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Cognition and development
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
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Schema: internalized representation of a physical or mental action that enables an individual
to understand and interact with the world.
Cognitive development occurs when schemas become more complex by adaptation which
includes:
1) Assimilation: the process of fitting new experiences into existing schemas
2) Accommodation: the process of modifying an existing schema by expanding it or creating
a new one when new experiences cannot be assimilated into existing schemas
Cognitive development is universal so it occurs in a fixed order through which all children
progress by maturation of brain structures regardless of culture.
Sensorimotor stage (0-2 years)
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Infant able to manipulate objects.
Reliant on reflexes to interact
Repetitious actions before learning new schemas
Lack of object permanency until 18 months old
Bower and Wishart (1972)
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Object permanency develops earlier than Piaget proposed
It was found that 1-4 month old infants still reached for an object despite no longer being
able to see it after the light was turned off.
Pre-operational stage (2-6 years)
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Thinking dominated by the appearance of objects.
Language develops rapidly during the pre-operational stage, and children use words and
images to engage with their environment.
Centration: A child focuses their attention on only one dimension of an object or event and
on static states rather than transformations.
Egocentric thought: child believes everyone sees the world the same way that they do.
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2
Piaget and Inhelder (1956)
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3 mountains in a model could be distinguished by a cross, house or snow on top of each.
Toy doll placed in different viewing positions
Child asked to select a photo which shows what the doll would see
Children still in the preoperational stage typically indicated that the doll’s view would be the
same as their own viewpoint, regardless of where the doll was placed.
Irreversible thinking (lack of conservation)
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Reversible thinking requires a child to understand that something can be returned to its
original state and that quantity does not change even when a display is transformed.
Piaget used a number of different conservation tasks to demonstrate that infants had
irreversible thinking during the preoperational stage.
Piaget (1952)
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A child was presented with 2 rows of counters.
Piaget spread out the counters of one row then asked the child if each row had the same
number of counters.
Children at the pre-operational stage claimed there were more in the spread out row,
indicating that they not understand conservation.
McGarrigle and Donaldson (1974)
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The deliberate change of the display suggests that the experimenter was looking for a
different response.
They used a naughty teddy to accidentally spread out one of the rows of counters.
The children were better able to conserve if the change was presented as accidental.
3) Concrete operational stage (7-11 years)
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Use of logical rules replaces intuition
Understanding remains limited because concrete examples are required and hypothetical
problems/ abstract concepts cannot be dealt with.
Decentred: They are able to focus on more than one aspect of stimulus therefore they can
complete conservation tasks successfully.
No longer egocentric.
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3
4) Formal operational stage (12+)
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Capable of systematic, abstract reasoning and can solve hypothetical problems.
Better understanding of the world including cause and effect relationships.
Able to develop their own theories about the world which they can test in an organized way.
Understand and apply abstract concepts. When solving problems they attempt to explore all
logical possibilities systematically.
Piaget and Inhelder (1969)
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Participants were given 4 beakers of colourless liquids and asked to find out which
combination produced a yellow liquid.
The younger children tried random combinations.
The older children adopted a more logical approach and systematically excluded possibilities
until they identified the correct solution. They used abstract reasoning to develop and test a
hypothesis.
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4
Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development
The influence of culture
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Intellect consists of elementary functions including attention, sensation and perception.
Culture and social interaction transform elementary functions into higher mental functions
such as language, decision making, reasoning and memory.
Culture includes the body of knowledge held by books and experts which is largely
transmitted through language.
Higher mental functions are dependent on cultural influences, therefore, different higher
mental functions are found in different cultures.
Gredler (1992)
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The culture of Papua New Guinea limits higher mental functions such as maths
Children there have difficulties completing calculations on large numbers
This is because they are taught a counting system which begins on the thumb of one hand
proceeds up the arm and down to the other fingers, ending at 29.
Flynn (1999)
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Intelligence testing demonstrates the importance of culture on cognitive development
In many countries there has been a steady increase in IQ over the past few decades
This can be explained by an increase in accessible knowledge in culture where more books
are available and information is provided by the internet.
This enhances the knowledge culture that surrounds children therefore contributing to a
general increase in IQ.
However, the IQ increase may not be due to culture but instead improvements in
completing timed activities such as IQ tests.
Zone of proximal development (ZPD)
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This is the distance between the actual development level as determined by individual
problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem
solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers (more
knowledgeable other – MKO)
The zone of proximal development defines those functions that have not yet matured but
are in the process of maturation.
Human potential is limited by the quality of social interaction and any problem can be solved
as long as we have access to an MKO
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5
McNaughton and Leyland (1990)
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With the help of their mother children had to complete a number of jigsaw puzzles which
became progressively more difficult.
