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ISSN 1866-0304
Logistics capacity management –
A theoretical review and
applications to outbound logistics
Große-Brockhoff, Marlies
Klumpp, Matthias
Krome, Dirk
Große-Brockhoff, Marlies/Klumpp, Matthias/Krome, Dirk
Logistics capacity management – A theoretical review and applications to
outbound logistics
FOM Hochschule für Oekonomie & Management
ild Institut für Logistik- & Dienstleistungsmanagement
Schriftenreihe Logistikforschung
Band 21, Oktober 2011
ISSN 1866-0304
Essen
The authors thank Hella Abidi for correction references to this publication.
Schriftenreihe Logistikforschung Band 20, Große-Brockhoff/Klumpp/Krome: Logistics capacity management
Table of contents
List of abbreviations .................................................................................................. IV
List of figures .............................................................................................................. V
List of tables ............................................................................................................... V
1.
2.
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 1
1.1.
Problem description .................................................................................... 1
1.2.
Objectives................................................................................................... 2
1.3.
Scope of work ............................................................................................. 2
Capacity management in production................................................................. 4
2.1.
Organisational integration ........................................................................... 4
2.2.
Terms and definitions ................................................................................. 5
2.3.
Capacity planning ....................................................................................... 7
2.3.1
Capacity requirements planning .................................................................... 7
2.3.2. Capacity supply planning .............................................................................. 8
2.4.
Capacity adjustment ................................................................................... 9
2.4.1. Adjustment of capacity demand .................................................................... 9
2.4.2. Adjustment of capacity supply ..................................................................... 11
2.4.3. Methods of operations research .................................................................. 12
2.4.4. Capacity scheduling .................................................................................... 13
2.4.5. Reduction of processing time ...................................................................... 16
3.
Capacity management in logistics................................................................... 17
3.1.
Logistics goals .......................................................................................... 17
3.2.
General capacity theory in logistics........................................................... 19
3.2.1.
Terms and definitions ............................................................................... 19
3.2.2.
Current development of the transport market ............................................ 20
3.2.3.
Revenue management ............................................................................. 22
3.3.
Terms and definitions of outbound logistics .............................................. 24
3.4.
Capacity management in outbound logistics ............................................. 26
3.4.1. Capacity planning and adjustment in warehousing ..................................... 26
3.4.1.1.
Capacity requirements planning........................................................... 26
3.4.1.2.
Capacity supply planning ..................................................................... 28
3.4.1.3.
Capacity adjustment ............................................................................ 31
II
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3.4.2. Capacity planning and adjustment in transportation .................................... 33
3.4.2.1.
Capacity requirements planning........................................................... 33
3.4.2.2.
Capacity supply planning ..................................................................... 35
3.4.2.3.
Capacity adjustment ............................................................................ 37
4.
Case Study: WINGAS Transport ...................................................................... 39
5.
Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 43
Bibliography.............................................................................................................. 45
III
Schriftenreihe Logistikforschung Band 20, Große-Brockhoff/Klumpp/Krome: Logistics capacity management
List of abbreviations
3PL
Third party logistics provider
BME
Bundesverband Materialwirtschaft Einkauf und Logistik e.V.
DIN
Deutsche Industrie Norm
DM
Demand management
FAC
Freely assignable capacities
F/G
Finished goods
SCM
Supply chain management
WMS
Warehouse management system
IV
Schriftenreihe Logistikforschung Band 20, Große-Brockhoff/Klumpp/Krome: Logistics capacity management
List of figures
Figure 1: Methods of operations research ................................................................... 13
Figure 2: Structure of a conventional production planning and control system ............ 14
Figure 3: Price and capacity index by yearly comparison (2008-2010)........................ 20
Figure 4: Capacity index 2010 by month ..................................................................... 21
Figure 5: Examples of technical storage types ............................................................ 29
Figure 6: Comparison of fixed and random storage .................................................... 31
Figure 7: Decision factors for means of transportation ................................................ 33
List of tables
Table 1: Capacity by means of transportation ............................................................. 34
Table 2: Volume per mode of transport in Germany in 2005 ....................................... 35
V
Schriftenreihe Logistikforschung Band 20, Große-Brockhoff/Klumpp/Krome: Logistics capacity management
1.
Introduction
1.1.
Problem description
The economic recession, as a consequence of the worldwide financial crisis, is nearly
conquered and the economy is recovering again. Rising demand implicates an
increasing transport volume for the industry, which has already caused a shortage of
shipping space in road traffic, rail traffic, air and sea freight. Through rising tonnage
carried and marginal transport capacities, price increases are expected for all modes of
transport. This arises from research by BME (Bundesverband Materialwirtschaft
Einkauf und Logistik e.V., a federal association for purchasing and logistics) in which
165 carriers and logistics service providers were surveyed. Furthermore it shows a
trend towards more flexibility within the supply chain, as well as demand for sufficient
capacity from the logistics service providers. For many companies these requirements
are more important than price compared to their competitors. The trends arising from
this current survey (survey period: September to October 2010) point out the increasing
importance of capacity management in the logistics field.1
The concept of capacity management originates from production planning and control.
Capacity can be defined as “the potential of an economic or technical entity – of any
type, size and structure – within a period of time.”2
The demand for products or services of many companies fluctuates and can be
forecast only with variable accuracy. This unstable demand is accompanied by limited
variable capacities and it is the challenge of capacity management to balance capacity
demand and supply at the optimal level.3 The concept of capacity management can be
transferred to outbound logistics as well, where variable demand from customers is
accompanied by limited capacity of storage and transport. At the same time customers
require high flexibility and short lead-time, which is a huge challenge for capacity
management of the production plant or the logistics service provider. At this a company
has to define an adequate strategy for capacity management and has to implement the
selected strategy successfully with appropriate software solutions.4 From the abovementioned trends capacity management will be assigned a part in distribution
management in future for industrial companies, as well as to logistics service providers,
in order to be competitive in the market and fulfil customers’ requirements in a costefficient and flexible manner.
1
Cp. BME (2010), date 12.03.2011.
Kern, W. (1962), p. 27, translation from German.
3
Cp. Pfohl, H.-Chr. (2004), p. 167.
4
Cp. BME (2010), date 12.03.2011.
2
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1.2.
Objectives
The objective of this paper is the application of the capacity management concept to
outbound logistics. Capacity management with the adjustment of capacity demand and
supply is a standard concept for industrial production. In the area of distribution,
logistics capacity management does not yet cover a large area. Many industrial
companies do not manage the capacity of the distribution warehouses efficiently and
especially for smaller logistics providers, the requirements for flexibility as well as
fluctuating quantities challenge the capacity management. In connection with this, the
question of capacity management in the warehousing of finished products in addition to
interim storage and transport to the customers by manufacturers and logistics service
providers will be outlined and elaborated. Solutions for efficient capacity management
should also encompass the customers’ flexibility requirements.
The case study for this paper will be WINGAS Transport, a distributor of natural gas.
The distribution is done by a pipeline system placed in Germany. It supplies customers
with natural gas from Russia and Great Britain. Due to a static infrastructure, great
amounts of natural gas can’t be transported efficiently by road, capacities have to be
planned and managed precisely. Legal obligations additionally complicate the capacity
management by setting requirements for example for the design of entry and exit
capacities of the pipeline system. Not least, the changing demand for natural gas has
to be considered in the planning of constructing projects for existing or new pipeline
capacities. The central questions are:

How can the transport capacity for natural gas be managed efficiently,
especially if the customers’ demand fluctuates and is dependent on different
factors?

How can transportation capacities for the future with fluctuating demand and
unknown developments be managed efficiently?
1.3.
Scope of work
The theoretical analysis of this paper is the subject of capacity management in
production, which has been already described comprehensively in specialist economics
literature. The basic aspects of capacity management (requirements, supply and
adjustments) are transferred and analysed subsequently under the field of logistics,
while the focus is on outbound logistics, subdivided into warehousing and
transportation.
At the beginning of chapter 2, capacity management is integrated in the context of
general organisation and common terms and definitions are specified. Following that
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capacity management is divided into planning and adjustment. Capacity planning
includes the determination of requirements and supply. After the specification of
requirements and supply are established they have to be adjusted in order to operate
the processes in the most efficient way. Therefore different possibilities are available,
which are outlined in chapter 2.4. On the one hand, capacity demand and supply can
both be adjusted. Furthermore, methods of planning in operations research are briefly
listed. On the other hand scheduling is an important way to adjust capacity. The
processing time, which is part of the scheduling process, can be reduced to efficiently
utilise capacities.
The theory of capacity management is subsequently applied to the field of logistics in
chapter 3. The logistics goals have a significant effect on the processes and are
described at the beginning. Further to this the general capacity theory in logistics
influences transportation especially and is presented in chapter 3.2. After determination
of terms and definition in connection with this, the current development of the transport
market is outlined. In addition revenue management is specified, as one example of
capacity management.
Following that, due to the comprehensive function of the logistics term, outbound
logistics is defined to narrow the complexity of the logistics field. Finally, capacity
management in outbound logistics for warehousing and transportation process is
discussed in chapter 3.4. Capacity requirement and supply planning as well as capacity
adjustment are worked out in detail for both operational functions.
Chapter 4 shows the application of capacity management for one transport company,
WINGAS Transport. It is an example for a specific sector of logistics. Beside the
capacity management for the daily business the planning of future capacities is also
shown.
In the conclusion of the paper the results and solutions are summarised with reference
to the central questions. Furthermore future logistics trends with corresponding impacts
for capacity management in outbound logistics are forecast.
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2.
Capacity management in production
2.1.
Organisational integration
In the course of globalisation the sphere of activity of most of the manufacturers
changed dramatically. It became more dynamic and unpredictable due to expansion
into international markets and consequently increased competition.5
The principal task of manufacturing companies is creation of value through
transformation of input (materials, machines, manpower, services) to valuable output
(products and services), offered to the customers. However, the manufacturers are
confronted with the continuous challenge of satisfying the customers’ requirements in
the face of huge competition. As a consequence time, quality, costs and flexibility are
critical factors which can be decisive for the success of a producer.6
In order to achieve the objectives related to these factors, production management is
required. Different definitions of production management exist, which will be described
in the next chapter. Certainly the main part of production management is production
planning and control which is “to plan and control the manufacture of products by a
company with reference to volume, schedule, resources and input factors and costs.”7
Production management can be generally separated into structural and process
organisation. Structural organisation, which is responsible for production tasks,
comprises: production planning with production rough planning; planning the
production program; and capacity and maintenance planning. Process organisation on
the other hand, which includes the service exchange between the organisational units,
is responsible for the production strategy (layout planning, etc.), production plan
(optimum size of order) and capacity management in relation to machine scheduling.8
Consequently production planning and control pursues the following objectives:9

Close adherence to schedules

High and consistent capacity utilisation

Short processing time

Low inventory

High flexibility
The basis for planning the production program is sales planning, where the demand for
each period is fixed. On one hand the information is obtained from existing customer
orders, on the other hand the demand is forecast using statistical information and
5
Cp. Kuhn, A., Hellingrath, H. (2002), p. V.
Cp. Günther, H.-O., Tempelmeier, H. (2005), p.2-4.
7
Gienke, H. (2007b), p. 551, translation from German by author.
8
Cp. Lebefromm, U. (2003), p. 17-20.
9
Cp. Schuh, G., Roesgen, R. (2006), p. 28.
6
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trends.10 With the help of sales planning, the primary demand is calculated, which is
defined by the gross primary demand less inventory.11 Finally the production factors
also have to be roughly planned by adjusting the demand and supply of resources. The
task of production demand planning is the medium-term planning of resources
(operating resources, material, labour, etc.) and includes: Lead-time scheduling,
capacity demand planning and capacity adjustment.12
2.2.
Terms and definitions
The term production is not consistently defined in specialist literature. In general three
meanings can be differentiated:13

Production as a combination of factors, which compasses all operational
functions;

Production as a stage of the operation process between procurement and
distribution;

