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FIM 1801 - FUNDAMENTALS OF CINEMATOGRAPHY
FIM 1801 - FUNDAMENTALS OF CINEMATOGRAPHY
Shots and Composition
A film is made up of a series of photographic images. Each individual image is called a frame.
Each frame contains images and shapes arranged in a composition. A sequence of frames
together is commonly referred to as a shot.
When determining the placement or angle of the camera you are creating a setup, which can
be defined as the basic component of a film’s production.
Visual productions, whether they are movies, television shows, music videos, commercials,
video or slides are all made up of shots. Different shots are used for different purposes and the
selection of what shots to use illustrates the creative choices of the people making the
production. Groups of shots form sequences or scenes. There is a craft to getting the right
shots which will be needed in order for the scene to play correctly and make sense to the
viewer.
Composition occurs whenever you put a frame around something. When you compose a shot,
you are actually putting a frame around it. The items within the frame separate from the rest of
the world and become their own universe.
Proper composition requires balance in order for it to feel correct. When a shot is properly
composed things feel in balance. When it's not, they don't.
Throughout the centuries, artists have discovered (not invented!) some basic rules which govern
composition.
Rules for Composition
All illustrations for the following rules of composition are taken from Tom Schroeppel, Bare
Bones Camera Course for Film and Video (Tom Schroeppel, 1982)
1. Eye Position (Eyeroom) - Whenever you frame a shot, the eyes of your subject become the
priority for framing. Most compositions require that the eyes should be kept in a position roughly
1/3 of the way down from the top of the frame and should almost never be allowed to drop
below the center line.
2. Headroom – Headroom and Eyeroom go together. Too much headroom may be when the
eyes are at or below the center line of the frame. Too much is when the top of the frame is right
at the top of the head or cuts into the head.
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NOT ENOUGH HEADROOM
Shots & Composition – Page 2
TOO MUCH HEADROOM
3. Leading Space – There should be more space in the direction a character is looking than
behind them. Never frame someone with their nose flat against the edge of the frame. Always
try to find the center of the frame and set your composition so that the eyes don’t cross it.
NO LEADING SPACE
GOOD LEADING SPACE
Leading space can also apply to inanimate objects such as furniture, automobiles, etc.
4. Chopping – The edges of the frame should not cut off people or objects at weird places.
Don’t frame a shot so that the edge of the frame cuts a person off at a joint. Frame slightly
above the knees or slightly below the knees but do not cut them off at the knees.
5. The rule of thirds – Divide the frame into thirds and place principle points of interest along
where those lines intersect.
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Composition and Balance in the Frame
Shifting elements in the frame to balance a composition is called cheating. You may need to
slightly move the positions of props and furnishings in order to achieve a pleasing composition.
Cheating may also be done to the position of actors in the scene.
Often characters will enter of leave your frame, requiring some type of camera movement to
balance your composition. You should be able to anticipate these movements again so that you
are not chasing the actor but leading them. As they enter or exit the frame you should be
settling in on the new composition, thereby making a smooth transition from one shot to the
next.
A subject moving directly toward or away from the camera will almost always require some type
of compositional adjustment. As a subject moves toward the camera or the camera moves
toward the subject, you will often need to tilt up in order to maintain a pleasing composition. As
a subject moves away from the camera or the camera moves away from the subject, you will
often need to tilt down in order to maintain a pleasing composition.
Names of Shots
The following are some of the standard names of shots used in motion picture production today.
This is by no means a complete list but if you start using these terms when discussing your
scripts you will be better able to communicate with your fellow filmmakers.
abby singer
The second-to-last shot of the day. Named after production manager Abby Singer, who would
frequently call "last shot of the day" or "this shot, and just one more," only to have the director
ask for more takes. See also martini shot.
aerial shot
A shot taken from a plane or helicopter, often by using a special camera mount. It is often used
when a crane shot will not give a sufficient view of the area being photographed.
bowtie
Another name for an extreme close-up.
bridging shot
A shot that connects two scenes separated by time or place: for example, falling calendar
pages in the first case and an airplane taking off in the second case.
choker
See Extreme Close Up. Also called a tight shot.
clean single
A single which contains no part of any other person
other than the main subject within the frame.