Their potential ability was indicated by the highest level of difficulty reached when working
with their mother.
Actual ability was indicated a week later when children completed the puzzles alone.
The difference in performance between the two sessions indicates each child’s ZPD.
Performance was worse for most children during the second session (on their own).
Mothers used scaffolding which involves the provision of graduated assistance by
withdrawing adult/peer support as the learner’s mastery improves.
For easy puzzles (within the child’s ZPD) the mother only kept the infant’s attention focused.
For more difficult puzzles the mother helped the child complete the puzzle by themselves.
If the task was too difficult the mother would take control.
Social and individual planes
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Learning begins as a shared social activity.
Over time, dialogues between the teacher and learner become internalized as the learner
takes greater responsibility for their own learning.
This marks the shift from other to self-regulation and from social to individual plane.
Wertsch (1985)
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Self-regulation increases with age.
Children under the age of 5 were observed while working on jigsaw puzzles with their
mothers.
The older the children were, the less they looked towards their mother.
This change in eye-gaze indicated that the older children were more able to self-regulate.
The role of language
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Language is a primary form of social interaction through which adults transmit cultural
knowledge to children. Acquisition of language is crucial for cognitive development and
there is a relationship between language and thought.
At around age 2 language only serves a social function and thought is prelinguistic.
From 3 to 7 years language is used to control behaviour but is usually spoken out.
At around 7 years language becomes internalized as thought and is used for communicating
thoughts and ideas to others. Inner speech vastly enhances the child’s problem solving
ability.
Berk (1994)
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Children were found to talk to themselves more when faced with a difficult task, when
working by themselves, or when a teacher was not available to help.
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6
Application of the theories of Piaget and Vygotsky to
education
The influence of Piaget’s theory
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Children are curious and intrinsically motivated to learn and construct their own
understanding of the world through discovery and active interaction with their environment.
Children-centred learning
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Children have an innate tendency to learn about the world by adaptation and interaction
rather than being passive recipients of facts to be learned as with rote learning.
The role of the educator is not to teach but to provide opportunities for children to explore
and learn about their world for themselves. Children learn more effectively by trying things
out for themselves rather than being told how to do things and taught factual information
which only results in partial understanding.
This is known as discovery learning
Stage-specific education
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Piaget’s descriptions of what children of different ages and stages can do should be used as
a guideline for suitable curriculum content. Educationalists should encourage thinking skills
specific to the child’s stage of cognitive development
Abstract concepts should initially be introduced through the use of concrete examples
particularly with children at the concrete operational stage.
Children feel motivated to engage in tasks knowing that they can solve them.
Activities that are too difficult will inhibit motivation and if too easy will lead to boredom.
Accommodation and assimilation
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A balance between accommodation (gaining new knowledge) and assimilation (practising)
should be maintained
There needs to be sufficient challenge to encourage some disequilibrium and the creation of
new schemas through accommodation
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The influence of Vygotsky’s theory
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Education is for transmitting socially and culturally determined knowledge from adults to
children.
Children learn through interaction with others.
The curriculum needs to emphasise learning through interaction between learners as well as
using collaborative learning to include learners of different abilities.
Blaye et al. (1991)
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11 year olds had to solve difficult problems in a computer adventure game.
Children could either work in pairs or alone.
When children tried to solve the problems alone, the success rate was low. The performance
of the pairs was not much better.
However when they had a second session of working alone or with their pair, there was
some improvement: 20% for lone workers and 50% for the pairs.
During the final session all children worked alone. Children who had previously worked
alone improved 30% but children who had previously worked in pairs improved 70%.
This demonstrates the advantage of pair work and the importance of social interaction for
learning.
Peer tutoring
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Competent learner guides a less competent learner
Teacher listens and only steps in to clarify any material that is difficult to comprehend or
that is not explained clearly by the student.
As long as a person has access to someone more capable, any problem can be solved.
Collaborative group work
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Motivation and intergroup competition is important for the learning process.
Grouping allows delegation of tasks, discussion of concepts and sharing of information.
Different ideas may be suggested which others might not have thought of.
Weaker students are helped to develop understanding through the process of engagement
which motivates them to understand the views of other group members.
Scaffolding
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This provides a framework to support a child’s attempt to understand new ideas and
complete new tasks. This highlights an active instructional role for teachers.
It involves a range of activities to assist the learning through the ZPD such as simplifying
tasks, providing direction, helping to motivate and encourage the learner, highlighting
critical features of the task, and modelling of what needs to be done so that it can be
imitated.
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Kohlberg’s theory of moral understanding
Stage 1: punishment and obedience orientation
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The rightness or wrongness of an action is judged by its consequences.