Production as a value-creating process, i.e. provision of commodities for
purpose of consumption.
According to Günther and Tempelmeier production can be defined as “the generation
of produced goods (products) from material and non-material sources (production
factors) according to specific technical methods.”14
Similarly there are different definitions of the term production management. Often
production management is specified merely as production planning and control.
A broader definition is derived from Pfeifer: “Duties and responsibilities, human
resources, machinery and material have to be applied, controlled and coordinated, so
that products and services - the result of operations - are produced in the required
quantity and quality, at a fixed point in time with a minimum of charges and capital
costs.”15 The production process consists of separate segments including subprocesses. Segments are combined to organisational entities and are called task
systems.16
The production of goods is a transformation process. Raw material (input) is converted
into products (output) with the help of production factors (throughput). The production
factors which are needed for the transformation can be separated into consumable and
10
Cp. Nicolai, H., Schotten, M., Much, D. (1999), p. 33-34.
Cp. Steven, M. (2007), p.235-236.
12
Cp. Schiegg, P. (2003), p. 18-19.
13
Cp. Corsten, H. (1999), p. 1.
14
Günther, H.-O., Tempelmeier, H. (2005), p. 6, translation from German by author.
15
Pfeifer, T. (1996), quoted in Kämpf, R. (2007a), p. 5, translation from German by author.
16
Cp. Pfeifer, T. (1996), quoted in Kämpf, R. (2007a), p. 5.
11
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non-consumable resources. Consumable resources are raw materials, auxiliary
materials, operating materials and pre-products. Non-consumable resources are not
expended during the manufacturing process, but are available for the production
process on a long-term basis. This includes manpower, properties, construction
machinery and other assets.17 The non-consumable resources are restricted by their
capacities. Capacity can be defined as “the potential of an economic or technical entity
– of any type, size and structure – within a period of time.”18
Generally this can be divided into qualitative and quantitative capacity. Qualitative
capacity covers the characteristics and other qualities of the capacity (dimensions,
allowance of accuracy, etc.). For manpower resources the qualitative aspect is, for
example, occupational qualifications. Quantitative capacity is the quantitative potential
within a certain period of time (machine hours, number and timely availability of
manpower, etc.). It can be divided into minimum capacity, optimum capacity and
maximum capacity: Minimum capacity is the minimum performance necessary for
operation from an economic point of view. Optimum capacity is the output per time unit,
at which the cost per piece is at the minimum. Finally, maximum capacity is defined as
when the non-consumable resources are continuously in use with maximised intensity
within a specific time period. Further capacity can be specified as time, area or
functional aspects. The time aspect can be a short-term (weekly or monthly) or longterm (yearly) basis. Area aspects, for example, could be the individual production unit
or a production system. In functional aspects capacities can be differentiated into
machine capacity, manpower capacity and procurement capacity.19
As already mentioned, another important present-day term is flexibility. The
manufacturers are forced to shorten the processing time and to respond flexibly to the
customer’s requirements. In general, flexibility describes the ability of a production line
to be operational for different tasks in a defined period of time. The more different these
tasks are and the less the restructuring complexity required, the more flexibility is
obtained.20 There are different types of flexibility:21

Short-term flexibility: Rebuilding complexity for known tasks;

Long-term flexibility: Complexity for rebuilding of unpredictable modifications in
the production program;

17
Product flexibility: Ability to manufacture known tasks in any sequence;
Cp. Vahrenkamp, R. (2008), p. 1-2.
Kern, W. (1962), p. 27, translation from German by author.
19
Cp. Corsten, H. (1999), p. 13-18; Mussbach-Winter, U. (2007), p. 588; Kußmaul, S. (2008), p. 78.
20
Cp. Kämpf, R. (2007b), p. 69.
21
Cp. Kämpf, R. (2007b), p. 70.
18
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
Volume flexibility: Potential to increase / decrease production activity in
consideration of technical and economic aspects;

Adjustment flexibility: Action on flexibility of processing, material flow and
information systems in case of complete adjustment of the production
program;

Enlargement flexibility: Potential to improve performance of existing production
processes by integration of additional processes, material flow and information
systems.
Depending on the basic flexibility type, demand and specification of the production
process differs.22
2.3.
Capacity planning
2.3.1 Capacity requirements planning
The basis of capacity requirements is the generation of the production plan, which
depends on customer demand. Basically, customer-oriented and market-oriented
demand management can be distinguished: With customer-oriented demand planning
production follows the orders from customers. This means market fluctuations affect
the production directly and therefore the capacity management as well. Another
possibility is the market-oriented demand planning, where sales volume is forecasted
with the aim of expectation and data gained from past experience. Requirements are
that the demand should be relatively constant, the products should be standardised
and customers highly sensitive with regard to delivery times. In practice often a
combination of these methods is used.23
If orders already exist for the goods to be produced, the delivery schedules confirmed
to the customers, have to be kept. In the case of manufacturing for stock, production
orders can be postponed. Consequently, priority can be given to the production orders
with a fixed, requested schedule.24 This measure will be discussed in chapter 2.4.1.
Apart for volume, lead-time batch scheduling is also important for capacity requirement
planning. With lead-time scheduling, interdependencies between production orders are
shown in a network plan. The results of the scheduling are “milestones referred to
capacity resp. capacity groups.”25 This topic will be covered in chapter 2.4.4. Another
parameter used to calculate capacity requirements is the process time per capacity
unit. In addition to the individual component production time, the changeover time
22
Cp. Kämpf, R. (2007b), p. 69.
Cp. Corsten, H. (1999), p. 235.
24
Cp. Corsten, H. (1999), p. 487.
25
Cp. Schuh, G., Roesgen, R. (2006), p. 48.
23
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between the batch sizes has to be taken into account. Finally the capacity requirement
can be calculated according to the following formula:26
Capacity requirement / process = changeover time + process time x order
volume
2.3.2. Capacity supply planning
Capacity supply is the available capacity of resources per period, which is calculated
for work centres in the production line. The capacity of a resource can be measured in
output quantity or based on units of time. A work centre is defined as an organisational
unit that “contains a collective of manpower and production infrastructure, to
accomplish an amount of work, which does not have to be further divided through
comprehensive planning and control.”27 Basically, capacity can be specified as gross
capacity, net capacity or effective capacity.
Gross capacity is the output quantity of a machine which operates non-stop in one
shift. This calculation assumes the output is consistent and is not influenced by any
interruptions. In practical experience the gross capacity amount is typically not
achieved. If breakdowns and interruptions are taken into account due to maintenance,
team meetings, breaks, etc., it is called net capacity. Effective capacity is the term
used, when the set up time for the machine is also included in the calculations.28
Because a work centre consists of manpower and operating resources, capacity can
be determined by both factors due to their interaction. On one hand the manpower can
be the restrictive capacity and therefore cause a bottleneck. On the other hand the
technical resources can impact the output potential.29
Furthermore the complexity of the manufacturing can be dissimilar. For example it can
be differentiated between one-level and multi-level production. With one-level
production the capacity supply is the capability of that one particular machine. For
multi-level production which contains multiple manufacturing processes, the capacity is
restricted to that of the machine with the lowest output level.30
To summarise, the variables which influence the maximum capacity supply of a
production unit are: Production intensity, maximum feasible operating time and
maximum average usable capacity. The production intensity shows the output of one
time unit and indicates the speed of the production unit. The operating time displays
26
Cp. Mussbach-Winter, U. (2007), p. 588-589.
Schönsleben, P. (2004), p. 27, translation from German by author.
28
Cp. Vahrenkamp, R. (2008), p. 89.
29
Cp. Zäpfel, G. (2000), p. 131.
30
Cp. Schierenbeck, H. (2003), p. 260.
27
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the time interval for which the resources are effectively available. Finally, the average
capacity indicates the availability of non-consumable resources within the given time
period. There can be a difference between effective machine capacity and effective
manpower capacity.31
Capacity of manpower is dependent on various factors: 32

Number of staff per shift

Average attendance rates

Working hours per staff and period

Average number of shifts per day
Machine capacity on the other hand is determined by:33

Number of machines

Degree of utilisation

Operation hours per time-period

Number of operators per machine
Both capacities interact and influence the effective production capacity, which is, on the
one hand, calculated from effective usable machines and manpower and the effective
usable time on the other hand.34
2.4.
Capacity adjustment
2.4.1. Adjustment of capacity demand
Adjustment of capacity demand is one option if a resource capacity is over- or underloaded. It is also called adjustment of capacity load. The prevalent adjustment of the
capacity demand is the shifting of workload into other periods. In case of capacity overload (capacity demand higher than supply), production orders or lot sizes can be
delayed into the next production period, if the due date of the order contains a certain
buffer for delay. Lot sizes can be also split and partially shifted. In the event of capacity
under-load (capacity demand lower than supply) upcoming orders can be released
ahead of schedule or batch sizes can be increased by bringing orders forward.35 For
timely shifting it has to be considered that it influences the finishing time of the order,
and can theoretically only be done, if enough time buffer exists. When the production
31
Cp. Corsten, H. (1999), p. 15-16.
Cp. Lebefromm, U. (2003), p. 205.
33
Cp. Lebefromm, U. (2003), p. 206.
34
Cp. Lebefromm, U. (2003), p. 205-206.
35
Cp. Corsten, H. (1999), p. 470.
32
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volume is adjusted not only is the bottleneck released but also the capacities of all
other resources in the line, which depend on that production is reduced.36
Apart from timely adjustment, it is also possible to distribute the production orders onto
other machines or work centres which have sufficient capacity available. In the case
that this alternative is feasible, the original finishing times of the orders are kept. 37
Besides that, a modification of a proportion of in-plant production to outsourcing is
possible. In the case of capacity over-load, orders can be outsourced to external
production. Additional production orders can be manufactured as a subcontractor for
other manufacturing firms in the event of capacity under-load.38
If the capacity requirement was not sufficiently considered in earlier planning stages, it
can lead to waiting lines at the work centre with the bottleneck. If so, priorities can be
given within the sequence planning to particular customers or orders that are
competing against each other for production capacity.39 Therefore mainly heuristic
methods with priority rules are used. There are different options for priority rules:40

Shortest operation time rule: highest priority to the order with the shortest
process time at the particular working centre

Longest operation time rule: highest priority to the order with the longest
process time at the particular working centre

Rule of the highest operation time balance: highest priority to the order with the
highest operation time balance for all work centres in the line

Rule of the shortest operation time balance: highest priority to the order with
the shortest operation time balance for all working centres in the line

Delivery date rule: highest priority to the order with the nearest delivery date
Adjustment of capacity demand can be, indeed, linked to disadvantages. For instance,
it can lead to an aggravation of the relationship with the customer, if orders are delayed
or even cut or cancelled. Furthermore there is a risk in outsourcing production orders to
subcontractors, as the quality of the products may differ or orders cannot be produced
in time.41
36
Cp. Mussbach-Winter, U. (2007), p. 591.
Cp. Mussbach-Winter, U. (2007), p. 591.
38
Cp. Corsten, H. (1999), p. 470.
39
Cp. Steven, M. (2007), p. 243.
40
Cp. Günther, H.-O., Tempelmeier, H. (2005), p. 224-225.
41
Cp. Vahrenkamp, R. (2008), p. 187.
37
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2.4.2. Adjustment of capacity supply
In case the adjustment of capacity demand is not sufficient for allocation, the capacity
supply has to be adapted. Generally there are three ways to adjust the capacity
supply:42

