Bulgarian Journal of Science and Education Policy (BJSEP), Volume 2, Number 2, 2008
Word Association Test for Studying Conceptual Structures of
Teachers and Students
Zdravka Kostova
Department of Information and In-service Teacher Training,
University of Sofia
Blagovesta Radoynovska
New Bulgarian University
Abstract. The paper presents the use of a free word association test for revealing the scientific conceptual structures of teachers and students, concerning
two stimulus words – living cell and biodiversity. The stimulus words retrieve a
cluster of associations most of which are based on science education and are studied as connected. Associations with the stimulus words are analyzed and classified
according to predetermined criteria. The stimulus word ‘living cell’ was quantitatively assessed in order to find out the balance between the associations with its
components and to make inferences about curricula and textbooks. The stimulus
word ‘biodiversity’ was comparatively assessed using four target groups and the
results analyzed in order to find out the effect of biology education on the development of attitudes to this global environmental problem. The data is used to make
inferences about the word association test combined with concept map construction
as an assessment technique and to make some recommendations for teaching and
for improvements of curricula and textbooks.
Keywords: association, word association test, conceptual structure, conceptual associations, living cell, concept map, biodiversity
209
Introduction
The ability of the brain to make associations and facilitate learning and
intellectual development has been studied and elucidated by many scientists.
Some studied the nature of associations and the mechanisms of their building by the brain (James, 1890; Bain, 1894; Bradley, 1922; Pavlov, 1927).
Others directed their investigations to associative memory (Hinton & Anderson, 1989; Willshaw, 1989; Maki, 2007), associability (Suret & McLaren,
2005), associative learning (Locke, 2000; Levine, 2000; Novak & Govin,
1984; Wills, 2005). Still others were attracted by word association technique
(Galton, 1880; Colgan & McGuinness, 1998; Dollinger et al., 1991), cluster
analysis and concept or mind map construction in teaching (Deese, 1966;
Mervis & Rosh, 1981; Smith & Heise, 1992; Halford, 1993; Dicarlo, 2006),
association of emotions and thinking (Zajonic, 1990; Field, 2005).
The human conceptual system is characterized by two main concepts
– category and schema.1) The visual representations of these concepts are
concept maps (Novak & Gowin, 1984), mind maps (Buzan & Buzan, 1996),
intellectual maps (Kostova 1998, 2000). Psychologists, like geneticists, who
map the genes, map the connections among words, learned as a result of
everyday experience.2) Maps, especially concept maps, aid learning in all
subjects (DiCarlo, 2008; Smith & Heise, 1992). In science teaching students
are asked to study scientific terms and then recall or recognize them when
given words as test cues (Novak & Govin, 1984). In this activity several
mental processes are involved: comparison, analysis, comprehension, model
construction, elaboration, retrieval, etc.3) (Bruner, 1960). Conceptual mapping organizes learning at the level of conceptualization in the sense of the
theory of constructivism, the foundations of which were laid by J. Piaget.
Most neo-Piagetian theorists of cognitive development incorporate the
concept of relational mapping (Case, 1985, 1992; Halford, 1993; Pascual-Leone, 1987). Case integrated important aspects of the Piagetian stage theory
and cognitive information-processing theory and draw out implications for
the design of instruction. However, Halford is the only neo-Piagetian who
has formally proposed that analogy plays a central role in the development of
logical reasoning, and who has linked analogycal processes to performance in
traditional Piagetian tasks. In his structure-mapping theory of cognitive development Halford proposed that most logical reasoning was analogycal.
Word association is a powerful research technique, introduced by Galton (1880) and subsequently developed by Carl Gustav Jung for studying human conceptual systems. Galton looked for a link between a person’s I.Q.
210
(intelligence quotient) and word associations and did not find convincing data.
Carl Jung theorized that people connect ideas, feelings, experiences and information by way of associations. According to him, ideas and experiences are
linked, or grouped, in the unconscious in such a manner as to exert influence
over the individual’s behavior. These groupings he named ‘complexes’.
Word association, also known as associative experiment (Davidov, 1983)
is a test, consisting of a list of words, administered to the respondent, who has
to answer to each word by means of the first word coming to his or her mind.
This research technique has a long history and has been in use for more than a
century. It can be of several types according to its structure, mode of application, aims etc. In controlled word association test the informant’s response is
constrained in terms of category, word class or concept for response selection.
Free association test requires responses that are not restricted to any specific
category or class of words. In discrete word association test each participant
is asked to produce only a single associate to each word (Dollinger et al.,
1991), while in continued association test the same stimulus word is presented several times at certain intervals for giving associative responses. When
the stimulus word or the list of stimulus words is presented to the respondents
only once and they are asked to give as many associations as they can in a
pre-specified period of time, the test is called continuous. If the whole list of
stimuli is presented several times, the test is called successive.
For solving a number of practical problems word association technique
proved to be very valuable. It is applicable in public opinion research about
the use of science in the field of inquiry to collect necessary information
about public likes and dislikes and use it in advertising and attracting the
customers. It provides the possibilities to compare the first and the last word
of associations, repetition of words and pathways of associations, treatment
of people with some psychological problems, visualization of concept associations, using concept density maps,4) proper message by market researchers, level of anxiety of students in different classroom activities, conceptual
knowledge organization (Colgan & McGuinness, 1998), effect of multimodal stimuli on associative learning, thesaurus construction (Spiteri, 2002),
preverbal numerical competence (Jordan, 2008), etc.
