Perceptual Distortion
and Stress
Instructor: Anita McCrary
Perceptual Distortion and Stress
COURSE DESCRIPTION:
Course prerequisites include: Situational Awareness: A Primer for SUDs Counselors; Sleep, Memory, and
Recovery; and Breathing and Anxiety: Nature’s Chill Pill. The course describes the neurological pathways
underlying language acquisition theory and how the pathways assist in creating perceptual distortion. The
course uses Roger Brown’s grammatical morphemes and B.F. Skinner’s behavioral autoclitics to explicate the
psychosomatic morphology of situational and environmental triggers or cues.
COURSE GOAL:
Upon completion of the course, a clinician will understand the neurological mechanics of trigger/cue acquisition.
The course builds on previous courses discussing situational awareness, sleep and respiration, affirming their
reciprocal effect on idiosyncratic perception and behavior. Completion of the course will also introduce brief
therapy enhancements for depression: SUDs, GAD, and PTSD.
Upon receiving licensure, a clinician acquires hundreds
of new words and terminology specific to the therapeutic
environment. Clinicians spend hundreds of hours in
internships learning how to convey empathetic intent
through words and mannerisms and how behavioral
paraphrasing affects a client’s behavior. How a clinician
paraphrases these words (Segal, 1975) convey a word’s
intent, consciously or unconsciously. Just as students of
the mind must rehearse new words within proper context
to solidify meaning, stress inoculation demands rehearsal
of semeiotic sign recognition to control cortisol release.
Over thirty years ago, E.F. Segal (1975) characterized his
behavioral paraphrasing as semeiotic signs (vocalization
+ mannerisms) initiating an idiosyncratic interpretation.
Segal’s semeiotic approach (Fisch, 1986 and Pierce, 1991)
combines Roger Brown’s morphemes and B.F. Skinner’s
autoclitics to explain the proverb ‘beliefs become thoughts;
thoughts become words; words become behavior” (Gold,
2004). Segal further suggests perception of any stimuli
depends on the interpretation of the recipient. Studies
suggest verbal behavior shapes the nonverbal performance
(behavior) of the individual and the performance of others
through the use of reinforcement contingencies.
A person uses reinforcement contingencies to evaluate,
or boot strap, the intrinsic value of another’s behavioral
paraphrasing. This syntactic force processes verbal syntax
(morpheme combining; person, place, thing, or action),
semantics (prosodic features; i.e. pitch, stress, etc.), and
context (specific situation or circumstance) to delineate the
intent of verbal behavior. Environmental and situational
cues bootstrap meaning to verbal behavior the same way
an infant uses syntax and vocal inflection to bootstrap the
meaning of a word. Additionally, attaching emotional value
to verbal behavior will prioritize the bootstrap and create
robust cognitive-emotional reasoning. Experience and
reason are said to be the two ultimate sources of intrinsic
beliefs (Chisholm, 1957 & 1966).
Mirror neurons quickly analyze complex stimuli and
bootstrap the stimuli into priority for attentional tracking
(de Wit, 2011). Grossberg’s Spectral Timing Model (1989)
describes a conditional reinforcement learning theory
(Adaptive Resonance Theory, or ART) to control trigger
mirror neurons within the neural tissue surrounding the
superior temporal sulcus (STS)1 . He proposes primitive
motor reactions calibrate and recalibrate the bootstrap
within the neural network2 and orchestrates adaptive
sensory-motor control. Simply stated, ART supplies control
of distractor cues by replacing them with more valuable
bootstraps. Efference tells muscles what to do, while
reafference bridges “low level nerve physiology and the
high level science of behavior” (Von Holst, 1971, p. 68).
Originating from movement across the retina and receptor
impulses in the eye muscles, efference and reafference
affirm the Yiddish proverb, ‘the eyes are the mirror to the
soul.’ Mirror neurons enlist motor function to do the causal
work of the central nervous system (Herley, 2001). Von
Holst characterizes reafference as a bilateral division
between the lower centers (primal needs) and higher
centers (cognitive interpretation) of the statoreceptor nerve
endings within the STS. Recent research (Iacoboni, 2001;
Hein, 2008) indicates Holst’s bilateral division of the STS,
not the nerve endings, is more likely the case.