Operation time adjustment

Intensity adjustment

Quantity adjustment
On one hand modification of the operation time can be reached by extension or
reduction of the working time. Therefore overtime or short-time work can be arranged,
within legal requirements.43 Also additional shifts can be established to expand the
capacity supply. Working time adjustment measures can be realised on a short-time
basis without extensive efforts. Establishing an additional shift is connected with new
recruitment and elimination of shifts implicates redundancies. These arrangements are
only possible on a longer-term basis.44
On the other hand the intensity of capacities can be adjusted by revision of the
efficiency level of machines or work centres. The effect is a higher output per time unit.
In order to realise this, it must first be established that the speed of production may be
improved without any affect on the quality of the products.45
Characterisation of quantitative capacity adjustment is a modification to the number of
production resources. As mentioned previously, the establishment or elimination of
shifts can be seen as a timely adjustment. Due to the fact that it is connected to
engagements and redundancies and as a result with a change of personnel resources,
it can also be considered as quantitative adjustment of capacity. Bringing new
machines into service or shutdown of work centres are also possible arrangements of
quantitative adjustments.46 As a function of demand trend, this represents an
investment in new assets on a long-term basis to increase capacity. Contrariwise if
demand is decreasing and the situation involves loss, capacities have to be broken
down and concentrated.47
These measures of adjustment of capacity supply are associated with different costs.
Wages for overtime are connected with surcharges, adjustment of intensity leads to
higher asset depreciation and possibly to higher failure rates. Also, the assignment of
42
Cp. Lebefromm, U. (2003), p. 52.
Cp. Günther, H.-O., Tempelmeier, H. (2005), p. 216.
44
Cp. Mussbach-Winter, U. (2007), p. 593.
45
Cp. Günther, H.-O., Tempelmeier, H. (2005), p. 215; Vahrenkamp, R. (2008), p. 187.
46
Cp. Günther, H.-O., Tempelmeier, H. (2005), p. 215; Vahrenkamp, R. (2008), p. 187.
47
Cp. Lebefromm, U. (2003), p. 86-87.
43
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reserve machines may be associated with higher energy consumption and therefore
higher charges can occur.48
Finally capacities are liable to cost resistance, which means they can be built in the
short- or middle term, but reduced only on a long-term basis. Due to this fact the
manufacturer is confronted with conflicting goals. On one hand enough capacity is
needed to handle the customer orders in time and to be competitive in the market. On
the other hand the manufacturing has to be efficient in respect of charges and
resources should be working to full-capacity. In the end the strategy of capacity supply
is also connected to the capacity of competitors and the industry. If the total market
capacity increases, the product price declines. At the same time a strategy of lean
production leads to capacity reduction and has to be considered as well.49
2.4.3. Methods of operations research
Operations research can be defined generally as the “appliance of mathematical
methods as preliminary to optimum decisions.”50 Typical characteristics of operations
research are the preliminary decisions, to aim for optimum solutions and to apply
mathematical methods. This means that mathematical methods are used to prepare
decisions for optimum targets.51 Methods of operations research are often applied in
capacity management. In order to use mathematical methods the problem that needs
to be solved must be translated into an idealised model from reality. Therefore the
relevant problem has to be defined and displayed in detail and important relations to
close-by areas have to be kept. During the assignment of the problem to the model, a
problem arises with the formula used to solve it (which is the mathematical model plus
the question asked in the real model), which can be solved with mathematical methods
and the result can be transferred to reality.52
Two different models can be created: An optimisation and a simulation model. With the
optimisation model all of the problem’s important factors can be demonstrated in a
system of mathematical equations and solved with mathematical methods. To contrast,
in simulation models different decisions are tested with experiments or strategies. Most
important methods of operations research are shown in the diagram below.53
48
Cp. Günther, H.-O., Tempelmeier, H. (2005), p. 217.
Cp. Lebefromm, U. (2003), p. 86-87.
50
Müller-Merbach, H. (1988), p. 1, translation from German by author.
51
Cp. Müller-Merbach, H. (1988), p. 2.
52
Cp. Müller-Merbach, H. (1988), p. 14-15.
53
Cp. Hoffmeister, W. (1997), p. 222.
49
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Figure 1: Methods of operations research
Source: Hoffmeister, W. (1997), p. 222.
With the network planning technique the shortest lead-time of complex manufacturing
processes can be calculated. Optimisation models deliver the best solution for decision
problems. In practice linear programming and dynamic programming methods are
important. Linear programming is a simplified mathematical method with linear
functions. Dynamic programming is used with multi-level production processes and can
cope with all problems, an optimum decision for process requests. The target of the
chaining theory is the balanced relationship between demand and supply in the delay
system. Finally decision theory is used to determine the best possibility in case of
mutually exclusive alternatives.54 In practice the network planning technique is often
used in capacity management. Even when the main target is compliance with leadtimes, capacity (and/or finance planning) can be carried out either in parallel or
successively. With network planning the entire manufacturing process can be
illustrated so that time, costs and resources can be seen in an integrated way.55
2.4.4. Capacity scheduling
According to GÜNTHER and TEMPELMEIER capacity planning can be separated into
aggregated overall planning (long-term basis) and capacity oriented production
program planning (short-term basis for a specific period of time). Aggregated overall
planning includes environmental changes, economic variations and long-term sales
trends in production planning. Consequently resources can be flattened out over a
period of time through different measures like overtime or short-time, outsourcing, etc.
Generally we can differentiate between two adjustment types of demand and
production supply: chase strategy and level strategy. In the case of chase strategy, the
production quantity follows demand quantity within a specific period. This procedure is
certainly only applicable if the resources are high enough to handle demand surges
54
55
Cp. Hoffmeister, W. (1997), p. 223; Ellinger, T., Beuermann, G., Leisten, R. (2003), p. 11-14.
Cp. Hoffmeister, W. (1997), p. 276.
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and can be variably deployed. The result of this method is the avoidance of storage
and related costs, indeed variable production costs can increase. In case of level
strategy, production quantity stays stable during the period, independently from the
demand. The resources are consistent and use the capacity with optimum intensity.
On the other hand it leads to storage management. In practice intermediate forms are
used with the help of quantitative decision models.56 Short-term production program
planning defines the volume for specific periods. In production planning and control
systems this is structured in four steps in the majority of cases: production program
planning, volume planning, time scheduling and production control.57
Figure 2: Structure of a conventional production planning and control system
Source: Günther, H.-O., Tempelmeier, H. (2005), p. 306.
The function of time scheduling is the chronological arrangement of operation
procedures and orders. It can be split again into lead-time scheduling and capacity
scheduling.58 The manufacturing process is split into operation procedures, the
duration is calculated for each and the start and finish dates are defined. Within leadtime scheduling, capacity restrictions are not considered. Lead-time can be divided into
several parts:59
56

Processing time

Setup time

Transport time

Holding or waiting time
Cp. Günther, H.-O., Tempelmeier, H. (2005), p. 142 and p. 151-154; Kiener, S., Maier-Scheubeck, N.,
Obermaier, R., Weiß, M. (2006), p. 177.
57
Cp. Günther, H.-O., Tempelmeier, H. (2005), p. 305-307; Wannenwetsch, H. (2010), p. 560-561.
58
Cp. Kämpf, R. (2007c), p. 194; Günther, H.-O., Tempelmeier, H. (2005), p. 306-307.
59
Cp. Corsten, H. (1999), p. 457.
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With the exception of the lead-time, the process structure is important for the time
scheduling. Both criteria can be illustrated in network planning technique, where
structure, time, costs and resources can be seen altogether. The network plan is
calculated in two different ways: forward scheduling (starting from the initial point) and
backward scheduling (starting from the required finish date). With the help of this
bidirectional scheduling the critical path, as well as buffer times, can be worked out.60
An operation procedure is called critical, if “the maximum available time is equal to the
duration. It is called a critical path, if critical operations are following each other nonstop
until the end of the project.”61 The buffer time represents the available time tolerance of
the operation procedure. Capacity scheduling follows lead-time scheduling in
consideration of capacity restrictions. The task of the capacity scheduling is “grouping
of single orders referring to single machines and identification of competition for
capacities.”62 The capacity load of each work centre and capacity group is summarised
on a separate account and allocated to the separate machines on a timely basis. The
comparison of capacity requirement and supply is called exposure profile. Here the
difference between gross capacity and effective capacity has to be taken into account,
as already mentioned in chapter 2.3.2. With the help of the exposure profile the
workload of the single work centres and machines is identified. The exposure profile
can show perfection (compliance of capacity demand and supply), an over-load or an
under-load. These discrepancies can be solved through capacity adjustment methods.
2.4.5. Reduction of processing time
As previously mentioned it can lead to serious problems if the order deadlines cannot
be met and orders are delayed. To avoid these kinds of problems, it has to be
ascertained if the processing time can be reduced to keep the delivery schedules. 63 A
reduction of the processing time can lead to higher capacity utilisation as well. This can
be achieved amongst others by miscellaneous activities:64
60

Increase of production rate

Reduction of waiting time

Sequence planning according to priority rules

Sequence planning according to the Johnson-algorithm

Overlapping production
Cp. Corsten, H. (1999), p. 461-464; Schneider, H., Buzacott, J.A., Rücker, T. (2005), p. 69.
Zimmermann, H.-J. (2008), p. 373, translation from German by author.
62
Vahrenkamp, R. (2008), p. 185, translation from German by author.
63
Cp. Lebefromm, U. (2003), p. 187.
64
Cp. Lebefromm, U. (2003), p. 216-226; Vahrenkamp, R. (2008), p. 187-190; Corsten, H. (1999),
p. 457-459; Schneider, H., Buzacott, J.A., Rücker, T. (2005), p. 70-72.
61
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

Splitting
Bundling of lots
The production rate is defined as working time divided by production output per shift.
To shorten the processing time, the intensity of work centres has to be increased
according to technical terms. The method of increasing clock frequency must be
confirmed by the workers’ council. Wages should rise due to surplus load, at the same
time the asset depreciation of the machine increases as well.65 Another alternative to
decrease the lead-time is the reduction of the waiting time. In many cases the waiting
or holding time in between separate working steps is too long, which has a negative
impact on the processing time. Transit time of particular orders can be reduced by
giving priorities within the waiting line. Admittedly this affects the processing time of
other orders competing for the capacity. Hence it should only be used only in
exceptional cases for urgent jobs.66 On the other hand the sequences of orders can be
determined according to the Johnson-algorithm. This method was developed in 1954 to
optimise the processing time for two machines in series in combination with several
orders. The result is to start with batches, which have shorter processing time on the
first machine than on the second. Thereof lots with the shortest processing time are
formed first, after that in ascending order of processing time.
Following this the
batches with longer operation time on the first machine are worked on, descending
sorted according to the processing times of the second asset. Due to this sequence
planning on one hand shutdown time of the machines is mostly avoided. On the other
hand waiting times in between the different assets occur instead.67 A further possibility
to reduce the waiting time is overlapping production. At this, before the whole batch is
finished, parts are already forwarded and processed on the next machine in the line.
Consequently one batch is simultaneously worked on on different machines. Maximum
overlapping time is calculated using the network planning technique. A disadvantage of
this method is the increasing costs for internal transport.68 Finally waiting time can also
be decreased by splitting of batches. In contrast to overlapping, batches are separated
and formed on different assets. Split batches can be arranged simultaneously or
displaced by time. The disadvantages of this alternative are the higher setup costs of
the machines.69 In the end batches can be also bundled. In this process similar or
identical lots are summarised and therefore set up times are avoided.70
65
Cp. Lebefromm, U. (2003), p. 216.
Cp. Vahrenkamp, R. (2008), p. 187-188.
67
Cp. Lebefromm, U. (2003), p. 222; Vahrenkamp, R. (2008), p. 206.
68
Cp. Vahrenkamp, R. (2008), p. 189; Lebefromm, U. (2003), p. 218; Corsten, H. (1999), p. 458-459.
69
Cp. Corsten, H. (1999), p. 458; Schönsleben, P. (2004), p. 656.
70
Cp. Vahrenkamp, R. (2008), p. 189.
66
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3.
Capacity management in logistics
3.1.
Logistics goals
Logistics is defined by the Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals
(CSCMP) as “the process of planning, implementing, and controlling procedures for the
efficient and effective transportation and storage of goods including services, and
related information from the point of origin to the point of consumption for the purpose
of conforming to customer requirements. This definition includes inbound, outbound,
internal, and external movements.”71
GÜNTHER and TEMPELMEIER specify logistics as “a complete description of the
individual functions and levels of the company which has, as its goal, the optimisation
of the flow of products and materials in respect of the related stream of information.”72
Based on the overlapping function of logistics, it influences various business objectives,
which can be roughly summarised as the following:73