Word association technique applies different types of questionnaires:
a table with two columns (first column – list of stimulus words, second
column – associated words), sentence completion (a list of sentences to
be finished with more than one example for each sentence, list of stimulus words with spaces to fill in the associated words at a given time under
a given situation.
211
Category learning can be accomplished by means of multiple cognitive
forms that depend on different brain systems: analogical reasoning (Goswami,
2001), concept clustering3), concept hierarchies, connectionism. Taxonomies of
concept hierarchies are crucial for knowledge-based systems, including natural
sciences3). Connectionism is a paradigm in cognitive science that is used in the
fields of artificial intelligence and cognitive psychology, neuroscience (Knowlton,
1999) and philosophy of mind. It models mental and behavioral phenomena as
networks, each composed of a large number of simple units (Colgan & McGuinness, 1998). The material basis of these networks is given by the achievements
of neurophysiology in studying nerve synapses. This link of connectionism to
neuroscience is called biological realism and is criticized as reductionism. Nevertheless the brain has a built in capacities for connecting the studied information with that already processed, organized and stored. As early as the embryonic
period of human development the long axons of neurons “travel” through the
brain looking for corresponding receiving stations in order to make communication connections. This process continues after birth and experience shapes the
brain throughout life. Synaptic connections and modifications are involved in the
learning process (Levine, 2000). Their understanding helps to use successfully
association technique and concept mapping for improvement of learning.
The analysis of the mentioned studies supports the assumption that development and use of a word association test is a scientific technique for obtaining valuable and reliable results, whose interpretations can help to make
some insights in understanding and assessing learners’ conceptual systems.
So far results from word association tests have not been used for concept
maps construction.
The concept (intellectual) map is a “nonlinear diagrammatic representation of meaningful relationships between concepts” (DiCarlo, 2006), a
mental model, a schematic representation, which is a hierarchical structure
from interconnected words, ideas, problems, solutions, arranged around a
key word in radial circles (Buzan & Buzan, 1996). It can represent a structure of concepts, derived from a textbook by means of content analysis or
retrieved from the memory by means of association test or brain storming
(Novak & Govin, 1984; Kostova, 1998, 2008). Concept maps are used to enhance meaningful learning (DiCarlo, 2008) by providing “fixture”, support,
construction of interconnected scientific words.
Constructing concept (intellectual) maps is a useful teaching and a learning method for systematizing and organizing not only the concepts under
study, but also the already learned concepts. It is used to create a context for
incorporation of new knowledge, for reconstruction of already acquired cog212
nitive experience (Bruner, 1960), or for building a new system of meanings
of our external world after Vygotsky. It is radial, spatial, with increasing concentric circles from groups of words, coming out from a central key word or
words as a structure by means of subordination. Basic rules were developed
for its successful construction, incorporating the use of the two hemispheres
– logical thinking and imagination (Buzan & Buzan, 1991). Different graphical organizers are used in visual construction of concept maps. The results of
word association test depend to a great extend on the information (knowledge)
and the predisposition of the respondents (Zaller, 1992).
Combining the word association test and concept construction, using
concept (mind, intellectual) maps of the obtained data could be of great help
in revealing the conceptual structure that is on top of people’s minds in a
given situation. Such maps can then be used to enhance discussion and concept clarification, which is the intention of this study.
Aim. To investigate the conceptual associations of teachers and students in Bulgaria using free association test and build conceptual structures
(mind maps and schemas) for assessing respondents’ knowledge, biology
curricula and textbooks (Table 1).
Table 1. Aims and Participants in the Word Association Test
Words
Aims and Participants
Living cell
To investigate the conceptual associations of 80 biology teachers in
order to make decisions about the conceptual structure of the term
cell as part of their biological culture, the relevance of the biological
curricula and textbooks.
Biodiversity
To investigate the conceptual associations of 40 biology teachers, 15
supervisors, 40 students of 7th grade and 52 students of 10th grade to
biodiversity as a priority concept in nature conservation and sustainable
development, in order to make decisions about the conceptual structures
of the target groups, school curricula and text-books.
Мethodology
The method used in the investigation of teachers’ and students’ conceptual associations was a continuous free word association test. This is a
reliable technique used as a procedure for measuring number, direction and
213
strengths of connections2). Two stimulus words were chosen for the investigation – a living cell and biodiversity. The cell is a key biological concept,
which forms the basis for sound biological knowledge as life can exist only
within cellular structure. The concept is included in all textbooks in Bulgaria
and develops gradually in the successive grades from 5th to 12th. In the fifth
grade students get a generalized picture of the cell, study the prokaryotic,
eukaryotic, plant, fungal and animal cells. The 6th grade develops the notions
of cell division, cell specialization (tissues), reproductive cells, importance
of cells in growth, development, transport, movement and irritability. The 7th
grade enlarges the pictures of the different types and kinds of cells in studying the kingdoms Monera, Protoktista, Fungi, Plants and Invertebrates’(from
kingdom Animals). Eight grade textbooks deal with vertebrates and human
biology, 9th grade is concerned with ecology, cytology and biochemistry, 10th
grade with genetics, ontogeny and evolution, 11th grade with cytology, genetics and biochemistry and 12th grade with ecology, nature conservation and
evolution. Health education and biodiversity are included in all textbooks
for all grades. Therefore the cell and the biodiversity are both key concept
of biology education in the secondary school. This means that all biology
teachers should have contemporary conceptual structures of these two concepts as they organize and create the intellectual climate of the classroom.