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close-up
(abbreviated CU) A shot in which the camera seems to
be very close to the subject. A close-up of a person
usually shows their head filling the frame. A close-up of
a person, for example, might show only his head, a shot
of a car's interior might reveal just the steering wheel. A
close-up is used to draw attention to a significant detail
to clarify a point, designate a meaning, or heighten the
dramatic impact of a film's plot.
coverage
1. The act of filming all the necessary footage, from all setups and angles, which may be
required for editing a fluid sequence in the cutting room.
crane shot
A shot taken by a camera on a crane; often used to show the actors/action from above. Cranes
usually carry both the camera and a camera operator, but some can be operated by remote
control.
cutaway
A shot, usually a close-up of some detail, or landscape,
that is used break up a matching action sequence, and
is often very helpful in editing to rescue you from an
impossible break in continuity or coverage. A cutaway,
as the name implies, is a shot that does not focus on
some detail of the shot before or after it but cuts away
from the action at hand, unlike an insert shot. However,
the two terms are sometimes used vaguely or
interchangeably, although this is not always a useful
practice. The best cutaways are the ones that have
some logic to them, that relate to the scene.
detail shot
A shot that shows a very small object or very small part of an object or person. It is considered
to be closer and more detailed than a close-up.
dirty single
A single which may contain a small portion of another
actor in the shot. It may contain a part of an actor’s
head and shoulder in the foreground.
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dolly-zoom
An effect shot in which the camera dollies and zooms at the same time so the size of the main
subject remains largely unchanged but the perspective "warps" around them for a disorienting
effect.
Popularized by Alfred Hitchcock in the film Vertigo where it was used for Jimmy
Stewart's P.O.V.'s when looking down from a great height. It's also well known for it's use by
Steven Spielberg in Jaws for a unsettling shot of Chief Brody (Roy Scheider) sitting on the
beach when he sees a boy attacked by a shark. May also be called a warp zoom, a vertigo, a
Hitchcock, or a Spielberg.
dolly shot
Also called "traveling," "trucking," or "tracking shot." A moving shot of a moving or stationary
subject exercised by mounting the camera on a dolly or camera truck. To dolly-in (or track-in) is
to move the camera toward the subject; to dolly-out (or track-out) is to move the camera away
from the subject.
establishing shot
A shot, usually a long shot or a full shot at the
beginning of a sequence, which establishes the
location, setting, and mood of the action. It provides the
audience with an initial visual orientation, enabling it to
see the interrelationship between the general setting
and the detailed action in subsequent scenes.
extreme close-up
(abbreviated ECU or XCU) A shot very close to the
subject so that only a small portion or detail is shown or
the entirety of a small object.. Such a shot of a person
would show only a part of their face such as the eyes
or mouth.
full shot
A shot whose subject completely fills the screen. When
the subject is a person his or her full body is included in
the shot. The term is sometimes used interchangeably
with long shot.
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group shot
A shot including a number of characters.
head-on shot
A shot in which the action appears to come directly toward the camera.
high-angle shot
A shot in which the camera is above the subject,
angled downward. It has a tendency to diminish the
subject, making it look intimidated or threatened.
insert
A shot, usually a close-up or extreme close-up, intercut
within a scene to help explain the action, emphasize a
point, or facilitate continuity. A close-up of some detail
in the scene. A typical insert may consist of a close-up
shot of a newspaper item, a hand holding a gun, or a
clock on a wall.
long shot
A shot taken from a great distance, usually showing the
characters as very small in comparison to their
surroundings.
low-angle shot
A shot in which the camera is below the subject, angled
upward. It has a tendency to make characters look
threatening, powerful or intimidating.
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martini
The last shot of the day.
master shot
A single shot, usually a wide shot that incorporates the whole scene from beginning to end.
Typically a master shot will be filmed first, and then all the close-ups and other shots afterwards.
medium close up
(abbreviated MCU) A shot of a subject that is between
a medium shot and close-up, and includes the subject
from the middle of the chest to the top of the head. It
may also be referred to as two tees.
medium shot (abbreviated MS)
A camera shot from a medium distance, usually
showing the characters from the waist up, that allows
the audience to see body language, but not as much
facial expression.
mirror shot
1. A shot in a mirror. 2. A kind of glass shot.
model shot
A shot using miniatures instead of the real objects or locations. Especially useful for staging
great disasters.
oblique shot (Dutch Angle)
A shot in which the camera is tilted laterally so that it is
not level or parallel with the horizon. It may also be
referred to as a Dutch Angle.