Quality

Costs

Delivery

Flexibility
The weighting of these objectives is determined by company policy and strategy as
well as the industrial sector or market situation.74 As already explained in the
introduction of this paper, flexibility and short lead-time is becoming more and more
important in times of globalisation and fast-changing markets. In contrast to this, cost is
still the significant factor for competing in the market in many industries.
As quality is not the key objective of capacity management, it will not be considered
further in this paper. The other items mentioned are strongly connected with the
management of capacities and will be illustrated in detail.
Minimising costs is one of the most important targets of manufacturers as this is a
significant factor in staying competitive in the market, especially at the present time of
globalisation and rapid decline in price in some markets due to high competition. In the
case of logistics the cost “encompasses the value management of the use and
application of the factors of production which are involved in logistics services.” 75
Basically logistics, goods and services can be differentiated into physical transfer
71
CSCMP – Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals (2010), p. 114.
Günther, H.-O., Tempelmeier, H. (2005), p. 9, translation from German by author.
73
Cp. Schönsleben, P. (2004), p. 36.
74
Cp. Schönsleben, P. (2004), p. 36.
75
Göpfert, I. (2002), p. D5-39, translation from German by author.
72
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processes (warehousing, transportation, etc.), planning and management processes
(route planning, inventory management, etc.) as well as other processes relating to the
attainment of logistics goals.76
Minimisation of physical logistics costs can be accomplished by different methods: For
incoming goods, for example, the just-in-time concept can be applied, which means
delivery of the purchased goods exactly at the time they are needed at the line. Interim
storage during the production process is dependent on the accuracy and the method of
production planning and control as well as the manufacturer’s general strategy. While
costs are reduced or minimised, due to avoidance of storage, there is an increased risk
of production delay or stop if an unexpected situation or problem occurs.77 In addition
to this, the storage management of the outbound warehouse is related to the market
situation and the company’s strategy. In the case of commissioned production the
storage of finished goods can be an unintended issue. In the event of manufacturing
according to sales forecasts and market trends, the management of the distribution
warehouse is an important factor that requires much attention in order to optimise
charges and capacity.78
On the other hand optimisation of deliveries is one of the main logistics targets. In
today’s markets compliance with delivery dates and short lead-times are major
competitive factors. To reach this target, process times have to be shortened as much
as possible and transportation has to be planned accurately in order to utilise
capacities, reduce the lead-time as well as the delivery charges.79
Finally, flexibility is a significant factor in competing with other producers or suppliers.
As already mentioned in chapter 1.1., flexibility is becoming more and more important
in times of globalisation. To meet customers’ requirements, it is a challenge for logistics
as well as production planning to be as flexible as possible and to optimise available
resources.80
In summary, it can be seen, on one hand, all of the above-mentioned logistics
objectives are significant for a manufacturing company, but on the other hand the goals
necessitate a trade-off. To reach one target, it means that one or several others have
to be disregarded. For instance, storage of goods (incoming and outgoing goods as
well as interim storage during the production process) generates high costs as well as
capital commitment, which can be often avoided by improved and optimised planning
76
Cp. Göpfert, I. (2002), p. D5-41.
Cp. Pfohl, H.-Chr. (2010); p. 173 and p. 184-186.
78
Cp. Pfohl, H.-Chr. (2004), p. 125-126.
79
Cp. Pfohl, H.-Chr. (2004), p. 99-100.
80
Cp. BME (2010), date 12.03.2011.
77
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and organisation. On the other hand this leads to rising costs for the planning and
management processes. This trade-off, producing opportunity costs, has to be taken
into account. In the end opportunity costs have to be set against each other according
to company policy. Opportunity costs “exist in that, which has to be given up in order to
complete the activity.”81
3.2.
General capacity theory in logistics
3.2.1. Terms and definitions
Capacity has already been defined in general terms in chapter 2.2. as the “the potential
of an economic or technical entity – of any type, size and structure – within a period of
time ”82 and can be separated into quantitative and qualitative capacity. This definition
can also be transferred into the area of logistics where there are many entities with
restrictive capacities which must be considered in the logistics planning and operations
to meet not only the company objectives but also the customer’s requirements.
Logistics includes mainly the processes of warehousing and transportation as well as
the related flow of information.83 As a consequence the following types of capacity can
be defined:84

Storage capacity

Handling capacity

Transportation capacity

Information capacity
Warehouse capacity is defined as the maximum number of loading units (pallets,
boxes, cartons, etc) a warehouse can process. It is called homogeneous warehouse
capacity, if all storage yards are designed in the same way, which includes dimensions,
bearing capacity, security, etc.85
Handling capacity includes sorting and placing into and removing from stock, as well as
loading and unloading from the transport. It connects the internal and external flow of
goods as well as the different means of transportation and warehousing. Handling
capacity is therefore the total operating performance within a defined period of time.86
Transportation capacity is dependent on the dimensions of the cargo hold as well as
81
Cp. Sieg, G. (2007), p. 5.
Kern, W. (1962), p. 27, translation from German by author.
83
Cp. CSCMP – Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals (2010), p. 114, date 13.06.2011.
84
Cp. Pfohl, H.-Chr. (2004), p. 106.
85
Cp. Arnold, D., Furmans, K. (2009), p. 176.
86
Cp. Fleischmann, B. (2002), p. A1-7.
82
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the permitted loading capacity. Therefore the goods are measured in packaging units,
loading units or in volume units (for bulk goods).87
Information logistics comprises the “capture, storage, processing and output of data
which are necessary for the control and monitoring of the flow of materials and
information in a transport and warehousing system.”88 It consists of components
hardware and software. Information capacities can be defined in connection with this
as the maximum performance, the information system is able to provide.89
3.2.2. Current development of the transport market
The Transport Market Monitor report, an initiative of the logistics platform
TRANSPOREON and Capgemini Consulting, provides information about transport
market development in Europe, based on different indices affecting the prices and the
market. One of these indices is the capacity index, which “is an indicator for available
capacity, the ratio between absolute demand and capacity. The capacity index is
calculated by comparing the average number of bids in response to a transfer request
over time.”90 In case the capacity index increases, the degree of competition increases
as well – this has a positive effect on offers for transport charges. The capacity index is
subject to fluctuations. In figure 3 the effects of the financial crisis and the related
decline in production is apparent in the transport market. In 2010 the cost level was still
low and East European forwarding companies were expanding their operation in
Western Europe.91
Figure 3: Price and capacity index by yearly comparison (2008-2010)
Source: Capgemini Consulting, TRANSPOREON (2011a), p. 5, date 13.06.2011
87
Cp. Gudehus, T. (2010), p. 898.
Heinrich, M. (2006), p. 460, translation from German by author.
89
Cp. Heinrich, M. (2006), p. 460.
90
Capgemini Consulting, TRANSPOREON (2011b), p. 4, date 13.06.2011.
91
Cp. Capgemini Consulting, TRANSPOREON (2011a), p. 5 and 11, date 13.06.2011.
88
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Apart from annual fluctuations, seasonal fluctuations during the course of a year can
also be observed. Generally capacity demand is lower at the beginning of the year and
in the summer time due to seasonal fluctuations in the various industries. In September
and October the decrease in available capacity can be explained by the peak season
of the consumer goods industry for example.92
Figure 4: Capacity index 2010 by month
Source: Capgemini Consulting, TRANSPOREON (2011a), p. 13, date 13.06.2011
In general, density of value (ratio of goods value to weight) increased in Germany while
lot sizes decreased since the middle of the 1980s. This can be explained by the
relocation of manufacturing with high intensity of primary products (labour intensive) to
foreign countries and a decrease in stock level. This resulted in longer transport
distances and increased demand for flexible supply, which can be fulfilled best with
road traffic.93
Container shipping also contends with fluctuating capacity. Until 2009 this branch
experienced a high rate of expansion, but suffered a setback in 2009 because of the
global financial crisis, when container handling decreased for the first time. Due to a
sharp decrease in capacity demand about 12% of ships could not be employed. In
2010 the branch recovered and is now the fastest growing mode of transport. Over the
next few years an increased capacity supply is expected as well as a simultaneous
increase in demand. Therefore the difficulty of over-capacity is attenuated. Admittedly
capacity restrictions at ports can lead to challenges for container shipping.94
Due to limited space at ports an increased requirement for handling capacity cannot be
satisfied by an expansion of space. Therefore efficiency per quay metre (boxes per
time unit) as well as storage capacity per hectare yard in TEU (twenty feet equivalent
92
Cp. Capgemini Consulting, TRANSPOREON (2011a), p. 13, date 13.06.2011.
Cp. Ickert, L., Matthes, U., Rommerskirchen, S. et al. (2007), p. 58, date 13.06.2011.
94
Cp. Deutsche Bank Research (2011), p.1, date 13.06.2011.
93
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unit) must be increased. Existing processes will have to be optimised and improved,
and new systems and processes for container handling will have to be developed
during this time to handle the increased volume of containers.95
Air freight also had to accept losses in 2009 because of the worldwide financial crisis
which triggered over-capacity. Since 2010 the industry is on the upswing again which
will, presumably, continue for the future as well. 96 Besides the specific capacities of the
separate aeroplanes, the capacity of airports is a matter of high concern. It includes the
dimensions of the starting and landing capacities, handling capability, number of
available slots (time frame for starting and landing), etc.97
3.2.3. Revenue management
Revenue management, also called yield management, will be specified in the following
chapter as one example of capacity management. It derives from the deregulation of
American air traffic in 1978. Airlines were allowed to decide freely about which
connections they offered and the ticket price. This led to price differentiation in the first
instance, after that forecasting systems and capacity controlling were implemented.98
The term revenue management is not used consistently in the specialist literature, but
numerous definitions exist. The instruments of revenue management are partly centred
on the definition, in other definitions characteristics of the area of application are
accentuated.99
In connection with capacity management in logistics one of Klein’s definitions is
applicable to this paper: “Revenue management comprises a series of quantitative
methods in order to reach a decision about accepting or declining insecure demand
with scattered arrival times and different values. In the process the objective remains to
utilise the available, inflexible capacity of the time period in most efficient way.” 100 The
other, numerous, definitions of revenue management will be disregarded in this paper.
The general task of revenue management is to forecast, evaluate and monitor demand
and adjust the available capacities correspondingly.101
The typical characteristics which are required to apply revenue management,
according to the specialist literature, are102

95
Mostly fixed capacities,
Cp. Franke, K.-P. (2010), date 13.06.2011.
Cp. Deutsche Bank Research (2010), p.1, date 13.06.2011.
97
Cp. Vahrenkamp, R. (2007), p. 38, date 13.06.2011.
98
Cp. Klein, R., Steinhardt, C. (2008), p. 2-3.
99
Cp. Klein, R., Steinhardt, C. (2008), p. 6.
100
Klein, R. (2001), p. 248.
101
Cp. Daudel, S., Vialle, G. (1994), p. 31.
102
Cp. Klein, R., Steinhardt, C. (2008), p. 8-9.
96
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
23
Non suitability for storage of goods, or perishability of capacities in the case of
non utilisation,