The sample of investigation of associations with the term ‘cell’ included only teachers having university education in biology. They had school
practice from five to twenty years and were enrolled in post-graduate qualification courses on innovative biology teaching strategies, preparing them
to introduce just published before the investigation new biology textbooks,
written according to a revised school program. The sample of investigation
of biodiversity associations included teachers with university biology education, enrolled in postgraduate courses on biology teaching, supervisors with
university education in pedagogy, enrolled in postgraduate courses on value
development, students from middle school and students from high school.
The comparative studies of the associations of the four groups could give
some insights in the influence of biology teaching on environmental culture,
concerning a global environmental problem. The data from the investigation
could give some information and hints about the use of a free word association test and concept maps in reinforcing successful learning in biology.
The investigation continued for four years from 2005 to 2008 in courses,
organized with teachers at the University of Sofia and other towns (Rousse,
Montana) and with students from schools in Sofia.
214
Data collecting was done with a question requiring writing associations
with a given word. Each respondent was given a sheet of paper and a pencil
and was instructed to be ready to write the words, phrases, ideas, that came to
his or her mind in the same succession as they appeared, when hearing a given
word. The respondents could write the words or draw pictures as visual memories, coming on top of their minds driven by the stimuli. Then they were told
the word ‘living cell’ and started to write. They had to finish in three minutes
time and hand over the papers. The same procedure was repeated with the word
‘biodiversity’ but with other respondents. The papers were collected, analyzed
and maps were constructed using the connected words for each group of the
respondents. The concept maps were discussed with teachers and educators in
order to improve the maps and to draw inferences about knowledge, curricular
and textbooks. The maps were then improved using content analysis of the
corresponding chapters from the new biology textbooks. Thus the results of
the word association test and the concept mapping were used for learning associations in a conscious, intentional and effortful way (Wills, 2005).
Results and Interpretations
I. Associations with the word living cell
The stimulus word ‘cell’ evoked lots of connections to other words.
The total number of them was 948 and the average number of associations
per a teacher was 11.9 (Table 2, Fig. 1). All teachers responded to the test
according to their individual flexibility of remembering, knowledge and
type of memory. Some teachers started to write at once, others were delayed with the response, “sort of block in self-expression”. The delay may
be due to “too many possible answers rushing to the surface and creating a
sort of log-jam or to the feeling of being uncomfortable with the response
of the responder”, called “resistance to answer – repression” in Freud explanation. This argument cannot be accepted as teachers had to write the
connections in the way they appeared in their minds but not to sort them
out and choose the appropriate. Probably the reason was in the memory.
Those, who were delayed in answer had not taught cytology for enough
long time and had to strain themselves to remember the facts. Teachers,
who responded at once, had recently been teaching the lessons on cell
structure and functions. This fact shows that every teacher spends time
and effort to organize his or her knowledge and teaching strategies for the
coming lesson and cannot enter the classroom unprepared.
215
Table 2. Number of teachers (NT) per number of associations (NA)
Associations
Variables
Total
NA
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
948/80=11.9
NT
4
5
6
12
14
9
8
7
5
5
3
2
80
Total NA
28
40
54
120
154
108
104
98
75
80
51
36
948
Number of teachers
Distribution of associations
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
NA
NT
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Number of associations
Fig. 1. Distribution of numbers of associations per numbers of teachers
The concept map of the cell, constructed on the basis of associations has
14 rays, coming from the central concept, the stimulus word (Table 3, criteria,
Fig. 2). Each number was a core for concrete associations (details in Table 3).
4
5
6
3
7
2
8
cell
1
9
14
10
13
12
11
Fig. 2. Simplified model of the concept map of teachers’ associations
216
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Fig. 3. Percentage distribution among the different criteria
The first ray (analogies and description) is based on teachers’ visual memory and analogies (Goswani, 2001) or on their way of metaphorical expression. Probably those teachers worked with younger students in middle schools
and used such kinds of expression to make themselves understood by them.
Some of the teachers tried to define the cell as a biological concept.
Definitions (criterion 2, Table 3) are not complete but underline the basic
characteristic of a generalized cell. Most of the teachers associate the cell
with its structural components, which means that they predominate in the
textbooks and due attention is given to them in the process of teaching (criterion 3). Composition of the cell was not on top of their minds (criterion 4),
probably because they did not link cytology with biochemistry. DNA, from
all chemical composition of the cell, occupies the first place, may be due to
its role in cell activities.
Functions of the cell (criterion 5) are much less remembered than structures, but the given generalizations represent them properly on the whole. The
connection between the cell and its surroundings, the transport through the cell
membrane and its selective permeability are missing in the associations.