Behaviour that leads to punishment is wrong and good behaviour is associated with avoiding
punishment.
The rules are defined by those in authority and should be obeyed in order to avoid
punishment.
Stage 2: Individualism instrumental purpose and exchange
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Children start to do things that are rewarded or in their own best interest.
They realize that there are usually different sides to any issue and these sides may conflict.
They realise that since everything is relative an individual may pursue their own needs and
self-interest.
Reasoning at this stage may involve exchanging favours. It involves a focus on individuals in
isolation rather than as part of a wider community or society.
Stage 3: mutual interpersonal expectations, relationship and interpersonal conformity
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As teenage members of a society they conform by behaving in ways considered to be good.
Good behaviour involves good intentions, and empathy and concern for others.
Individuals begin to take account of the intentions behind an action- if a bad outcome
occurred by accident but the original intention was good this is deemed to be less serious
than an equally bad outcome that was deliberate.
Reasoning involves wanting to be good, trying to achieve group approval or impress others.
Stage 4: social system and conscience
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At Stage 4, individuals become more socially aware and community oriented, and they
consider the possible effect of a particular behaviour on the wider society.
Reasoning tends to focus on doing one’s duty, obeying laws, and respecting authority so that
social order is maintained.
Stage 5: social contract or utility and individual rights
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Individuals become interested in the rights and values which a fair society should uphold so
that everyone can benefit.
Emphasis shifts to recognition that there may be occasions when the rules/laws need to be
ignored or changed.
Stage 6: universal ethical principles
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Individuals at this stage understand that the principles of justice should apply to all and that
laws should not favour only the majority.
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Kohlberg (1963)
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Cross-sectional research
72 boys aged 10, 13 or 16.
Moral reasoning was assessed by 10 moral dilemmas with powerful arguments for/against a
central issue e.g. Heinz stealing a drug to save his wife.
Interviews were conducted and each participant was asked a series of questions to probe
their reasons for recommending a particular course of action.
Based on the reasons provided, Kohlberg developed a system for classifying moral
understanding, involving 6 qualitatively different stages.
The theory is concerned with the reasons underlying moral judgments rather than the
judgments themselves because the same answer could be given but for entirely different
reasons.
The order of stages is fixed and universal.
Kohlberg (1969)
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Moral reasoning develops in a similar pattern in other countries such as Britain, Mexico,
Taiwan and Turkey, indicating the universality of the stages.
Gilligan (1982)
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Kohlberg indicated that men were more morally developed than women
This may be due to the male standard used in the original study, where women have a
different moral perspective from men and use different criteria such as compassion rather
than justice and logic.
Santrock (1975)
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Children’s level of moral reasoning did not predict whether they would cheat when given the
opportunity.
This indicates that moral reasoning does not necessarily lead to moral behaviour,
undermining Kohlberg’s emphasis on the importance of moral thought.
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Development of the child’s sense of self
Self-recognition
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A sense of self develops at around 18 months which is also the starting point for
understanding others.
 Understanding the self and understanding others is strongly linked
1) Knowledge about another person must also be gained about the self
2) What is known about the self can be known about the other
3) Attributes of oneself can be used to describe other people.
Lewis and Brooks-Gunn (1979)
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Mirror test
96 infants aged 9 to 24 months
The baby sat on its mother’s lap in front of a large mirror and its behaviour was observed for
90 seconds.
Rouge (blusher) was dabbed onto the baby’s nose by the mother during a routine nose wipe.
The mother and baby sat in front of the mirror for a further 90 seconds.
In the no-rouge condition most infants smiled at their own image but very few touched their
nose
When rouge was applied older infants touched their nose and this increased with age –
nearly 75% of those aged 21-24 months touched their nose compared to 25% of those aged
18 months.
Increased touching of the nose indicates that the infant recognized itself in the mirror and
was surprised by the unusual red mark
It was concluded that infants have well developed self-recognition by the age of 2.
Bischof-Kohler (1988)
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Used a mirror test with 16 to 24 month olds
Measured level of empathy shown towards a researcher showing sadness after the arm of a
teddy bear falls off.
Level of recognition and empathy were found to be correlated, regardless of the infant’s age.
Empathetic understanding of others and self-recognition is well developed by 20 months.
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Understanding emotions
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3-4 year olds can understand other people’s emotions, desires and beliefs
The reason this happens so quickly is that children become aware of their own mind which
they can then generalize to others. To be able to do this a child has to
1) Be self-aware (18 months) and able to verbalize how they feel (2 years)
2) Able to pretend (2 years) as shown in pretend play.
