National Park, but the biggest
population is found on private land. In these areas burrows are being located to find out how many
Bilbies there are and where they live, and their ecology is also being studied. A study of feral cats
in the same area should show how they are affecting the survival of Bilbies.
RELATED SPECIES
Lesser Bilby (Macrotis leucura)
The Lesser Bilby was last reported alive in north-eastern South Australia in 1931 and is now
presumed extinct. This bandicoot had white fur along the top of its tail and was smaller and less
colourful than the Greater Bilby. The Lesser Bilby closed the entrance to its burrow when inside. It
was noted to feed on small rodents and mice, as well as seeds. Females reared up to two young at a
time.
DEFINITIONS
Presumed Extinct: An animal or plant species that has not been found in the wild during the past
50 years, despite thorough searching.
Endangered: An animal or plant species that is in danger of extinction and will probably not
survive if the threats to it continue.
Vulnerable: An animal or plant species that will probably become endangered if the threats to it
continue.
MORE INFORMATION
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Flannery T (1990) Australia's Vanishing Mammals. R D Press, Sydney.
Stoddart, E (1992) Bandicoots and Bilbies of Australia. Bimberi Books, ACT.
Strahan R (1983) The Australian Museum Complete Book of Australian Mammals. Angus and
Robertson.
Greater Bilby Recovery Plan. Available soon from the Australian Nature Conservation Agency for
$10.
Illustrations copyright Sue Stranger, Kaye Kessing and Patrick Cook (most not in the electronic
edition)
Endangered Species Unit
Australian Nature Conservation Agency
GPO Box 636
CANBERRA ACT 2601
Phone: 06 250 0200
February 1994
This page available from ERIN
ERIN Home Page
Home Page
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"BREEDING LIKE RABBITS"
Control Of The Rabbit In Australia
Submission Project Review Media
Submission
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INTRODUCTION
The Biological Control Of The Rabbit in Australia web site aims to provides scientific, historic and
cultural information about the rabbit, its environmental impact and its control. The site focuses on the
biological control technique of myxomatosis and on current research into Immunocontraception and the
Rabbit Calicivirus Disease. Associated eithics such as Animal rights, genetic manipulation and releasing
new viruses into the wild are also discussed.
The site aims to reach a variety of interests groups including scientist such as ecologists, biologists,
virologists and students studying in the above fields, as well as those involved in the practical side of
land managment eg land managers and farmers.
The initial project was called, "The Rabbit in Australia" and the focus was on six major aspects of the
rabbit. To be more specific, the emphasis was changed to rabbit control and the site was renamed "
Biological Control of the Rabbit in Australia.
The Internet currently only provides information on rabbits as pets and many of these sites are digitised
shrines to a favourite pet. "Biological Control of the Rabbit in Australia" is the first site (that I could
find) that has attempted to give a scientific perspective on the control of rabbits and hence fills a vacant
niche in the web.
WHY THE WEB?
Information concerning rabbits is available globally in other mediums, but being on the Net allows a
paper to be accessed from any computer linked to the web and, as the Net is increasingly being used as a
research tool, it is a relevant medium to publish work in. The real benefit is that information is available
at the tip of the fingers and is only moments away in cyberspace. The only research required is the time
spent cruising the net, in short, it makes a paper quickly and easily available. A paper on the net
potentially has a wider audience than other media, as there are now over 350,000,000 users of the Net.
An advantage of publishing electronically on the Net is that one can create hot links between documents
that lead users on to other relevant information. Additionally the technology allows users to find
information in an interactive and interative way, an article on the Net as well as being searched for, may
be stumbled across, giving people access to information which they may not have otherwise look at.
FORMAT
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Formatting information so it is accessible and easy to browse is initially a challenge. As it cannot be
assumed that the browser has read one section before another or is interested in any other section, each
section and subsection need to be written indentant of each other.
ÒBiological Control of the Rabbit in AustraliaÓ site has a Home Page which displays four major
sections, these are: History, Traditional Contol Methods, Biological Control and Culture. These four
sections will be Hotlinked to each other either at the end of the text or in relevent text. The Web site is
hierarchically structured and text within the sections will be available by either scrolling or by hotlinks.
Highlighted words or icons will be hot linked to a subsections or a graphics display.
Sixty graphic images will be distributed between the major sections where it is felt they will add
relevance to the text. The majority of the graphic images will be hot linked to save time and increase the
fluidity of browsing. Images of significance will be displayed in the text.