High fixed costs for provision of capacity,

Highly random demand fluctuation,

Possibility of advance booking,

Possibility of segmented price differentiation.
Revenue Management can be subdivided into three steps: Strategic, tactical and
operational
revenue
management.
Strategic
revenue
management
includes
segmentation of demand as well as differentiation of products, services and prices. It
also includes the capacity strategy. Tactical revenue management defines the capacity
for each segment (capacity configuration). In the operational revenue management the
decision to accept or reject is made in real-time (capacity control).103
The instruments of revenue management are price differentiation, capacity control, and
overbooking control. Capacity control is the core element of revenue management. It
should support the implementation of price differentiation as well as adjust the effects
of fluctuating demands.104
In the field of logistics revenue management is applied to the allocation of loading
capacity. Air freight especially meets the demand for applying revenue management. In
connection with this, attention should be paid to different capacity requirements due to
the variable volume and weight of freight. Furthermore, fixed capacity agreements with
key customers must be considered, as they are not available for sale elsewhere
without prior agreement. Due to their specific characteristics, revenue management
can only be applied to customised solutions, which will not be explained or described
further.105
This paper will not dwell on other methods of capacity management in the field of
general logistics due to their complexity.
3.3.
Terms and definitions of outbound logistics
Logistics can be classified in four distinct groups by function: inbound logistics,
manufacturing logistics, outbound logistics and waste logistics.106 This chapter will deal
only with outbound logistics, which can be generally understood as the “process related
103
Cp. Thonemann, U. (2010), p. 522; Klein, R., Steinhardt, C. (2008), p. 18-22.
Cp. Klein, R., Steinhardt, C. (2008), p. 69.
105
Cp. Klein, R., Steinhardt, C. (2008), p. 30-31.
106
Cp. Pfohl, H.-Chr. (2010), p. 17.
104
Schriftenreihe Logistikforschung Band 20, Große-Brockhoff/Klumpp/Krome: Logistics capacity management
to the movement and storage of products from the end of the production line to the end
user.”107
In this context the term physical distribution in the narrow sense of the expression is
often used as synonym for outbound logistics but in a broader sense physical
distribution is used as generic term for inbound and outbound logistics, which are both
connected directly with the market.108
Outbound logistics starts at the end of the production line and ends with the allocation
to or arrival at the customer. The area of activities covers planning, controlling and
monitoring of the physical flow of goods as well as the associated flow of information.109
It covers the processes of warehousing, transportation, handling as well as picking and
packing. During the outbound logistics process the goods are not generally physically
modified, but it serves as a spatial and temporal bridge-over.110
The design of the distribution network is influenced by the marketing policy of the
manufacturer. During the build-up of the network the following issues have to be
considered:111

Number of warehouses

Function of warehouses

Location of warehouses
The warehousing of goods can fulfil different functions: Of most importance for
outbound logistics is balance as well as protection. Other tasks, such as speculative or
adding value activities are predominantly relevant for inbound and manufacturing
logistics and will be not outlined here in detail.112 The balancing function can be defined
as the bridging of time between the end of the production and the physical delivery to a
distribution warehouse or customer. As already defined in chapter 2, batch size
scheduling is important in the production process and can lead to a requirement for
storage at the point of outbound logistics to overcome the gap between the end of
production and, for example, the customer’s requested delivery date. Additionally,
warehousing can be used as a buffer to secure deliveries to customers in highly
fluctuating markets, and meet the customer’s requirement for short lead times. These
activities reinforce the company’s ability to compete in highly sensitive markets.
Warehouses in distribution systems can be aligned with different strategies:113

107
Level of centralisation
Cp. CSCMP – Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals (2010), p. 134, date 13.06.2011.
Cp. Pfohl, H.-Chr. (1974), p. 577.
109
Cp. Jünemann, R. (1989), p. 53.
110
Cp. Pfohl, H.-Chr. (2010), p. 7-8 and p. 198.
111
Cp. Jünemann, R. (1989), p. 55.
112
Cp. Münchhalfen, J. (2008), p. 65-66.
113
Cp. Ehrmann, H. (2005), p. 352-354.
108
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
Company-owned warehouse / third party warehouse

Level of automation

Coordination of stored goods

Warehouse system
25
Sometimes goods are delivered to the customer directly from the production
warehouse, but in most cases goods are transhipped via distribution, central or even
local warehouses. The level of centralisation depends on company policy and the
market
characteristics.
Production
warehouses
are
basically
company-owned
warehouses, as they are located within the factory. Central and regional warehouses
can also be contract warehouses that are operated by third party logistics providers.
Decision criteria for this strategy can be investment costs, operating costs, manpower
requirement, and level of dependency or capacity variables. The level of automation
can be differentiated between manual, mechanical and automatic warehouses. The
coordination of stored goods influences the space requirements which, in turn, impacts
the logistics costs. Herewith we can distinguish between storage with fixed bin location
and random storage at which random storage requires computer-controlled storage of
the goods. Finally the warehouse can be operated with calculation of stock,
consumption, calculation or validation of inbound goods, stock and outbound goods.114
Apart from warehousing, transportation is a major part of outbound logistics.
Transportation is the spatial bridge-over by means of transportation. A transportation
system consists of the goods to be conveyed, the means of transportation and the
transportation
process. We
can
differentiate
between
internal
and
external
transportation: For outbound logistics only external logistics is relevant. In external
logistics the means of transportation can be divided into different systems of freight
haulage: Road traffic, rail traffic, air freight, inland water transport, and ocean freight.
Transportation can be operated directly, with transhipment, or interim storage.
Therefore it is advantageous that packing of goods is simplified by use of e.g. pallets.
The transport modes are often used in combination depending on the lead-time
requirements and cost objectives. With intermodal transports, the different modes
should be combined in a reasonable way and loadings should be simplified as much as
possible. This can be achieved by piggy-back traffic or container traffic.115
114
115
Cp. Ehrmann, H. (2005), p. 352-354.
Cp. Pfohl, H.-Chr. (2010), p. 149-159.
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3.4.
Capacity management in outbound logistics
3.4.1. Capacity planning and adjustment in warehousing
Warehousing can be defined as the buffer between incoming and outgoing goods. The
necessity for warehousing arises when timing and the quantitative structure of the
commodity flows are desynchronised. The general functions of warehousing have
already been described in chapter 3.3. Storage capacity planning will be outlined in the
following chapters.
3.4.1.1.
Capacity requirements planning
The basis of capacity requirement planning for warehousing is the coordination of the
production program. Here production planning is connected to the demands for the
finished goods. We can differentiate between make-to-order and make-to-stock
production. Make-to-stock is used for mass production of the following categories in
products: Standardised, large-lot production, and short lead-time, due to supply from
distribution warehouses. With make-to-order production, however, the goods are
manufactured only after receiving an order from the customer. Warehousing is
irrelevant in this process as the goods are typically delivered promptly after production.
As a consequence make-to-stock production is used as a basis for the considerations
in this paper.116 The process of storage generally consists of the following subprocesses:117