The associations with the role of the cell in the body (criterion 6)
and its relative independence (criterion 7) are not significant. They are
covered by other criteria (definition, hierarchy) and probably should not
217
be given a separate place in the classification. Understanding of the hierarchy (criterion 8) is very essential as it shows connections and order. It
is due to the good representation of the biological systems and the theory
of biological organization in the textbooks. In the previous several successive educational reforms (1972, 1981, 1989, 1995, 2001) the system approach gradually became a priority. Cell types (criterion 10) and cell kinds
(criterion 8) are very well represented in the textbooks, starting from 5th
grade and teachers paid due attention to them in teaching. As it has already
been pointed out5) “the way we describe something, can affect the way we
perceive it and the way we perceive it can affect the way we use it”. This
also shows the role of association in teaching and learning and that it takes
place both voluntary and involuntary.
The state of the cell (criterion 11) does not occupy a significant place in
teachers’ associations, but it plays a very important role in health education.
Therefore the neglect of it should find its solution in syllabi and textbooks.
The diseases of the body are diseases of the cells.
Criterion 12 shows the practical approach to teaching and learning and
the use of different strategies. It also directs our attention to the significance
of the methods used in studying cells. Lack of experiments for revealing the
chemical composition and the life processes of the cell is inexplicable. It can
be due to the deterioration of biology laboratories in schools due to lack of
financial resources as well as to the invasion of classrooms by information
technologies. This is a warning to educators that direction of biology teaching is not on the right lines. Experiments and observations are the core of
biological sciences.
Table 3. Classification of biology teachers’
associations with the stimulus word cell
Criteria
%
Examples
1. Analogies
& description
10.4
Enclosed space (3%), box (3%), Cosmos (3%),
cube (3%), house (3%), brick (3%), beginning (3%),
pulsating unity (3%), living unity (3%), basic unity (21%),
particle of an organism (52%).
2. Definition
12
Microscopic size (10%), basic living particle (27%),
structural and functional unit of organisms (17%), smallest
particle of the body performing all living processes (42%),
living unity (4%)
218
3. Anatomical
&
morphological
Structure
25
Living system (1%), complex system (1%),
vacuoles (3%), cytocentre (1%), Golgi apparatus (4%),
plastids (7%), ribosomes (5%), mitochondria (6%),
endoplasmic reticulum (3%), nucleus (16%), cytoplasm
(11%), cell membrane (9%), cell wall (8%), lysosomes (2%),
organels (7%), dimensions (5%), diversity (3%),
volume (1%), oval (2), different shape (5%),
4. Composition
0.8
Atom (33%), molecule (33%), DNA (34%)
5. Functions
9
Division (24%), new cells (24%), biochemical laboratory
(4%), catalyzed reactions (4%), living processes (4%),
life (4%), energy (4%), variation (4%), heredity (4%),
metabolism (12%), functions (12%).
6. Role
0.3
Building (50%), structural (30%), functional (20%)
7. Independence
0.6
Independent existence, independent working
8. Hierarchy
6.9
Part of multicellular organism (22%), part of hierarchy (9%),
unicellular (18%), multicellular (18%), plasmodesms (5%),
tissues (13%), organs (13%), organism (2%)
9. Kinds
7.5
Plant cells (41%), animal cells (37%), fungal cells (22%)
10. Types
3.5
Prokaryotic (45%), eukaryotic (37%), bacteria (9%), blue
green algae (9%).
11. State
1.2
Living (50%), cancer (25%), dead (25%).
12. Studying
2.6
Microscope (12%), textbook (11%), illustrations (11%),
making a model (22%), drawing a picture (22%),
comparison (11%), word description (11%)
13.
Generalizations
2.8
Diversity of type and unity of pattern (34%), structure and
order (24%), complexity (22%), common origin of life
(12%), every new cell comes from a preexisting cell (8%).
14.
Visualization
17.4
Description (25%), drawing (33%), schematic presentation
(20%), concept map (10%), unicellular organism – euglena,
paramecium (12%)
Some of teachers’ associations (criterion 13) are generalizations from
the facts of cytology and are very essential in developing a scientific attitude
to the living world. They show the level of conceptualization of the scientific term cell. They are all precisely stated and given due attention. It is a
teaching practice at the end of studying a new lesson to make generalizations
from the facts and in this way to make a distinction between them, although
that is not always easy.
219
Many teachers in the three minutes response tried to express themselves
by means of visual representations (criterion 14). Labeled drawings predominated, which prompted that this had been the main teachers’ method of visualization. Obviously concept maps, though very useful, new and interactive,
had insignificant place. Teachers need training in concept mapping and in their
didactic use. It is not easy to construct a useful and correct concept map. This
justifies the use of the concept map on teachers’ cell associations for improving it and for training in its application as a teaching tool (Wright, 1987). That
was done by organizing a discussion on the concept map by means of the
following questions: 1. what are the shortcomings of the model (the concept
map); 2. how can the structure of the model be improved; 3. what connections
between the concepts can be established; 4. how can the conceptual associations map be evaluated, as individual and as collective work; 5. has the method
cognitive significance; 6. what conclusions can be drawn from the conceptual
associations map; 7. is the method suitable for use in school.
Table 4. Questions (Q) and responses in the discussion
Q
Responses
1
It takes a lot of space (1m/1.5 m cardboard) for presentation. The criteria are too
many and could be improved and reduced. The test was unexpected and we were
not prepared. May be in another situation we would give different associates.
Definitions are not complete and well worded. Illustrations are not precise.
2
Some associations refer to more than one criterion, which requires the use of
symbols. Different criteria can be separated by writing them in different colours.
Connections between structures and functions are not shown on the map.