Iacoboni’s study shows high correlation with Von Holst’s
and Vincent’s (2008) models of the frontoparietal control
system (FPC) in attention3. To characterize Iacoboni’s
analytical description of reafference: the eye sees IT,
See The Need for Sleep, McCrary, 2013; referencing frontoparietal control system (Vincent, 2008)
Ibid., learning combination lock (Wilson, 2003)
3
See Anxiety and Breathing: Nature’s Chill Pill (McCrary, 2013; Von Holst, 1971; & Vincent, 2008).
1
2
Perceptual Distortion and Stress
the temporal lobe matches IT to default semeiotics
(words, phrases, sentences, and signs), the STS adds
somatosensory (including peripheral) information to IT,
sends IT to the inferior frontal cortex where a copy of IT
is sent back to the STS for storage (reafference), while
the original IT travels to the CNS to force behavior. Hein
asserts this brain region, “can support different cognitive
operations depending on the task-dependent network
connections” (Abstract, 2008). In other words, a person’s
cognitive, physiological, and physical reaction to stimuli
depends on the person’s pre-rehearsed bootstrapping.
Stress Inoculation
Optimal [threat coping] entails a number of factors,
including accurate recognition of risks, effective
management of emotions and problem solving, a focus
on prosocial outcomes, and engagement in actions that
have a reasonable chance of mitigation and adaptation
(Daughtry, 2011, p. 272).
A person’s intent may be wholesome in nature; however,
any behavioral cue can hijack intent and subsequently,
reaction. Given certain threatening circumstances, a
person will instinctually retreat psychologically and
physically because humans have an abhorrence to
inflicting harm on another person, even on the battlefield.
Hein’s research, however, hints at a way to control this
evolutionary instinct, whereas brain plasticity enables
a person to recalibrate default mindsets in the brain. To
simplify further, consider the analogy of a home theatre
system; the more wires connecting the different speakers,
the better quality and robust the sound. A person can
manipulate the syntactic and semantic default sound
waves through the receiver (i.e. more bass, less treble,
more rear speaker, less side speaker, etc.). The frontal
cortex is the receiver in the prefrontal regions of the brain.
Traveling over 300 days a year, Lieutenant Colonel
Dave Grossman (Ret.) teaches the psychology of stress
inoculation, situational awareness, and fear. He trains
first responders, educators, civilian law enforcement and
military personnel on establishing the default mindset of
a paladin. Most famous for his metaphor, ‘civilians are
sheep; criminals are wolves; the police, firefighter, soldier,
EMT - he or she is the sheepdog’, Grossman uses animal
myths corresponding to Cooper’s Color Code (1989) to
characterize the perceptual mindsets of humanity. The
Cooper Color Code represents perceptual awareness
through sympathetic heart rate (bpm) zones. It also
characterizes a person’s willingness to act (Grossman’s
animal myths). Zone white (60-80 bpm) represents
preoccupation, sleep, and sheep – oblivious or minimum
acknowledgement of a possible threat. Yellow zone (80115 bpm) represents coordinating behavior to activity,
driving, and migrating birds – navigating around a possible
threat. As heart rate excelerates to the orange zone
(100-120 bmp) the adrenal glands release cortisol and
perceptual distortion begins; body extremities become
cold and actions mimick a rodent’s – cognitively ready to
escape impending threat. The red zone (115-145 bpm)
represents high level performance, athletic endurance,
and the raptor – mental and physical acknowledgment of
an obvious threat. The optimal red zone, however, begins
to diminish after thirty seconds (when cortisol floods the
bloodstream), creates sleep deprivation, and requires
three minutes to recharge (parasympathetic recovery).
In zone black (145-175 bpm), attention and performance
diminish significantly and represents a total domination of
biological or psychological survival, irrational behavior, and
the terrified puppy – scrambling and urinating because of
the threat.
Robert R. Whitesell’s pre-ASPCA experiment on stress
duration and resiliency suggests repetitive cycling through
yellow-to-red anxiety levels causes enervation exhaustion
(and death to the rodents); however, innoculating a group
to intermittent stressor increases the duration of stress
tolerance exponentially (Whitesell, 1977; Burchfield, 1979).
However, the Pike, et. al. (1997) study suggests prolonging
chronic stress weakens a person’s ability to cope with acute
psychological stressors. Note the differences in duration of
stressors; chronic stress weakens sympathetic response,
whereas intermittent stress allows for parasympathetic
ascension and a return to homeostatis. Research also
suggests a person’s dominant behavior traits (Anderson,
2003; Craig, 2007) may increase or decrease cortisol
sensitivity and gender (Taylor, 2000) normally (but not
always) dictates male testosterone fight-or-flight or female
oxytocin tend-and-befriend.