Placing into stock by means of stock device,

Keeping goods on hand in storage yard,

Releasing from stock by means of stock device.
An additional function of most warehouses is consignment: The picking and packing of
units according to given orders.118 As a consequence the capacity of a warehouse is
not only related to the storage space, but also to other entities which require space for
handling and consignment, output of stock devices and ramps, warehouse staff, etc.
The amount of stored goods results from the production and distribution plan. The
capacity of the storage yard can be defined as the “maximum number of individual
loading units which can be stored in a warehouse area.”119 Admittedly the quantity of
merchandise is not decisive, but packaging or loading unit is a determinant for capacity
116
Cp. Vahrenkamp, R. (2008), p. 118.
Cp. Gudehus, T. (2010), p. 565.
118
Cp. Gudehus, T. (2010), p. 565; Lempik, M. (2002), p. B8-5.
119
Gudehus, T. (2010), p. 572, translation from German by author.
117
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requirement planning in warehousing. Besides protecting the goods during
warehousing and transportation, the package also alleviates the storage and enables
better utilisation of the available storage capacity.120 Details about the packing units
must be included in the master data to ensure optimum calculation of capacity: Number
of goods per packaging unit, type of packaging (for example box or pallet), dimension
of the packaging unit, weight, stackability, etc.121 Disregarding the storage space, the
required capacity for handling and consignment must also be included in the planning.
Accordingly, the inventory turnover of the particular product has to be taken into
consideration for the calculation of capacity requirements. The warehouse turnover
displays how often the inventory changes in a specific period of time. Hence it can be
extrapolated to the average inventory and, therefore, to the average time between
production and distribution.122 Handling and consignment of goods requires capacity of
different entities: On one hand a handling area is needed to physically manage the
turnover. Often a special area for consignment and building of loading units is also
needed. On the other hand stock devices and conveyers are required to transport the
loading units between storage and handling areas or ramps. The type of conveyer as
well as the particular output is defined by the characteristics of the product (e.g. bulk
cargo or general cargo). Conveyers (continuous and non-continuous conveyers) are
also restricted by their capacity and can only handle a limited volume of units per time
period. A fork-lift truck, for example, has the capability of moving one to four pallets at a
time. A hand fork-lift truck, however, is only able to move one pallet. In the event that
the conveyer has to be manually operated, this capacity requirement has to be
considered as well. In addition to the equipment, loading platforms are necessary for
loading and unloading of the outgoing orders. The capacity of platforms is dependent
on the order volume and required loading time.123 In the end the staff resources also
have to be taken into account for the whole warehouse operation, including
administration tasks. The manpower requirement is dependent on the automation level
of the warehouse, as well as the turnover volume and operation time. The quantitative,
qualitative and timely staff requirement is calculated within the manpower requirement
computation.124
In connection with capacity requirement planning, seasonal fluctuations also have to be
considered. The manufactured quantity is, for instance, stable over the time period in
120
Cp. Pfohl, H.-Chr. (2010), p. 135.
Cp. Gudehus, T. (2010), p. 445 and p. 449.
122
Cp. Schulte, G. (2001), p. 483.
123
Cp. Seeck, S. (2010), p. 279; Gudehus, T. (2010), p. 589.
124
Cp. Gienke, H., Kämpf, R. (2007a), p. 24.
121
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case of level production strategy, even the demand fluctuates. This strategy affects the
capacity requirements for storage depending on the demand and market situation.125
3.4.1.2.
Capacity supply planning
Capacity supply planning for adequate storage yardage is important in particular, as
stock consumes most of the warehouse space. The capacity by storage yard is the
maximum number of loading units a storage facility can carry. As outlined in the
previous chapter 3.4.1.1., the capacity demand can fluctuate within a time period due
to various factors. For this reason the provision of capacity supply has to be calculated
accurately to minimise the logistics costs and, therefore, maximise the effectiveness of
the warehouse. Here the allocation of the inventory within specific time periods (for
instance per day or per shift) can be analysed with the help of the warehouse
management system and visualised via histograms or density functions. To determine
the appropriate storage capacity the confidence level is decisive: That is the frequency
by which an assigned value (in this case the number of the storage yards) is exceeded.
The confidence level is defined as the probability the warehouse capacity is sufficient
to store the total inventory.126
In the context of capacity supply planning the type of bearing is also essential. Types of
bearing can be differentiated, firstly according to the allocation of the storage yard,
where it can be distinguished between fixed and random storage. With fixed
warehouse systems the loading units are explicitly allocated to a storage position and
not moved during the storage period. This type of storage is advisable for storage of
non-homogenous goods. With random storage, however, the loading units can be
assigned to every available storage yard and therefore it can be recommended for
homogenous articles. Admittedly this storage system requires a high level of
administration and must be managed effectively via a warehouse managements
system.127
Another classification can be made under technical storage types. Here the
differentiation is between ground storage and high-bay racking. For this type of storage
many varieties are possible, which will not be discussed in this paper in detail. In
principle the type of storage is dependent on the characteristics of the goods, as well
as the complexity and processing time of the operation.128 Commodities can be
differentiated into different types: General cargo and bulk cargo as well as gas and
125
Cp. Günther, H.-O., Tempelmeier, H. (2005), p. 152-154.
Cp. Rall, B. (2002), p. C2-46 - C2-47; Smith, J.D. (1998), p. 489-493.
127
Cp. Rall, B. (2002), p. C2-46 - C2-47; Weber, R. (2009), p. 260.
128
Cp. Rall, B. (2002), p. C2-37 - C2-46.
126
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liquids. General cargo can be handled as units and comprises constant frames, storage
units like loaded pallets, or bins filled with gas/liquids. In this paper only general cargo
will be considered. Ground storage is the easiest type of storage and can be executed
without stacking, with block storage or by linear storage. Whilst ground storage in the
narrow sense is connected with a suboptimal utilisation of space, block and linear
storage are dependent on the stackability of the loading units. In the case that units are
not stackable, it opens up the possibility of high-bay racking which allows better
utilisation of the storage space as well as simplified access to the stored goods.
Summing up, the technical type of storage is highly relevant to the utilisation of the
storage space.129
Figure 5: Examples of technical storage types
Source: Gleißner, H., Femerling, J. Chr. (2008), p. 90-91.
Disregarding the capacity of the storage yard, the supply of the handling area capacity
needs to be also taken into consideration during the planning period. Therefore the
incoming and outgoing shipments are to be analysed by such aspects as loading
volume per transport mode, frequency of shipments, average loading time, and total
number of transport modes per period.130 The capacity of handling equipment, such as
conveyers, can be measured firstly with the numbers of conveyers then differentiated
by type like fork-lift, hand-lift, etc. Additionally the hours of operation service and
number of transported goods should be considered. In connection with this the
maintenance of technical equipment must also to be included in the supply planning.
During the maintenance procedures the conveyer capacity is not available.131
Finally staff assignment has to be taken into account for capacity planning. The
capacity supply of manpower is subject to timely fluctuations and can be slightly
adjusted on a short-term basis due to flexible working time models. Also in this
129
Cp. Pfohl (2010), p. 124-126.
Cp. Smith, J.D. (1998), p. 475.
131
Cp. Buchholz, J. (1998), p. 294.
130
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calculation time off due to vacation, illness, advanced training or other reasons must be
considered. 132 Certainly planning of the capacity supply is dependent on the dynamic
environment and therefore has to be controlled on a regular basis, in case conditions or
storage needs change, in order to secure efficient provision of requirements.133
3.4.1.3. Capacity adjustment
Where capacity supply and requirements are not synchronised they have to be
adjusted to achieve the logistics objectives. Two options can be classified: assimilation
of capacity demand, and optimisation and adjustment of capacity supply.
Depending on the market situation and strategy of the manufacturer, inventory can be
avoided as far as possible when the production of goods is synchronised with
distribution. With this type of aggregated overall planning the capacity utilisation of
production fluctuates and must be high enough to absorb maximum demand. This rearrangement of the production structure implicates fundamental modifications where
many factors have to be considered in order to make a decision.134
Capacity adjustment of storage space can be considered on both a long-term and
short-term basis. In principle – independent from the fact of whether a company-owned
or a contracted warehouse is used for warehousing activities – a manufacturer can
demand storage yard and handling consignment by third-party logistics providers.
Short-term outsourcing may be the only alternative to overcome peak load. Temporary
usage of external storage space can indeed involve comparatively high logistics costs.
In the long run a company has to decide between investing in, expanding or building its
own new warehouse space or utilising a contracted warehouse instead (maybe with a
long-term agreement). The advantages of contracted warehouses are the avoidance of
investments, substitution of fixed costs with variable costs, and the utilisation of flexible
labour times for load fluctuations, as well as specialised staff. Generally the labour
costs of logistics service providers are lower compared to manufacturing companies
which are subject to collective labour agreements. In the end contracted warehouses
are recommended in highly fluctuating markets as a suitable measure of capacity
enlargement and reduction in the short-term. In the case of increased capacity
requirements in a stable market, investment in a company-owned warehousing is more
efficient.135
132
Cp. Günther, H.-O., Tempelmeier, H. (2005), p. 126-128.
Cp. Smith, J.D. (1998), p. 506.
134
Cp. Günther, H.-O., Tempelmeier, H. (2005), p. 152-153.
135
Cp. Fortmann, K.-M., Kallweit, A. (2007), p. 47-48.
133
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The utilisation of available storage capacity can be optimised by the application of
random storage pictured in figure 6. This type of allocation of the storage yard is
particularly advantageous in the case of highly fluctuating demand. This method of
stock-keeping requires the operation of a warehouse management system for
controlling and monitoring the storage areas. Additionally, the technical storage system
of the warehouses can be modified in order to adjust capacity requirement and
capacity supply. Subject to specification of the storage unit, high-bay racking may be a
better alternative for utilisation of the warehouse space.136
Figure 6: Comparison of fixed and random storage
Source: Wannenwetsch, H. (2010), p. 317-318.
Handling capacity and consignment, which is dependent on quantitative and qualitative
capacity of warehouse staff, can be adjusted by working hours and shift schedules. For
the short-term overtime and short-time work can be established, for the long-term
engagement or suspension can be applied. 137 Qualitative capacity must also be
considered in conjunction with this. Within the scope of human resource development
the quantitative capacity of the warehouse staff is improved by further training in order
to manage the changing technical and product-specific requirements.138
Another possibility to relocate the storage on a long-term basis is to make a
consignment stock agreement with strategic customers. A consignment stock is set up
by a manufacturer or supplier at the warehouse or a 3PL (third party logistics provider)
warehouse nominated by the customer. The customer provides the agreed warehouse
capacity and bears the costs of storage and handling, the ownership of the goods as
well as the responsibility for minimum and maximum inventory levels remains by the
supplier. Even if the capacity of the consignment stock is limited to the maximum stock
of inventory agreed between the parties, it allows the manufacturer to dispatch the
136
Cp. Pfohl, H.-Chr. (2010), p. 123-126.
Cp. Mussbach-Winter, U. (2007), p. 593.
138
Cp. Günther, H.-O., Tempelmeier, H. (2005), p. 127.
137
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goods directly after production and therefore to avoid interim storage and additional
handling in distribution warehouses.139
3.4.2. Capacity planning and adjustment in transportation
Transportation can be defined as the spatial bridge-over by means of transportation as
already mentioned in chapter 3.3. Freight traffic is generally possible via land, air or
sea. Furthermore goods traffic can be subdivided into means of transportation: Ground
transportation can be arranged as road haulage, rail transport or pipeline haulage. Air
freight is another method of transportation that can be used. For water transportation
we differentiate between inland water transport and ocean freight. Besides this, there
are further ways to breakdown the categories, but they will not be examined here in
detail.140 Goods can generally be classified into different types: General cargo, bulk
cargo, gas and liquids. These different types of goods require different specifications as
to their means of transport.141 Only general cargo will be examined within the scope of
this paper.
3.4.2.1. Capacity requirements planning
Capacity requirements for transportation are, on the one hand, dependent on the
vertical structure of the distribution system. This is defined as the stratification of
warehouse levels within a distribution system from end of production to the customer. It
is called one-level distribution when the disposition of goods is arranged from one
central warehouse to the customers. Multi-level distribution includes several levels of
warehouses (for example warehouse at the manufacturing facility, central warehouse,
regional warehouse, distribution warehouse) that fulfil different tasks. Depending on the
transport route, there are different capacity requirements. For transportation from the
manufacturing plant to a central warehouse, for instance, the flow of commodities can
be bundled and, therefore, the entire available capacity in the selected transport can be
utilised. Transport from a production plant, or central warehouse, directly to customers
instead, may cause sub-optimal utilisation of transport capacity due to lower batch
sizes of shipments.142 The application of the optimal means of transportation requires
knowledge of the following specifications: type of goods to be conveyed, shipping
volume, transportation distance as well as the requested lead-time. Furthermore the
consistence of freight has to be known. Bulk cargo freight is loose solid, liquid and
139
Cp. Vahrenkamp, R. (2005), p. 221.
Cp. Pfohl, H.-Chr. (2010), p. 154-155.
141
Cp. Pfohl, H.-Chr. (2010), p. 124.
142
Cp. Winkler, H. (1977), p. 12-14; Vastag, A. (1998), p. 13-15.
140
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gaseous materials, whereas general cargo is calculated in discreet loading units.
Additional transfer requests may arise according to any special characteristics of the
commodities: perishability, fire hazard, sensitivity, risk of shrinkage, value, etc. 143
Furthermore the selection of the means of transportation will be effected in accordance
with the logistics goals explained in chapter 3.1. The means of transportation is
selected according to whether or not it can attain the objectives. The choice of the
means of transportation is, though, particularly dependent on different factors shown in
figure 7.144
Figure 7: Decision factors for means of transportation
Source: Ehrmann, H. (2005), p. 200.
A further important parameter for the appropriate selection of the means of transport,
as well as capacity planning, is the character and volume in respect of the packaging of
the goods to be transported. Packaging is defined according to DIN 55405, Part 6, as
“the creation of a package/a packaged unit by combining packaging goods and
packaging through the application of packaging procedures, manually or using
packaging machines or devices.”145
As with storage, the packaging of goods has a significant function. It should afford the
optimal utilisation of transport volume by both design and dimension. At the same time
the weight should be as low as possible. Further requirements for packaging are:
shock-proof, stackable, manageable, etc. As the packaging has a major influence on
the logistics processes, even relatively small changes can be advantageous in respect
of transportation and should be continuously analysed and improved.146
Unitization is the process of the generation of logistics units. It is defined as the
aggregation of goods into major logistics units to aid the handling and quantification of
goods and therefore minimise transportation costs. The requirements for unitization are
inter alia the standardisation of packaging and design as well as stackability. Basically,
all packaging can be used to build a logistics unit. The most frequently used packaging
143
Cp. Gudehus, T. (2010), p. 774-775.
Cp. Ehrmann, H. (2005), p. 200.
145
Deutsches Institut für Normung e.V. (2006), date 08.07.2011, translated from German by author.
146
Cp. Pfohl, H.-Chr. (2010), p. 136-139; Jünemann, R. (1989), p. 121-124.
144
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is certainly the pallet. It is a loading unit, which can be used for transportation, storage
and stacking with forklifts or other conveyers. There are several distinct designs of
pallets, for example flat pallet or box pallet. A standardised pallet with the dimensions
800mm x 1,200mm is called a euro-pallet and often used for common transportation.147
Further specifications for loading equipment will not be discussed in this paper due to
its complexity.
3.4.2.2. Capacity supply planning
Capacity supply of transportation is primarily dependent on the means of transport.
Each means of transportation comprises a predetermined transport capacity that is
regulated by the dimension of the cargo hold as well as the permitted carrying capacity.
Therefore the goods are measured in packaging units, loading units or in volume units
(for bulk goods).148 Table 1 shows the loading capacity of selected means of
transportation in commonly used loading units.
Table 1: Capacity by means of transportation
Source: Gudehus, T. (2010), p. 801.
A survey of Progtrans, a consulting firm specialising in the transport market, conducted
on behalf of the German Federal ministry for traffic, construction and city development
in 2007, shows that the predominant mode of transport in Germany is road traffic. In
2005 around 82.6% of the goods volume was transported via trucks. Road traffic is the
most flexible mode of transport and is efficient for smaller loading units. According to
estimations in the survey, the volume of road traffic will increase by 44% until the year
147
148
Cp. Pfohl, H.-Chr. (2010), p. 141-146.
Cp. Gudehus, T. (2010), p. 898.
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2050. Similarly, rail traffic will increase by 83% and inland water navigation by 50%.149
Table 2: Volume per mode of transport in Germany in 2005
Mode of Transport
Qty of Goods Traffic
Freight Traffic
Performance
in m t
share
in bn tkm share
Road traffic
3,078
82.6 %
404
69.9 %
Rail traffic
317
8.5 %
95
16.4 %
Inland water
237
6.4 %
64
11.0 %
Pipelines
95
2.6 %
17
2.9 %
Total
3,727
navigation
581
Source: Ickert, L., Matthes, U., Rommerskirchen, S. et al. (2007), p. 4.
As well as this, the demand for sea-traffic via container-vessels will increase according
to estimates of specialists. At the same time the global freight capacities of containervessels are expanding, which may lead to over-capacities instead of shortage.150
Several different entities are involved in the transportation process: The shipper, which
is an industrial, trading or service enterprise, does not generally arrange the transport
by themselves, but makes use of freight forwarding companies or logistics service
providers. In this context an accurate classification of the different institutions is not
possible; as with the internationalisation and globalisation the service providers are
more and more specialised in certain customers, branches or additional services and
definitions become unclear. In general, according to German legal specifications, these
definitions can be classified as follows:

Forwarding companies are operators of means of transportation and therefore
usually acting as carriers. Carriers are obliged, according to German law „to
convey the goods to the point of destination and deliver them to the
consignee“.151

Forwarding agents are commissioned to organise the carriage of goods for a
third party. This is also regulated under German law: „By means of the
forwarding contract the carrier is obliged to secure the despatch of the
149
Cp. Ickert, L., Matthes, U., Rommerskirchen, S. et al. (2007), p. 4, date 13.06.2011.
Cp. Deutsche Bank Research (2006), p.1, date 13.06.2011.
151
HGB (2006), § 407, translated from German by author.
150
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goods.“152