3
The map enhances the establishment of new connections between: structure and
evolution, structure and types, functions and types, etc. Each criterion is connected
with the others.
4
If it is a result of a group of people, it should be evaluated as group work. In
this case it is interactive and participants should be evaluated according to their
personal contribution and ability to communicate. Individual evaluation is possible
if each participant makes his or her own concept map.
5
The method has a high cognitive value as it presents a whole picture of the situation,
summarizes the information from many topics in cytology, provokes establishment
of new associations, aids remembering and construction of concepts, gives order in
the knowledge, reduces the chaos, helps in warming up for new studies on the key
concept, distinguishes hierarchical relationships of concepts, etc.
220
6
The association map can serve as a basis for making generalizations concerning all
unifying themes in biology, besides those given in criterion 13, such as: unity of the
cell and its environment, material bases of living processes, evolution of life, etc.
7
Students can make a concept map on each lesson and then use all the concept
maps for making a generalized concept map on the chapter of cytology. The map
provokes questioning and discussion. It provokes ideas for improving the syllabi
and textbooks. For example structure and functions of the cell should be studied
together. Chemical composition should not be discussed as something outside the
living cell, etc. The conceptual structure cannot be the result of a single lesson. It
could be improved if it is the result of solving a generalized problem. Associations
and concept mapping should be subdued to a problem solving approach.
II. Associations with the word biodiversity
The stimulus word ‘biodiversity’ did not evoke so many connections
with other words as the word cell, though the number of respondents was
much greater and the sample included different target people. May be the
reason was half the number of biology teachers in the target group, expected
to be best acquainted with the problem. The mean value of the number of
associations is still highest for biology teachers (Table 5, Fig 4). Supervisors’ and high school students’ responses are nearly equal in mean value of
the number of associations but differ in contents (Table 6). Biology teachers
have a scientific knowledge of the problem as that is connected with their
profession and with their responsibility for developing a responsible attitude
in students, while the supervisors’ knowledge and perceptions are due to
the influence of mass media. Students from the middle school had studied
aspects of biodiversity in the course of three years (from 5th to 7th grade)
only on organism level and the term biodiversity was not included in the
textbooks, but species classification and characteristics of concrete species
were covered. Students in the tenth grade (high school) studied biodiversity
on organism level in all grades from 5th to 8th. In the 9th grade of one of the
textbooks6) the concept of biodiversity is discussed in the chapter of ecology, entitled “Biosphere”. It is connected with the term sustainable development and the three levels of biodiversity are explained – genetic, species
and ecosystem. The information is not obligatory and teachers usually omit
it. This explains the missing of the term sustainable development in the associations of the four groups. The information is also missing in the school
programmes, made by the Ministry of Еducation and Science (Bulgaria).
221
Table 5. Numbers of associations, corresponding to numbers of participants.
Total and mean values. (Meaning of symbols: NA – number of associations,
BT – biology teachers, S – supervisors, S1 – students in the middle school, S2
– students in the high school, TNABT – total number of association of biology
teachers, TNAS – of supervisors, TNA S1 – of middle school students, TNAS2
– of high school students, T NA – total of 1, 2, 3 and 4).
Variables
Number of associations
Total/mean
NA
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
BT – 40
1
1
3
3
4
10
9
3
2
2
1
1
1. TNABT
6
7
24
27
40
110
108
39
28
30
16
17
NA
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
S – 15
1
1
2
3
3
2
1
1
1
2. TNAS
0
1
4
9
12
10
6
7
8
5
8
9
9
4
3
1
1
S1 – 40
57 / 3.8
3. TNA S1
0
5
16
27
36
20
18
7
8
S2 – 52
3
7
6
7
7
11
7
2
1
1
4. TNAS2
0
7
12
21
28
55
42
14
8
9
T NA
6
20
56
84
116
195
174
67
52
39
137 / 3.43
196 / 3.76
16
17
distribution of associations
12
Mean value
10
8
6
4
2
0
BT
S
S1
S2
Xm
groups of respondents
Fig. 4. Mean value of numbers of associations per groups
(Xm – mean of the four groups)
222
452 / 11.3
842 / 5.73
The four target groups have different conceptual structures, connected
with biodiversity, which is due to the level and type of education, personal
experiences and interests.
Biology teachers’ associations cover all the levels and aspects of biodiversity. Criteria for species classification are not considered by them as pertaining to biodiversity, which makes the concept map different from concept
maps intended for teaching (Biodiversity concept map), but they are present
in the syllabi and textbooks for the tenth grade. The information about biodiversity is not well structured in the textbooks, which is probably the cause
for the chaotic character of the associations and the big number of criteria in
order to classify them.
Supervisors have not studied biology and nature conservation at the
university, but they have a fairly good orientation in the problem and can
help students in the development of proper attitudes. They are better acquainted with the social aspect of biodiversity.
Seven grade students perceive biodiversity from its emotional side,
which is suitable for their age and personal experience. The influence of biology and health education has modified their associations and understanding. The results coincide with other investigations (Kostova & Atasoy, 2008;
Kostova, 1998, 2000).
Tenth grade students have better presentations in ecology and genetics.
They also point out to the resources for learning about biodiversity, which
gives impression about the teaching strategies (Table 6, criterion 1). The
word gun, which is associated by supervisors and students with humans, is
probably a sign of human technical equipment for species destruction.