Perceptual Distortion and Stress
Repetitive release of cortisol can slide a person into
a profound state of physical and emotional exaustion.
Ascendance of the parasympathetic system immediately
following red zone enervation causes “incredibly powerful
weariness and sleepiness” (Grossman, 1999, para.
4) and bolsters PTSD bootstrapping (Cohen, 2012).
For vunerable populations (children, neurological and
psychiatric disorders), the experience of high level
symapthetic anxiety for thirty seconds can be an
excruciatingly long and potentially detrimental length
of time. Repeat cycles of sympathetic anxiety without
significant recooperation (homeostasis) and prolonged
exposure to cortisol can cause psychiatric atrophy,
inhibiting synaptic plasticity in hippocampal dendrites
(Sapolsky, 2000). This atrophy reveals itself in behavior
through explicit memory loss (what day of the week/month
is it?) and an increase in mild stress sensitivity (a ‘touchy’
emotional demeanor). Research suggests pathological
hypersecretion (too much) and hyposecretion (too little)
can damage hippocampus dentate neurogenesis. There
are also implications of hippocampal dendrite atrophy
Perceptual Distortion and Stress
found in Cushing Syndrome, depression, schizophrenia,
and Alzheimer disease (Henneman, 2009), and PTSD
(2000). Atrophy can be reversed or minimized through
innoculation rehearsal.
Grossman borrows Bruce Siddle’s definition of combat
stress, although here we characterize it as traumatic
stress: “the perception of an imminent threat of serious
[body or psychological] injury or death, or the stress of
responsibility to protect another party from imminent
serious injury or death, under conditions where response
time is minimal” (1999, para. 17). He and Sally Dickerson
report the most impactful stressors initiating cortisol
release are: 1) the perception of a lack of control and 2)
the social evaluative of an act (1999; Dickerson, 2004).
This helps to explain the physiological response seen in
phobias, stage fright, and interpersonal conflict.
Although the typical perspective of the word ‘bootstrap’
may elicit negative perceptions of physical admonishment
(‘I am going to take a bootstrap to your backside…’) and
security (‘Fasten your bootstrap and hold on…’), both
operationalize the cognitive effort involved in learning and
mindset behavior. Grossman, a retired U.S. Army Ranger,
describes the conditioning effort used in paramilitary
training in Practicing to be Miserable (Grossman,
2006). The paramilitary model for mental and physical
preparation for combat is apparent in many civilian
treatments for anxiety and in critical incident response
protocols. Most experts agree that simulation practice
is the most effective way to bootstrap control of the
sympathetic nervous system.
CASE STUDY:
Previous Trauma Exposure and PTSD Symptoms as Predictors of Subjective and Biological Response to Stress, Regehr,
C., LeBlanc, V., Jelley, R.B., Barath, I., & Daciuk, J. 2007. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 52:10
Heart-rate Chart
Perceptual Distortion and Stress
Exam
1. Reinforcement contingencies assist a person to:
a. delineate the intent of another person’s verbal
behavior
b. attach emotional value to verbal behavior
c. orchestrate adaptive sensory-motor control
d. all of the above
2. Efference and reafference begins:
a. within the STS
b. in the hippocampus
c. in the eyes
d. after a cue or trigger is perceived
3. Repetitive cycling through yellow-to-red anxiety
levels cause:
a. physical and mental exhaustion
b. mirroring
c. bootstrapping
d. phobias, stage fright, and interpersonal conflict
4. One of the most impactful stressors initiating cortisol
release is:
a. training
b. reafference
c. an increase in heart rate
d. Lack of control
5. According to research, hippocampal dendrite atrophy
is caused by:
a. testosterone
b. cortisol
6. The Cooper Color Code represents perceptual
awareness through:
a. Cortisol levels
b. mental and physical preparation
a. heart rate
b. chronic stress
7. Perceptual distortion occurs through:
a. interpretation
b. the hippocampus
c. parasympathetic ascension
d. evaluation
8. The paramilitary model for mental and physical
preparation defines:
a. mindset
b. cognitive effort
c. symapthetic anxiety
d. athletic endurance
9. Stress inoculation…
a. only works in military training
b. filters memory loss
c. causes psychiatric atrophy
d. controls the release of cortisol
10. Cognitive retention of environmental and situational
cues, verbal syntax and semantics describe:
a. perception
b. inoculation
c. bootstrap
d. parasympathetic ascension
c. heart rate in the red zone
d. trauma
Perceptual Distortion and Stress
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