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over-the-shoulder shot
A shot that is made from over the shoulder of a
character, with the back of the head, neck, and
shoulder seen at the side of the frame. The camera
focuses past the character on some object or person
the he or she is seeing.
pickups
Shots filmed after the completion of the regular shooting schedule, usually in an effort to cover
up gaps in continuity which are discovered in the cutting room. May also be used to indicate a
shot taken from a point where the previous shot has ended, frequently because of some error
that has occurred in shooting.
point-of-view (POV) shot
A shot from the perspective of one of the characters, as if the audience were seeing the scene
from their eyes. It is often important to get a reaction shot to establish that any given shot really
is a P.O.V.
pull-back shot
A tracking shot or zoom that moves back from the subject to reveal the context of the scene.
reaction shot
1. A shot of someone looking off screen. Used either to lead into a P.O.V. Shot (and let the
viewer know that it is a P.O.V. shot), or to show a reaction right after a P.O.V. shot.
2. A reaction shot can also be a shot of someone in a conversation where they are not given a
line of dialogue but are just listening to the other person speak.
reverse angle shot
A shot taken from an angle opposite the one from which the preceding shot has been taken.
The reverse angle technique is frequently employed in dialogue scenes to provide the editor
with alternate facial shots of the actors speaking.
running shot
A traveling shot in which the moving camera keeps up with the pace of a moving person or
object.
shot
A single continuous take, filmed in a single session from one camera setup. The basic
grammatical unit of the language of film, a shot may range from a single frame taken from a
fixed position to a setup involving complex camera movement.
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single
A shot that focuses on only one person out of a group.
Usually a close-up, but it can be anything.
swish pan
A transition between scenes made by the camera appearing to pan so rapidly that the
intervening area passes by in a blur.
tight shot
A shot in which the subject matter fills almost the entire frame. May be the same as an
extreme close-up or choker.
tracking shot
See dolly shot.
two-shot
A medium or close shot in which two people fill the
frame.
two-tees (2 T’s)
A shot that tops off just above the head and cuts off at the center of the breast line.
western or cowboy
A shot which shows the person from just above the top of
their head to just above the knees. It gets its name from
the fact that in shooting the old Westerns they would
widen the medium shots out to include the gun in the
cowboy's holster.
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There are many more names for shots, most of which you can figure out as you go along.
Almost all of these names started out as just slang expressions but caught on and stayed with
us. New names are being made up almost as often as shots are taken.
The illustration below shows examples of some of the types of shots discussed in this handout.
The illustration is taken from The Complete Film Dictionary, Second Edition by Ira Konigsberg.
EXTREME
LONG SHOT
LONG SHOT
MEDIUM
LONG SHOT
MEDIUM SHOT
MEDIUM CLOSE UP
CLOSE UP
EXTREME
CLOSE UP
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Executing the shots
The execution of your setup is an important part of the filmmaking process. The setup often
represents many hours of preparation in order to get the perfect shot.
All scripts are broken down into scenes. The scene is the basic unit of a script. Scenes are
then broken down into shots which then translate to setups for shooting. Each setup is
numbered so that they can be marked and logged. A setup is covered in a take which is
defined as the number of attempts at each shot needed to produce at least several useable
versions.
In order to identify each scene and take a slate is used. The slate allows for organization in
shooting, easy identification of the shots and the matching of sound and picture. An example of
a slate is shown below.
The sequence that you follow to shoot a shot can vary from production to production, but the
basic procedure is as follows: This is based on the procedure I have seen on over 125
productions during the course of my career.
•
The assistant director (AD) will call for quiet. (“Quiet on the Set”)
•
The AD will then call out one of the following – “Roll,” “Roll Sound,” “Rolling.”
•
The Sound Mixer will turn on the sound recording device and once it has reached the proper
recording speed will call out either “Speed” or “Sound Speed”
•
Upon hearing the sound mixer, the First Assistant Cameraman (1st AC) or Camera Operator
will turn on the camera. Once the camera has reached the proper shooting speed, either
the 1st AC or Operator will call out “Speed” or “Marker” as an indication for the 2nd AC to clap
the slate. (NOTE: It is not customary for the 1st AD to call “Roll Camera”. He only needs to
call “Roll Sound” and the rest should happen automatically.)