223
Table 6. Classification of associations with the stimulus
word biodiversity and their presentations in the target groups
(figures in brackets show the repetitions of the words)
Biology teachers
Supervisors
7th grade
10th grade
Life & social diversity,
uniqueness,
life
styles,
beauty, love,
care (3)
Diversity,
liberty, odor,
harmony,
beauty,
happiness,
scenery,
feelings, carpet,
peace of mind
Model, school,
textbook, pen,
textbook, desk,
student, classroom,
social diversity
Plants (12), protected (15),
flora (8), varieties (6)
Plants (4)
Plants, species,
oak, birch trees,
herbs, flowers,
greenness,
species, pinescrub, etc.
Plants (3), ecological
groups, grass,
shrubs, trees, biome
diversity
Fauna (20), invertebrates
(4), vertebrates (11),
protected (13), breeds (2)
Animals (2)
Animals,
species, breeds,
insects, reptiles,
carnivores,
birds, mammals,
butterflies, bears
Animals in forests
(3), ecological
groups, diversity in
biomes, water land
and flying animals
(7)
Human races, human
beings, behavior,
responsibility,
individuality, foods
Humans,
guns, mode,
environment,
campaigns
Guns, humans,
important for us,
needs protection
Human beings, guns,
interference in
environment
Unicellular (3), multicellular (4), colonial (2),
sizes, shapes, individual
diversity (11), species
diversity (15), taxons,
classification (8), populations (2), rare & endemic species (3), prokaryotes, eukaryotes
Preservation
of
species,
important in
medicine (4)
Species
diversity, names
of concrete
species (9)
Species diversity
(5), similarities,
differences,
classification (6),
populations (4),
number, size,
viruses, bacteria,
3. Animals
2. Plants
1. General
interpretations &
perceptions
Diversity in living nature
(5), harmony, many
faces, colors, quality,
quantity, uniqueness (3),
beauty (6)
4. Humanity
students
5. Organism level
Criteria
Target groups
224
6. Environment and
adaptations
7. Life processes
8. Structural
diversity
9. Genetic level
10.
Evolution
11, Supra-organism levels
Behavior (5), ethology, xerophytes, diurnal,
nocturnal, biotope, living, non-living, nature
protection (7), environmental problems (3)
Destruction,
ozone holes,
dangerous
existence,
technologies,
protection,
school, community
Living
conditions,
animal and
plant protection,
reservations
(3), parks (7),
meadows,
natural
resources
Living conditions,
ecological factors,
biological resources,
herbs, flowers,
biotope
Metabolism (5), nutrition, respiration, aerobes,
anaerobes, reproduction,
fertilization, movement
(3), biorhythms, oxidation-reduction
Metabolism,
nutrition respiration, reproduction,
movement, diversity in living processes
(2)
Contraction,
relaxation, parasites,
autotrophs,
heterotrophs
Mutations (14), crossing
over (13), fertilization
(9), diversity of biochemical processes, proteins, molecules, chromosomes, DNA (10)
Genetic
engineering,
laboratories,
experiments,
cloning, biotechnologies
Genetic diversity,
DNA, molecules,
nucleic acids,
proteins (6),
biopolymers,
chromosomes,
replication, genes
(7), information,
complementarity,
biochemistry
Mutation,
heredity,
variation (21), natural
selection (14), speciation
(18), origin of life,
palaeonthology,
Mutations,
natural selection
Origin of life,
evolution
Populations (6), biocoenosis, ecosystems (9),
biosphere, landscapes
(19), biomes (7), Earth,
Universe, cycle of matter, food chains (22),
food webs, community
structure,
succession,
productivity, ecological
equilibrium, biotic &
abiotic factors
Ecosystems,
biosphere,
rivers, seas,
meadows
Roots, root systems, tissues, organs, systems,
chemical diversity (6),
carbohydrates,
lipids,
proteins, biomass
Clean rivers
with fish,
evergreen
forests,
deciduous
forests (5),
meadows,
reservations
Biotope, cycle
of matter, food
webs, food chains,
community
vertical structure,
reservations, national
parks, ecological
equilibrium
225
12. Nonliving nature
Non-living nature (3)
Earth, water,
air, river, sea,
non-living
nature, ozone
holes
Caves, hills,
lakes, stones,
relief, rocks,
mountains, ice,
summits, sky
The twelve criteria for classifying the concepts are chosen to embrace
all the associations. They are subject to change and improvement and used
as working tools for this investigation. Other investigations with other
people in a different situation and at a different time will certainly show
different results, because the associations on top of people’s minds are liable to change.
The concept map was used for discussion with the teachers and for
clarifying their ideas. It is not suitable for teaching students as it is very
complex and meets other purposes. The students construct mind maps
using content-analysis of the textbook and fewer criteria, which can refer
to either the branches of biology, studying biodiversity or the levels of
organization of biodiversity. One important shortcoming of the associations of all groups is the very poor presentation of the means for sustaining biodiversity and its connection with environmental equilibrium. The
map, presented here in the form of a table for simplification, was used
in succeeding courses with teachers and proved very valuable as a tool,
initiating and sustaining discussion.
Questions for discussion:
1. What is the priority of each group, concerning biodiversity?
2. What do similarities between the groups show?
3. What do differences between the groups show?
4. Has the concept map heuristic significance?
5. Can you draw conclusions about conceptual structure of each
group?