The trend in logistics, in the course of globalisation and flexible markets,
resulted in 3PLs who offer an entire range of services. It is also known as
contract logistics.
Often service providers specialise in certain means of transport, in particular air and
sea freight.153 Transportation coordination offered by logistics service providers is not
restricted to a single means of transportation, but can also include intermodal
transports. In this process the advantages of different means of transport are
expediently combined in order to simplify the shipping of goods. This means the
transfer between the different modes of transport generates marginal turnover
complexity. Generally, intermodal transport can be differentiated between piggyback
and container traffic.154
Seasonal fluctuations must also be considered in planning the capacity supply. In the
course of one year the availability of transport capacity fluctuates due to seasonal
variable demand in different industries. For consumable goods, for example, the peak
season for transportation is the fourth quarter of the year, hence the demand in the first
quarter of the year is usually lower.155
Available transport capacity is advertised worldwide through freight exchanges on the
internet. The objective of freight exchanges is the connection of demand and supply
and therefore to optimise the utilisation of capacity and the avoidance of empty
transporters. This can be achieved through consolidation of orders. The administration
via online databases simplifies the handling of demand and supply. Teleroute is an
example of a virtual freight exchange, mainly for road traffic. Alongside basic capacity,
specific product characteristics can also be considered. However, virtual freight
exchanges are of minor importance, as they are not convenient for time-critical and
complex shipments, which became more and more dominant at the present time.156
3.4.2.3. Capacity adjustment
Capacity adjustment in transportation represents the balance of capacity requirement
and capacity supply. On one hand, the distribution structure of the company can be
modified and therefore a better degree of capacity utilisation can be accomplished.
152
HGB (2006), § 453, translated from German by author.
Cp. Pfohl, H.-Chr. (2010), p. 264-273.
154
Cp. Pfohl, H.-Chr. (2010), p. 160-165.
155
Cp. Capgemini Consulting, TRANSPOREON (2011b), p. 4, date 13.06.2011.
156
Cp. Werner, H. (2010), p. 176-177; Lempik, M. (2002), p. B8-18.
153
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Distribution via a central warehouse requires long transport distances. Alternatively,
multi-level distribution results in short distances to downstream warehouses or
customers. Hence the flow of commodities between the particular depots can be
bundled (if they are not time-critical) and available capacities can be efficiently utilised
and transport costs can be decreased. For final delivery to the customer optimal route
planning and scheduling is more cost effective.157
The standard problem of route planning is described as follows: From a warehouse or
transition point, different downstream warehouses or customers are supplied within a
specific time period. The assumption for this is that the requirement can be covered
with one shipment and that congruous means of transport, with identical capacities, are
available. Indeed route planning experiences some problems: The assignment of
customers to the routes as well as the determination of the order within the route.
Route planning is subsequently operated with the help of heuristic methods within the
operations research.158 A further problem of route planning exists in the possibility of
capacity restrictions as the commodities – particularly in forwarding agencies – are not
homogenous but may have different dimensions and stacking factors. If details of the
shipments are known (dimensions, weight, stackability) corresponding solutions for
optimisation of loading space can be applied.159
Furthermore, optimisation of transport packaging can lead to a better utilisation of the
available capacity. Requirements for transport packaging are a preferably low weight;
additionally form, dimensions and stability should allow for optimum use of loading
space. Admittedly this may not affect the protective function of the packaging of the
product.160 The packaging of the tea-light candles at IKEA provides an exemplary study
for the improvement of packaging: Originally, tea-light candles were sold in bulk in
bags. After a reformation of the packaging they were packed, stacked in blocks. With
this improvement around 30% of the loading space per truck could be conserved.161
Agencies and forwarding companies on the other hand can establish fusions and
transport alliances, and offer global services in order to be competitive in the market.
Therefore the forwarding agencies offers can comprise multiple modes of transport that
counter capacity restrictions in transport infrastructure.162
157
Cp. Winkler, H. (1977), p. 12-14; Vastag, A. (1998), p. 13-15.
Cp. Ehrmann, H. (2005), p. 490-491.
159
Cp. Graf, H.-W. (1998), p. 238.
160
Cp. Pfohl, H.-Chr. (2010), p. 136.
161
Cp. Wilhelm, S. (2006), p. 53.
162
Cp. Ickert, L., Matthes, U., Rommerskirchen, S. et al. (2007), p. 61, date 13.06.2011.
158
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Another possibility for capacity adjustment is variation of the transport mode or
relocation of transport routes. With strong demand for road freight (for example,
because of seasonal fluctuations) the mode of transport can be changed to rail freight.
With this, however, the lead-times may be longer. Furthermore, a displacement to
container-vessel is possible, if it is not restricted due to the extension of the lead-time.
A side effect here may also be a reduction of the warehouse storage period as it will be
transposed onto the transporting time. Also, transport charges may be lower compared
to road freight, but this is dependent on different factors (for instance pre-carriage and
onward-carriage, handling charges, etc.). Finally, it is possible to revise the loading or
unloading place or port, which can offer available capacity. Cargo can be rerouted
more easily, and without additional reloading, if it is transported by intermodal transport
via container.
In summary, different possibilities for capacity adjustments are possible, depending on
the characteristics of the commodities as well as the company structure and policy. In
the end it is recommended that a manufacturer makes use of logistics service providers
as they are specialists in the transport markets and can react flexibly according to the
shippers’ and customers’ requirements.
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4. Case Study: WINGAS Transport
WINGAS Transport GmbH is a subsidiary of WINGAS which was founded in 1993 as a
subsidiary of Wintershall and Gazprom Germania. The company is responsible for the
transport of natural gas to consumers like public utilities, regional distribution
companies, industrial concerns and power stations in Europe. The transport takes
place in a pipeline system which is connected to pipelines from Russia and Northwest
Europe and to West Europe's largest gas storage facility in Rehden and has a length of
around 2,100 km. WINGAS Transport (like other gas distributors) sales natural gas in
form of capacity rights, this means in rights which guarantee the buyer a defined
capacity over a certain period of time in the pipeline system of WINGAS Transport.
Capacity Management has an important role in natural gas distribution. Natural gas as
one of the main energy sources in Germany and Europe is regulated by national and
international laws to secure an adequate provision with this energy source. These laws
have effects on the capacity management of gas distributors. According to the EnWG
(§20 1b) every operator of a natural gas pipeline system, which is the case for
WINGAS Transport, has to provide entry and exit capacities that allow an easy system
access without setting a transaction-dependent transport path. And according to the
Gas Grid Access Ordinance (GasNZV) capacities have to be used in a certain way,
e.g. in the temporal order of customer demands. Beside these and other regulations
there has been a growing demand for natural gas in the past which has to be satisfied
by a quite static infrastructure (owing to the fact that a transport of gas over longer
distances has to be realized by pipelines). Another development of the recent past is
the transfer to competitively market structures with more intermediaries between the
point of extraction and consumption of natural gas. These developments indicate a
complicated distribution and the need for a technically matured capacity management.
Therefore, WINGAS Transport has a specific way of capacity calculation. The first
objective of the company is to determine freely assignable capacities (FAC) 163. These
capacities are characterized thereby “a customer:
a.) can connect a capacity right at an entry point with a capacity right at any exit
point of the market area for a specific transport service or
b.) can connect a capacity right at an exit point with a capacity right at any entry
point of the market area for a specific transport service.”164
The first restrictions for FAC are bottlenecks. WINGAS Transport structures
bottlenecks in four categories:
163
The following text about the first and second objective is based on: WINGAS Transport (2011a), date
18.08.2011
164
Cp. WINGAS Transport (2011a), date 18.08.2011, p.5
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1. Technical station capacities: The maximum fixed capacity (this determines how
much natural gas can pass the station in a time unit if the flow isn’t interrupted)
of a station. There are several kinds of stations in a pipeline system like for
example measurement stations, filter stations or drying stations. The technical
station capacity derives from the technical design of a station (e.g. the material
used during the construction). So it can be measured by analyzing the
blueprints of the stations. One problem is that it only shows the capacities of
the individual stations without considering the system integrity which results
from the interaction of the stations.
2. Bottlenecks in the pipeline system: The pipeline system is the main instrument
for transportation of natural gas. It connects all the stations. Natural gas has to
be compressed (realized by compressor stations) during transportation. But
even with the best compressing technology and materials for the pipeline there
is always a loss of pressure depending on the length of transportation. To
determine the maximum capacity respectively the possible bottlenecks in the
pipeline system WINGAS Transport has to consider several aspects as there
would be the entry pressure (pressure of natural gas when it enters the system
of WINGAS), the capabilities of compressor stations, the direction and the
length of transport. Beside these considerations a load scenario has to be
created basing on the maximum reserved capacity (measured in kWh/m3).
WINGAS as well as many other gas companies uses the simulation program
called SIMONE165 for these kinds of simulations. Beside these simulations real
load-flows of the past years are used by the company.
3. Compressor bottlenecks: Although compressor stations belong to the stations
of a pipeline system they are counted among an own category thanks to their
great importance for natural gas distribution. WINGAS Transport is in the
procession of nine compressor stations. The maximum pressure in these
compressors lies between 84 and 100 bars and the maximum transport
capacities lie between a maximum of 300,000 m3/h and 3,340,000 m3/h.166 In
addition to these purely technical restrictions the compressor capacity also
depends on the load scenarios, their entry and exit pressures and their
transport directions.
4. Other bottlenecks: Other aspects that are able to reduce the capacity are
particularly gas pressure measurement and control plants and the gas quality
according to the contracts with customers.
165
166
SIMONE Research Group (2011), date 17.08.2011
Cp. WINGAS Transport (2011b), date 18.08.2011
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As sold capacities increase the turnover and profit it is the aim of WINGAS (and any
other gas distributor) to maximize the FAC. Therefore, all bottlenecks have to be
considered (in the case of WINGAS not cumulative but initial) because their capacities
are the maximum capacities of the whole pipeline system including all stations. For this
reason it is worthwhile for the gas distributer to arrange flow commitments that for
example contain a high entry pressure so that bottlenecks reduce the FAC as little as
possible.
A second, smaller objective of the company is to determine limited assignable
capacities. These are capacities for which customers can only connect a capacity right
at one entry respectively exit point with one specific exit respectively entry point. This
connection may also only be possible under special conditions like a certain transport
direction (conditions are mentioned in the capacity right). The limited assignable
capacities can arise from situations in which all capacities in many bottlenecks are
used and only some limited capacities are still available like for example a transport of
a certain amount of natural gas in a certain time between the entry point in Kienbaum
and the exit point in Malinow. Because of this limitation WINGAS Transport may only
achieve a small price for these capacities, but it may still be worthwhile as the
capacities are already installed and another transportation order won’t create much
additional costs. Therefore, it is important to determine all capacities in the context of
capacity management.
WINGAS Transport also investigates the possible future of natural gas distribution. The
company published such an investigation under the title “Ermittlung des langfristigen
Kapazitätsbedarfs / Evaluation of longterm capacity demand”167 on 01.04.2011. This
will be an integral part of the capacity management because of a legal obligation (§ 17
GasNZV, released on 08.09.2010), which commits to an annual evaluation of the
longterm capacity demand of all gas network providers in a market area in
collaboration. The market area of WINGAS is called GASPOOL and spans a large part
of Germany from the Danish border to the Saarland. The gas network providers in this
area beside WINGAS Transport are Gasunie Deutschland Transport Services GmbH,
ONTRAS – VNG Gastransport GmbH and Statoil Deutschland Transport GmbH. The
evaluation has a planning period of ten years. For the creation of the evaluation
different input data is used, as there would be:

Macroeconomic data: economic or political developments that can’t be
influenced by the gas network providers. As an example the evaluation
forecasts a decline of the demand for natural gas for the future because of two
167
The following text about the future capacity demand is based on: WINGAS Transport (2011c), date
18.08.2011
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studies created on behalf of the Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology
(BMWi) and the Federal Environment Ministry (BMU, only responsible for one
study).