SECTIONS
The reason for the choice of each major section, its' relevance to the title and the proposed structure is
briefly discussed below.
History:
Subsections:
●
●
●
●
Introduction and Geographic Spread
Traditional Control Methods
Land Degradation
Impact on Native Flora and Fauna
The geographic spread of the rabbit, societies attitudes and early control methods will be discussed in
this site. Hot linked and displayed will be a variety of historical photos taken at the peak of the plauge
and maps to show the spread of rabbits over time.
"Since the introduction of rabbits in 1879 to the state of Victoria, the rabbit proliferated into plague
proportions and was a significant rural cultural factor before the introduction of Myxomatosis..."
The history of the rabbit in Australia is fascinating reading and it is essential to read to understand the
current methods of control and legislation. By understanding and reflecting upon history, it is hoped that
we can learn from past mistakes.
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Also discussed in this section is the impact of the rabbit on society and on the land prior to the release of
Myxomatosis. There was significant wealth created by the rabbit for those who culled, skinned and sold
pelts and meat, however the wealth destroyed by the rabbit was immense. It is extremely difficult to
quantify the ecological and economic damage caused by the rabbit, yet estimates begin at $90 million in
lost production per year. Many native fauna species were in direct competition with, and many were
displaced by the rabbit, others were killed along with rabbitsd as part of the lucritive pelt trade.
Other graphics hot linked and displayed will be examples of land degradation caused by the rabbit and
images of extinct or endangered species linked to the rabbit. There will be hot links to other relevant sites
or data ie :Biodiversity , Greater Bilby, Endangered Animals and Introduced Rabbits in Australia.
Traditional Rabbit Control:
Subsections
●
●
●
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Shooting
Fencing
Ripping
Poisoning
Fumigation
The control of the rabbit has become increasingly sophisticated over the decades. In the late 19 century
the control techniques were to shoot and Poison the rabbit and destroy rabbit habitat. This early control
of the rabbit, and the attitudes of Australians at the time, had a severe impact on the native population of
Australian mammals and bird life, and little impact on the rabbit.
Although these techniques initially had little effect, more effective versions were introduced after world
war two. In the fifties, a biological control known as myxomatosis was introduced with initial highly
successful results. Today, over a century after the introduction of the wild rabbit, the latest control
method currently being researched is a genetic manipulation of the myxoma virus which renders the
infected rabbit infertile.(as discussed in section 3)
Graphics will be accessible to illustrate various techniques of control in the field and other relevant
graphical information will be available.
Biological Control:
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Subsections
●
●
●
●
Myxomatosis
Rabbit Calicivirus disease
Immunosterilisation
Bioethics
This Web site will consider the success of myxomatosis and the potential for the release of the Rabbit
Calicivirus disease. The potential success and associated ethics of Immunosterilisation are the main focus
of this site.
The myxoma virus, a biological control agent, was introduced in the fifties with initial highly successful
results. Since the introduction of myxoma virus, the impact on rabbit populations has lessened. This is
due to new field strains and genetically developed resistance.
The latest biological control method currently being researched is Immunosterilisation. It is an attempt to
genetically modify the myxoma virus to cause infertility in the infected rabbit. This is a new approach to
rabbit control in two ways- one is that it uses genetic engineering, and the other is that, contrary to all
other methods of rabbit control, it affects the birth rate rather than the death rate.
This CSIRO research project has many ethical considerations as the goal is the release of a genetically
manipulated virus into the wild. Animal Rights and ethical considerations are examined, as is the role of
genetic manipulation advisory council, GMAC.
Hot links to images will be available throughout the text, as will other links such as: CSIRO, CRC,
Animal Rights, GMAC.
CULTURE:
Subsections
●
●
●
Attitude
Famous Bunnies
The Easter Bilby
Society has used images of the rabbit in many ways, from a good luck symbol to marketing items on the
supermarket shelf. Indeed, many of us as children had a pet rabbit or a toy rabbit to play with, and
undoubtably, we all went through childhood accompanied by Bugs Bunny and friends.
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This site may seem an unlikely addition, yet it was added to explore attitudes that can effect societies
attitudes towards rabbit control. Domestic rabbit breeders are also obviously concerned with any research
that may effect domestic rabbits as myxomatosis did and are a concern for any proposed biological
control for the wild rabbit..
The main focus of the web site is the Easter Bunny's rival, the Easter Bilby. The bilby is featured as an
alternate mascot for Australia's' season of hope and new life. The reasons why we are encouraged to
reject the rabbit as an Easter symbol are explored.