Some conclusions drawn by the participants from the map of associations to the stimulus word biodiversity were:
1. Diversity of type and unity of pattern in the living world;
2. Biodiversity is indispensable for life to continue on the Earth;
3. Biodiversity means health of human beings as well as of ecosystems;
4. Individual differences in associations show differences not only in
conceptual structures and in personal experiences but also in education;
5. Every living thing is unique and adds to the biodiversity on our planet.
226
Conclusions
The continuous word association test, combined with concept mapping and discussion, as applied in this study was successful in revealing
the conceptual structures of teachers and students to two key biology
stimulus words – cell and biodiversity. Although the response terms given by the participants varied at some aspects, areas of similarity emerged,
and with little exceptions the criteria for the associations were covered.
The target groups showed good informational orientation, concerning
the stimulus words and responsibility in answering the test. Teachers
and supervisors took part in the discussions for assessing the concept
map, clarifying the concepts and improving the structure of the map, thus
brushing up their knowledge. Teachers practiced in the construction of
concept maps using textbooks and acquired the corresponding skills that
used later in the process of teaching. Concept maps made on associations were distinguished from concept maps, constructed as a result of
content-analysis of textbooks. The former should be better called mind
maps, association maps or intellectual maps, as not all word associations
can be denoted as scientific concepts (Anglin,1977) ,
The investigation revealed the difference in the disposition of the target groups, the connection between concepts and feelings and the role of
education in concept and intellectual development. The good and structured
representation of the cytology concepts in the curricula, syllabi and textbooks insured the rich association map of biology teachers. Nevertheless
some recommendations can be made in this direction. A better link should be
established between cytology and biochemistry so that the chemical composition of the cell be better understood and remembered. That could be done
by introducing unifying topics for connecting facts and concepts from the
two branches. The concept maps, constructed on the unifying topics, should
stress the generalizations revealing concept links. Thus, generalized pictures
of the cell as well as of biodiversity in each grade and at the end of school
could be formed and knowledge could be better remembered and used after.
The cell and its environment and transport trough the cell membrane need
better attention and clarification. Health and cell structure, normal function
and damage are very near to neglect and that problem should be solved by
changes in curricula, syllabi and textbooks.
Lack of appropriate experiments could be the cause of fewer associations with chemical composition of the cell and with biodiversity
protection.
227
Associations with biodiversity were not well structured and information, concerning levels and protection needs improvement. The term biodiversity should occupy a better place in curricular and syllabi, well clarified
and more precisely defined in the textbooks. Unifying topics and concept
map construction could solve teaching and memory problems. Involving
students in biodiversity protection activities could give meaning to the term
and show its practical significance.
With the aid of the concept map, associations were classified, structured,
visualized and logical connections between them determined. A compact,
wholesome and generalized picture of the key concepts was created, that facilitated learning, memorizing and remembering. The mind seeks clarity and
completion and the map stimulated the “discovery” of new links between
concepts, generation of new ideas and enhanced its own improvement. Besides that, the association map stimulated reflection and self-reflection and
enhanced studies of the key concepts.
Both methods – word association test and concept map construction,
can be used together in teaching and learning and in evaluation of learning
results in biology education.
Associative thinking is the first step on the road of creative thinking as
it is closest to the material bases, that is, to the object of cognition. Therefore
the process of association making is at the heart of all types of learning, but
the interpretation of the concept and the attitude to it depend very much on
the theoretical bases upon which they are discussed. Associative processes
take place at different levels of learning. They are those processes that lead
to the development or maintenance of cognitive connections (associations)
between events, behaviors, feelings, thoughts, visual images, etc.
The word presented to the target people acts as a stimulus activating
the memory and extracting the associated with it words which are on the top
of their minds. A dynamic associative structure is created in memory that
involves representations of the words themselves as well as connections to
other words. This structure of scientific terms plays a crucial role in any task
involving familiar words. People cannot create and retrieve representations
involving familiar words, without relying on pre-existing associative structures created as a result of past experience. Thus the word association test
can be used in order to reveal scientific conceptual structures.
Science conceptual structures depend both on science education and
culture of the community in which students grow and develop, including
the climate and culture within the schools themselves. They are not the
result of studying only one subject but integrate studies in all subjects with
228
their everyday experience. There are individual differences in the speed
and number of retrieval.
The study points out to some shortcomings of school subjects, curricula
and modes of teaching. Measures for nature and biodiversity protection are
barely discussed and poorly understood. Besides, students are not involved
in activities for environmental protection and improvement. Different strategies of teaching facilitating the building of associations, such as content
analysis and mind map clustering, intellectual concept map construction, visualization of conceptual structures, etc., are hardly used in school practice.
Notes
http://cogprints.org/5543/1/Sharifian.pdf
Nelson, D. L., McEvoy, C. L. & Schreiber, T. A. (1998). The University of
South Florida word association, rhyme, and word fragment norms. http://www.usf.
edu/FreeAssociation/.