Microeconomic data: influenceable economic developments concerning directly
the gas network providers. As an example WINGAS Transport can forecast an
increase of required capacities to West Europe from the end of 2012 because
of a project (NORDSTREAM-project) which will expand the company’s network.

Data of network planning: This data is obtained from individual load-flow
simulations of the gas network providers.
Considering all available input data this evaluation comes to the conclusion that the
need for capacities will decrease in the next ten years. Apart from some regions with
growing capacity demand this decrease will maybe make it necessary to reduce
existing capacities. The evaluation closes with a reference to a study (network
development plan TYNDP) from the European network of transmission system
operators for gas (ENTSOG) which also forecasts the capacity demand for a ten year
period. This study predicts a growing demand which will make it necessary for
WINGAS Transport to build up to 175 km of new pipes.
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5. Conclusion
The objective of this paper was the application of the production capacity management
concept to the field of outbound logistics. Especially at the present time of fluctuating
global markets, customers’ demand varies greatly together with their requirements for
short lead-times and high flexibility.168 This leads to challenges for manufacturers and
logistics service providers in order to provide the required capacities for warehousing
and transportation at the time needed and in sufficient quantity. This paper should bring
solutions for the central questions stated at the beginning:

How can the warehouse capacity for finished goods be managed efficiently,
especially if the end-customers’ demand fluctuates and is dependent on
different factors?

How can transportation capacities in different transport modes with fluctuating
demand and short lead-times be managed efficiently?
The basis for capacity management – independent of production or outbound logistics
– is the customer’s demand planning. To ensure efficient utilisation of capacities an
anticipatory planning of the capacity requirements and supply is necessary. The
stability of the demand forecasts and, therefore, the capacity requirements are
dependent on different factors: Industry characteristics, market situation and
development, performance of competitors, strategic management decisions, etc.
In addition the capacity supply must be determined in order to harmonise it with the
requirements. Capacity supply in production can occasionally be adjusted by
outsourcing, but this depends on the complexity of the manufacturing process and the
related means of production. In the event of highly automated manufacturing of
technical products especially, outsourcing may be restricted. The adjustment of
capacity supply in outbound logistics, however, is more flexible due to the engagement
of external logistics service providers. The processes of outbound logistics are mostly
outsourced, at the present time, for warehousing as well as for transportation.
Therefore the manufacturer profits from the service provider’s expertise and can
manage the required capacities more flexibly.
168
Cp. BME (2010), date 12.03.2011.
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After determination of capacity requirements and supply they have to be adjusted in
order to utilise the capacity as efficiently as possible. While in production capacity
management the scheduling and reduction of processing time is a matter of capacity
adjustment, in the field of logistics the efficient utilisation of space is of foremost
importance. Admittedly handling capacities are also an important restriction on capacity
that must be taken into consideration during capacity management in outbound
logistics. Via scheduling of loading times and efficient termination of transport, for
example, capacities can be utilised optimally.
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URL: http://cscmp.org/digital/glossary/document.pdf, date 13.06.2011.
Deutsches Institut für Normung e.V. (2006): DIN 55405 Verpackung-TerminologieBegriffe, URL:
http://www.navp.din.de/cmd?artid=91776873&contextid=navp&bcrumblevel=1&
subcommitteeid=54749927&level=tpl-artdetailansicht&committeeid=54739063&languageid=de, date 08.07.2011.
Deutsche Bank Research (2006): Containerschiffahrt – Überkapazitäten trotz
steigender Nachfrage programmiert, URL:
http://www.dbresearch.de/PROD/DBR_INTERNET_DEPROD/PROD0000000000197745.pdf, date 13.06.2011.
Deutsche Bank Research (2010): Aktueller Kommentar: Globaler Luftverkehr wie
Phönix aus der Asche, URL:
http://www.dbresearch.de/PROD/DBR_INTERNET_DEPROD/PROD0000000000260476.pdf, 13.06.2011.
Deutsche Bank Research (2011): Container shipping: Successful turnaround, URL:
http://www.dbresearch.de/PROD/DBR_INTERNET_DEPROD/PROD0000000000271589.pdf, 13.06.2011.
Franke, K.-P. (2010): Entwicklungsperspektiven im Containerumschlag, URL:
http://www.hsulm.de/opus/volltexte/2010/62/pdf/HTG_Jahrbuch_2010_Franke.pdf,
13.06.2011.
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Schriftenreihe Logistikforschung Band 20, Große-Brockhoff/Klumpp/Krome: Logistics capacity management
50
Ickert, L., Matthes, U., Rommerskirchen, S., Weyland, E., Limbers, J., Schlesinger, M.
(2007): Abschätzung der langfristigen Entwicklung des Güterverkehrs in
Deutschland bis 2050, URL:
http://www.bmvbs.de/cae/servlet/contentblob/30886/publicationFile/10534/guete
rverkehrs-prognose-2050.pdf, date 13.06.2011.
SIMONE Research Group (2011): URL: http://www.simone.eu/simone-simonesoftwaresimulation.asp, date 18.08.2011
Vahrenkamp, R.
(2007):
Geschäftsmodelle
und
Entwicklungsstrategien
von
Airlines und Airports in der Luftfracht, Arbeitspapier zur Logistik, No. 66/2007,
URL:
http://www.unikassel.de/fb7/ibwl/vahrenkamp/working_paper_logistik/Nr66_Luftfracht2007.pdf
, date 13.06.2011.
WINGAS Transport (2011a): Calculating technical capacity, URL: http://www.wingastransport.de/fileadmin/downloads/kapazitaetsplanung/WINGAS_TRANSPORT_
Calculating_Technical_Capacity_110214.pdf, date 18.08.2011
WINGAS Transport (2011b): technical details about compressor stations, URL:
http://www.wingas-transport.de/35.html?&L=1, date 18.08.2011
WINGAS Transport (2011c): Ermittlung des langfristigen Kapazitätsbedarfs, URL:
http://www.wingastransport.de/fileadmin/downloads/kapazitaetsplanung/WINGAS_TRANSPORT_
Calculating_Technical_Capacity_110214.pdf, date 18.08.2011
Schriftenreihe Logistikforschung Band 20, Große-Brockhoff/Klumpp/Krome: Logistics capacity management
Die Publikationsreihe
Schriftenreihe Logistikforschung / Research Paper Logistics
In der Schriftenreihe Logistikforschung des Institutes für Logistik- & Dienstleistungsmanagement (ild) der FOM werden fortlaufend aktuelle Fragestellungen rund um die
Entwicklung der Logistikbranche aufgegriffen. Sowohl aus der Perspektive der
Logistikdienstleister als auch der verladenden Wirtschaft aus Industrie und Handel
werden innovative Konzepte und praxisbezogene Instrumente des
Logistikmanagement vorgestellt. Damit kann ein öffentlicher Austausch von
Erfahrungswerten und Benchmarks in der Logistik erfolgen, was insbesondere den
KMU der Branche zu Gute kommt.
The series research paper logistics within Institute for Logistics and Service
Management of FOM University of Applied Sciences addresses management topics
within the logistics industry. The research perspectives include logistics service
providers as well as industry and commerce concerned with logistics research
questions. The research documents support an open discussion about logistics
concepts and benchmarks.
Band 1, 11/2007
Klumpp, M./Bovie, F.: Personalmanagement in der
Logistikwirtschaft
Band 2, 12/2007
Jasper, A./Klumpp, M.: Handelslogistik und E-Commerce
[vergriffen]
Band 3, 01/2008
Klumpp, M. (Hrsg.): Logistikanforderungen globaler
Wertschöpfungsketten [vergriffen]
Band 4, 03/2008
Matheus, D./Klumpp, M.: Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)
in der Logistik
Band 5, 11/2009
Bioly, S./Klumpp, M.: RFID und Dokumentenlogistik
Band 6, 12/2009
Klumpp, M.: Logistiktrends und Logistikausbildung 2020
Band 7, 12/2009
Klumpp, M./Koppers, C.: Integrated Business Development
Band 8, 04/2010
Gusik, V./Westphal, C.: GPS in Beschaffungs- und
Handelslogistik
Band 9, 04/2010
Koppers, L./Klumpp, M.: Kooperationskonzepte in der Logistik
- 50 -
Schriftenreihe Logistikforschung Band 20, Große-Brockhoff/Klumpp/Krome: Logistics capacity management
- 51 -
Band 10, 05/2010
Koppers, L.: Preisdifferenzierung im Supply Chain Management
Band 11, 06/2010
Klumpp, M.: Logistiktrends 2010
Band 12, 10/2010
Keuschen, T./Klumpp, M.: Logistikstudienangebote und
Logistiktrends
Band 13, 10/2010
Bioly, S./Klumpp, M.: Modulare Qualifizierungskonzeption RFID
in der Logistik
Band 14, 12/2010
Klumpp, M.: Qualitätsmanagement der Hochschullehre Logistik
Band 15, 03/2011
Klumpp, M./Krol, B.: Das Untersuchungskonzept Berufswertigkeit
in der Logistikbranche
Band 16, 04/2011
Keuschen, T./Klumpp, M.: Green Logistics Qualifikation in der
Logistikpraxis
Band 17, 05/2011
Kandel, C./Klumpp, M.: E-Learning in der Logistik
Band 18, 06/2011
Abidi, H./Zinnert, S./Klumpp, M.: Humanitäre Logistik – Status
quo und wissenschaftliche Systematisierung
Band 19, 08/2011
Backhaus,
O./Döther,
H.
/
Heupel,
T.:
Elektroauto
–
Milliardengrab oder Erfolgsstory?
Band 20, 09/2011
Hesen,
Marc-André/Klumpp,
M.:
Zukunftstrends
in
der
Chemielogistik
Band 21, 10/2011
Große-Brockhoff, M./Klumpp, M./Krome, D.: Logistics capacity
management – A theoretical review and applications to outbound
logistics
Arbeitspapiere der FOM
Die 1993 von Verbänden der Wirtschaft gegründete staatlich anerkannte gemeinnützige
FOM Hochschule verfügt über 22 Hochschulstudienzentren in Deutschland und ein weiteres
in Luxemburg.
Als praxisorientierte Hochschule fördert die FOM den Wissenstransfer zwischen Hochschule
und Unternehmen. Dabei sind alle wirtschaftswissenschaftlichen Studiengänge der FOM
auf die Bedürfnisse von Berufstätigen zugeschnitten. Die hohe Akzeptanz der FOM zeigt sich
nicht nur in der engen Zusammenarbeit mit staatlichen Hochschulen, sondern auch in zahlreichen Kooperationen mit regionalen mittelständischen Betrieben sowie mit internationalen
Klumpp, Matthias (Hrsg.)
ild Schriftenreihe Logistikforschung
Band 21
Großkonzernen. FOM-Absolventen verfügen über solide Fachkompetenzen wie auch über
herausragende soziale Kompetenzen und sind deshalb von der Wirtschaft sehr begehrt.
Weitere Informationen finden Sie unter fom.de
Das Ziel des ild Institut für Logistik- & Dienstleistungsmanagement ist der konstruktive Austausch zwischen anwendungsorientierter Forschung und Betriebspraxis. Die Wissenschaftler
des Instituts untersuchen nachhaltige und innovative Logistik- und Dienstleistungskonzepte
unterschiedlicher Bereiche, initiieren fachbezogene Managementdiskurse und sorgen zudem
für einen anwendungs- und wirtschaftsorientierten Transfer ihrer Forschungsergebnisse
in die Unternehmen. So werden die wesentlichen Erkenntnisse der verschiedenen Projekte
und Forschungen unter anderem in dieser Schriftenreihe Logistikforschung herausgegeben.
Darüber hinaus erfolgen weitergehende Veröffentlichungen bei nationalen und internationalen
Fachkonferenzen sowie in Fachpublikationen.
Weitere Informationen finden Sie unter fom-ild.de
ISSN 1866-0304
Logistics capacity management –
A theoretical review and
applications to outbound logistics
Große-Brockhoff, Marlies
Klumpp, Matthias
Krome, Dirk