Hot Linked to this site there will be many colourful images of our famous bunnies. Also hot linked will
be the sites: The rabbit gallery, 3D bunny graphics and the Bilby.
CONCLUSION
Rabbits are economically and ecologically destructive and their control is an important issue in Australia.
Although the numbers of rabbits destroyed per year may be high, it is the number of rabbits left that
count, for as long as there is a breeding pair left alive, there will only be control, not eradication.
There can however be eradication at a local scale and all land holders are bound by law to take active
steps to control the rabbit population on their respective properties. How well this is done, depends on
several factors: How well the land holder is aware of their options of control, how aware they are of the
most appropriate form of control and when is the best time to implement it, how much capital they can
afford to spend -or lose and how much they are concerned.
"Biological Rabbit Control in Australia" is a site that looks at the impact that rabbits have, and continue
to make on Australia. The site looks at the past and present control methods and questions the ethics of
current research. Browsers may go to a specific issue/topic with ease eg: fumigation, or browse through
the whole site in a logical progression with ease.
The site "Biological Rabbit Control in Australia" is multi disciplinary in approach, and hence there is the
opportunity to create links with a variety of sites. The obvious link is are the existing sites on `Pets', other
sites such as Vertebrate Pests, Erin ( environment research information network), Council Net and other
environmental networks.
Hot Links
3 D Bunny graphics http:/www-graphics.stanford.edu/~beers/3d-painting/rotbunny.mpg Australia, a
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biological hot spot http://kaos.erin.gov.au/life/general-info/vegclear.html
Australian and New Zealand Council for Care of Animals in Research and Training
http:/www.isnz.gov.nz/ANZCCART_brouchure.html
Biotechnology http:/www.inform.umd.eu:8080/EdRes/Topic/AfrEnv/Biotech/bibliographies/qbs
Bugs Bunny http:/tncnet.com/~jmcarthy/characters/bugs.html
Experimental Animal Regulation http:/hayato.med.osaka-u.ac.fp/index/guide/inform/regulation.html
Greater Bilby http:/kaos.erin.gov.au/life/end_vuln/animals/bilby.html
Institute of Lab Animal Science http:/www.unizh.ch/labtier.html
Introduced Rabbits in Australia http:/kaos.erin.gov.au/life/end-vuln/threats/wildanim.html
The Rabbit Gallery http://www.psg.los.mit.edu/~carl/paige/rabbit-pictures.html
BILIOGRAPHY
CSIRO Virtual Library http://www.psg/los.mit.edu/paige/rabbit- picitures.html
Greater Bilby http://kaos.erin.gov.au/life/end-vuln/animals/bilby.html
Coman,B.J. (1994) District Rabbit Control,
Rolls, E.C. (1986) They All Ran Wild Angus and Roberts, Sydney
Williams,K. et al. (1995) Managing Vertebrate Pests, Rabbits Australian Government Publishing
Service, Canberra.
Return to Contents Table
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The proposal
The aim of creating a site for "The Control of the Rabbit in Australia" was to give interested Net users an
understanding of the enormous impact the rabbit has had on Australia and the ways that it has been
controlled.
The proposal for the "Control Of The Rabbit in Australia" web site was to provide scientific, historic and
cultural information about the rabbit, its environmental impact and its control. An emphasis was to be
placed on the biological control methods eg. Myxomatosis and on current research into
Immunosterilisation and the Rabbit Calicivirus Disease. Associated eithics such as Animal rights, genetic
manipulation and releasing new viruses into the wild were also to be discussed.
The site was aimed to reach a variety of interests groups including scientist such as ecologists, biologists,
virologists and students studying in the above fields as well as those involved in the practical side of land
managment eg. land managers and farmers.
The product
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The final product required 5000 written words,10,000 imported words, 40 digitised images and 20
imported images. To be consistant with these guidelines the final product was the result of comprimising
between the ideas of the proposal and the availablity of text and images to import from the Net.
Whilst offering a general information of the rabbit in Australia, the site focuses on the rabbits
establishment, the impact caused to the Australian environment and the past control and future biological
control of the rabbit and the associated ethics. . The focus on scientific ethics was highlighted on Monday
18/10/95 when the quarantined rabbit calcivirus disease was discovered on mainland of South Australia.
Although there are some variations from the proposal, which were changed to give focus to the more
relevant subjects, the final content is consistant with the preliminary proposal.