3
http://www.aifb.uni-karlsruhe.de/WBS/pci/lrec04.pdf
4
Van Eck, N. J., Frasincar, F. & Van den Berg, J. Visualizing Concept
Associations Using Concept Density Maps. 10th International Conference on
Information Visualization, IV’2006, pp. 270–275
5
http://InfomationR.net/ir/6-1/paper85:html
6
Николов и др. (2001). Биология и здравно образование. Учебник за 9
клас. София: Анубис. Nikolov, T.et all (2001) Biology and Health Education. A
Textbook for 9th grade students. Sofia, Anubis (In Bulgarian)
1
2
References
Anglin, J. M. (1977) Word, Object and Conceptual Development. New York, W. W.
Norton and Company, Inc. pps.290
Bain, A. (1894). Senses and the intellect. London: Longmans, Green & Co.
Bradley, F. H. (1922). The principles of logic. In two volumes. London: Oxford
University Press.
Bruner, J. (1960). The process of education. Cambridge: Harvard University
Press.
Buzan, T. & Buzan, B. (1996). The mind book: how to use radiant thinking to maximize your brain’s untapped. Plume.
Case, R. (1985). Intellectual development: birth to adulthood. New York: Academic Press.
Case, R. (1992). Neo-Piagetian theories of child development. (p. 161). In R.J.
Sternberg & C.A. Berg (Eds.). Intellectual development. Cambridge: Cam229
bridge University Press.
Colgan, A. & McGuinness, C. (1998). Measuring conceptual knowledge organization among student nurses using a word association technique. Nursing Times
Research, 3, 36–45.
Cramer, P. (1968) Word Association. New York; Academic Press
Davidov, V. V. (Ed.). (1983). Psychological dictionary. Moskwa: Pedagogika [In
Russian].
Deese, J. (1966). The structure of associations in language and thought. Oxford:
Johns Hopkins Press.
DiCarlo, S. E. (2006). Cell biology should be taught as science is practiced. Nature
Reviews Molecular Cell Biology, 7, 290–296.
Dollinger, S.J., Levin, E.L. & Robinson, A. E. (1991). The word association implication test. Journal of Personality Assessment, 57, 368-380.
Field, A. P. (2005). Learning to like (or dislike): associative learning of preferences
(p. 221). In A. J. Wills (Ed.), New directions in human associative learning.
Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Galton, F. (1880). Psychometric experiments. Brain, 2, 49–162.
Goswami, U. (2001). Analogical reasoning in children (p. 437). In D. Gentner, K. J.
Holyoak & B. Kokinov (Eds.). The analogical mind: perspectives from cognitive science. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Halford, G. S. (1993). Children’s understanding: the development of mental models. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Hinton, G. E. & Anderson, J. A. (1989). Parallel models of human associative
memory. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
James, W. (1890). The principles of psychology. New York: Henry Holt & Co.
Jordan, K. E., Suanda, S. H., Brannon, E. M. (2008) Redundancy Accelerates Preverbal Numerical Competence. Cognition, v. 108, No 1, pp. 210–221, July
Knowlton, B. (1999). What can neuropsychology tell us about category learning?
Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 3,, 123–124.
Kostova, Z. (1998). How to learn successfully. Sofia: Pedagog 6 [In Bulgarian].
Kostova, Z. (2000). How to create an attitude to learning. Sofia: Pedagog 6 [In
Bulgarian].
Kostova, A, & Atasoy, E. (2008). Comparative evaluation of the environmental
culture of 8th grade students in Bulgaria and Turkey. BJSEP, 2, 25–47.
Levine, D. S. (2000). Introduction to neural and cognitive modeling. Mahwah:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Maki, W. S. (2007). Judgments of associative memory. Cognitive Psychology, 54,
319–353.
Mervis, C. B. & Rosh, E. (1981). Categorization of natural objects. Annual Review
of Psychology, 32, 89–115.
Locke, J. (2000). An essay concerning human understanding. Boston: Elibron
Classics.
230
Novak, J. D. & Govin, D. B. (1984). Learning how to learn. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
Pascual-Leone, J. (1987). Organismic processes for neo-piagetian theories: a dialectical causal account of cognitive development. International Journal of
Psychology, 22, 531–570.
Pavlov, I. P. (1927). Conditioned reflexes: an investigation pf the psychological
activity of the cerebral cortex. London: Oxford University Press.
Rosh, E. & Mervis, C. (1981). Categorization of natural objects. Annual Review of
Psychology, 32, 89–113.
Smith, L. B. & Heise, D. (1992). Perceptual similarity and conceptual structure
(p. 233). In B. Burns (Ed.). Percepts, concept and categories. Amsterdam:
Elsevier.
Suret, M. & McLaren, I. P. L. (2005). Elemental representation and associability:
an integrated model (p. 155). In A. J. Wills (Ed.), New directions in human
associative learning. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Wills, A. J. (Ed.). (2005). New directions in human associative learning. Mahwah:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Willshaw, D. (1989). Holography, associative memory and inductive generalization
(p. 103). In G. E. Hinton & J. A. Anderson, Parallel models of human associative memory. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Wright, A. (1987) How to Improve Your Mind. L., Cambridge University Press
Zaller, J. R. (1992). The nature and origins of mass opinion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 Dr. Zdravka Kostova, DSc.,
Department of Information and In-service Teacher Training,
University of Sofia,
224, Tsar Boris III Blvd., Sofia, BULGARIA
E-Mail: zdravkako@abv.bg
Blagovesta Radoynovska
New Bulgarian University
21, Montevideo Str., Sofia, 1618
E-Mail; blagovesta_k@yahoo.com
231