•
The Second Assistant Cameraman (2nd AC), who has been waiting patiently in front of the
camera, with the sticks the slate open, will call out “Marker,” clap the sticks together and get
out of the way of the shot. (NOTE: The 2nd AC usually does not call the Scene or Take
number because the sound mixer has already pre-slated that information.)
The 2nd AC usually does not call out the scene and take number because this information has
usually been prerecorded by the sound mixer before the shot.
Of course, as I stated above, this procedure may vary slightly, depending on the production and
crew you are working with, but the basics will be pretty much the same.
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Proper Slating Procedures
During shooting, the 2nd AC is responsible for slating each shot, whether it is sound (sync) or
silent (MOS). The above procedures for executing the shots should be followed. During this
process the 2nd AC should be standing in front of the camera, at an appropriate distance so
that the slate fills the frame. Upon hearing the 1st AC or Camera Operator call “Speed” the 2nd
AC will usually call out the scene number, take number and call “Marker” before clapping the
slate.
When slating you MUST follow the following procedures:
•
For SYNC shots, the slate should always be held in the open position with the sticks open
approximately 45 degrees.
•
Whenever possible hold the slate close enough to the camera so that it fills the frame. It
should not be too small or too large in the frame. For 35 mm film, hold the slate 1 ft from the
camera for every 10 mm in focal length. For example, with a 50 mm lens the slate should be
held 5 ft away; for 25 mm, 2 ½ ft; for 100 mm, 10 ft; and so on. For 16 mm film, hold the
slate 2 ft from the camera for every 10 mm in focal length. For example, with a 50 mm lens
the slate should be held 10 ft away. It is not necessary to measure this distance, only to
approximate it so the slate fills up the frame.
•
When clapping the slate, hold it completely still, clap it and wait a beat before removing it so
that it may be read by the editor. DO NOT MOVE THE SLATE IN A DOWNWARD
MOVEMENT WHILE CLAPPING. THIS CREATES A BLURRED IMAGE THAT CANNOT BE
READ.
•
If slating close to an actor’s fact you MUST clap the sticks lightly so you don’t startle the
actor. (This is often referred to as soft sticks)
•
If slating in a dark set you MUST light the slate and the sticks so that they can be seen. Use
a flashlight with a bright beam or have a small studio light ready as a “slate light”.
•
The 1st AC should adjust the focus for the slate so that it is easy to read and not blurry and
out of focus, and may also briefly open the f-stop if necessary to photograph the slate
properly. When the slate has been photographed, the focus and f-stop will be shifted back to
the correct position for the scene.
•
Whenever possible, NEVER cross frame after slating; if you slate from the right, then exit to
the right; if you slate from the left, then exit to the left. This is a courtesy to the actors as
well as the Camera Operator. Sometimes it may not be possible to do this because of lights,
C-stands, set walls, furnishings, or actors preparing to enter the shot.
•
Always watch where you go after a shot. Many times a shot is ruined because the 2nd AC
does not watch where he or she moves after slating the shot and ends up standing in front
of a light, causing a shadow on the actor, or moves in the way of the dolly. In any event,
know your escape route after slating and be sure that others are aware as well. If there is
simply no other place for you to go, then crouch down below the camera until the shot is
complete.
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If necessary to slate a second time because either the camera operator or sound mixer did
not get the first slate, insert it quickly into the frame and call out “SECOND SLATE” OR
“SECOND STICKS” before clapping the slate.
Sync or MOS
There are two types of shot that are done, those with sound and those without sound. Any shot
done while simultaneously recoding sound is called a sync shot. Any shot done without
recording sound is referred to as an MOS (“Em-Oh-Es”) shot. The Hollywood legend says that
the term MOS came about during the early days of filmmaking from a German director could not
say “Without Sound” instead saying “Mit Out Sound.” The literal translation of the term is Minus
Optical Sound.
KEY SHOT TERMS FROM VOICE & VISION
Shot
Camera Take
Sequence
Montage
Juxtaposition
Pre-visualization
Scene
Dramatic Sequence
Frame
Screen Left
Screen Right
Closed Frame
Open Frame
Deep Frame
Flat Frame
Balanced Frame
Unbalanced Frame
Rule of Thirds (Looking Room, Walking Room
Camera Angles
High Angle
Low Angle
Dutch Angle
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