The site also changed its focus from being directed towards scientists to an audience interested in the
implications of the scientific research and in the role that the rabbit has played in altering the
environment. Such as the target audience of land mangers, farmers and students as specified in the
proposal. This was done firstly as a result of the limitations of the potential imported text and suitable
images required for a "scientific" audience and secondly as the content outlined in the initial proposal is
more suitable to the previous stated audience. .
The Problems and The Potential
The potential of the WWW for research purposes is expanding, it is not however intended to be a
comprehensive research library as it is up to the descretion, finacial capabilites and initiative of scientific
bodies, research institutions, Government and interest groups to publish thier work on the WWW. Unlike
a library which is run by a central administration that determines the available material for various
subjects, WWW is a conglomeration of interests which may or may not be similar to that of the
researcher.
It is encouraging that people, bodies and institutions have shown great enthusiasm to publish on the Web
as it becomes the latest 'in' thing to do. It is an effective research tool as many sites are created as
'resourse sites' which give the browser the opportunity to view a selection of sites of a related topic or be
directed to books, publications and organisations.
The WWW potential to resarch the topic of rabbits in Australia was unfortunantly limited. It is ironic that
the most relevant sites was the Environmental and Resource Information Network (ERIN), whose office
is 500 meters from where I write. How useful was the Web? There were other sites linked to genetic
engeneering, Bioethics and land degradation, yet none specific to my topic and hence I filled a niche in
the Web.
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review
Due to the nature of the web, it is time consuming and irritating to import documents that link to fifteen
seperate documents and their associated anchors. Accessing electronically published material can be
tedious with a fast server and infuriating with a slow one. I see this as a limitation to the Web. The search
for the required imported 10,000 word were initially determined by to relevance to the topic, yet the
"positive feedback" effect occured where the focus of the topic was defined by the available information
on the Web.
When a site is planned it is important to ask the question " What is the purpose of this site?", is it to be
connected to as many relevant as possible, simply to be available or to show ones fluency in html by
creating very up to date images?. To critically review a site it is necessary to view it in the context in
which it was written. The structure of the "Control of the Rabbit in Australia" site was aimed to be "user
friendly" by keeping documents short and using GIF images to facilitate speed. I attemped to create
logically links for fluid "cruising" to minimise to possibility of losing the browse to another site or "lost
in cyberspace".
The site is the result of a set parameters and has potential to be expanded if time and memory allowed. I
hope that it is academically and visually pleasing.
Return to Contents Table
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http://rubens.anu.edu.au/student.projects/rabbits/media.html
MEDIA RELEASE
"CONTROL OF THE RABBIT IN
AUSTRALIA"
New Web Site
http://bohm.anu.edu.au:80/~p9105919/submission.html
Rabbit control has been taken to cyberspace with the new Web Site "Control of the rabbit in Australia". It
is the first site dedicated to the Eureopean wild rabbit in Australia that explores the history, impact and
past and future control of one of Australia's worst environmental pests.
As the U.S.A dominated Internet rapidly becomes established in Australia, more sites relevent to
Australians are being published. This site is one of them.
In 1859 twenty four rabbits were released in Victoria, 136 years later the rabbit is the most widely
distributed mammals in Australia, and except for the house mouse, is the most abundant. Rabbits
currently cause up to $115,000,000 a year in lost production and continue to cause profound direct and
indirect damage to soils and to native plants and animals for which no dollar value can be attached.
When myxomatosis was released in 1950, the rabbit population plumeted to 1% of the peak numbers,
however resistance to the virus developed quickly. Although myxomatosis is still controls population
numbers, CSIRO are currently researching more effective biological control methods. A CSIRO
molecular biotechnology project aims to genetically modified myxoma virus that will render the infected
rabbit infertile, a process called immunocontraception. Rabbits are renowned for their amazing capacity
to reproduce and for their exponential growth in favourable seasons. A female of 6 months can produce
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up to 50 kittens a year and $20 million are spent each year in an attempt to control rabbits populations
and this is acheived with varying degrees of success. Farmers support the CSIRO studies and are eagerly
awaiting the results and the potential release of a biological killer.
Australia has the worlds highest mammal extinction rate in the world, most of these extictions occurred
in the period from 1850 when the rabbit arrived and 1910 when the fox arrived. Native flora and fauna
species compete with introduced species which have radically altered the environment. This
The creater of the site, Michele Parer, a student at the ANU believes that this new site will be of special
interest to people interested in resource management, animal rights and environmental studies.
Contents
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