3) Able to separate reality from pretence, which they can do without ambiguity by age 3/4
as shown in play behaviour.
Once a child is self-aware of its emotional state then this can be projected in a pretend way
onto another person or an inanimate object e.g. a toy. They are aware that the pretend
emotional state is different to their own.
Harris (1989)
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4-6 year olds
Given stories based on imaginary animal characters who have specific likes/dislikes.
‘Ellie the elephant likes cola, but not milk’
‘Monkey refills Ellie’s cola can with milk. ‘
‘How would Ellie feel?’
The younger children thought Ellie would be sad, but the older children realized that Ellie
would be happy because she wouldn’t have known and that she would become sad after
drinking the milk.
By the age of 6 children can take account of another person’s desires to work out their
emotional state.
They are also able to develop hypotheses about another’s emotions, desire, and beliefs.
Theory of Mind (ToM)
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This underpins our understanding of mental states (beliefs, intentions, desires, emotions,
imagination) that cause action and involves the realization that the content of our own
minds and other people’s minds may be different.
ToM allows us to make inferences about what others know, think and feel, and to predict
their motivations, what they are likely to do next and the reasons behind their actions
(intentions).
A common understanding is essential for social interaction. It is also important for ability to
play.
An awareness that people may have different beliefs and feelings to our own enables us to
empathize with others.
Mindblindness: autistic children appear to lack the ability to understand other people’s
minds.
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Baron-Cohen et al. (1985)
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Natural experiment.
Investigated ToM development by studying children that were normal, autistic or had
Down’s syndrome.
Sally-Anne false-belief task. Sally has a basket and Anne has a box. Sally puts a marble into
her basket and goes out. Anne takes the marble and puts it into her box. Sally comes back
and wants to play with the marble. ‘Where will sally look?’
The correct answer is that Sally will look in the basket.
Significantly more autistic children failed to answer the question correctly compared to
normal and Down’s syndrome kids.
This suggests that autistic children lack a ToM
Perner et al. (1989)
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Children were shown a tube of smarties and asked what they think is inside.
They were shown that pencils are actually contained inside.
‘When the next child comes in what will they say is in there?’ The correct answer was
smarties.
Younger children were less likely to answer correctly.
Wellman’s (1990) Stages in ToM development
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2 year olds understand others through their own desires
3 year olds understand others through their beliefs so they can complete false-belief tasks.
However they perceive beliefs as a representation of the real world and do not realize
beliefs are only an interpretation.
4 year olds: realize that beliefs are not exact representations and are only interpretations
that can be incorrect
ToM becomes progressively more sophisticated with age and experience.
Experiences may fit or not fit their ToM and if not then the theory is modified.
Children start with a simple desire based interpretation. When this no longer accounts for
the information they modify it to a belief desire interpretation and then realise that they
only have one view which can be wrong.
Adam Clarke www.brain-freeze.co.uk
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Development of children’s understanding of others
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Perspective-taking involves an understanding that another person has a different
perspective from one’s own.
Selman’s stage theory of perspective-taking (1980)
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Children provided with stories and asked questions about what the character in the story
would do and how others would react.
The answers and reasoning were clustered to develop a five stage model of perspective
taking based on age and maturity level.
Undifferentiated (3-6): child recognises the self and that others can have different thoughts
and feelings, but these frequently become confused.
Social-informational (5-9): understands that different perspectives can arise because
individuals have access to different information and another person’s perspective may or
may not be similar to their own. Appreciation that there are different perspectives but
prefer their own.
Self-reflective (7-12): can see, think, feel, and behave from another person’s perspective.
Third-party (10-15): the young person can see a situation from the perspective of a first,
second and a neutral bystander.
Social and conventional system (14+): realizes that third-party perspective can be influenced
by the societal and cultural context.
Keller and Edelstein (1991)
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Longitudinal study of 121 participants aged 7-15 using dilemmas based on friendship
Participant’s responses reflected their stage of perspective taking.
Selman et al. (1997)
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Found a direct relationship between the stage of perspective taking and the negotiations
children used with friends.
Improving children’s perspective taking skills allowed them to become more socially
competent and mature.
Karcher et al. (1996)
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Pair therapy demonstrates the usefulness of perspective taking.
Children’s skills of negotiation can be improved by enhancing their perspective taking so that
they realize the need to talk through differences in perspectives to maintain relationships.
Teaching aggressive children appropriate ways of achieving their goals and developing their
moral values by understanding perspective taking allows them to no longer feel the need to
be aggressive towards others.
Adam Clarke www.brain-freeze.co.uk
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Biological explanations of social cognition
Adolhps et al. (1995)
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The amygdala is involved in perceiving and experiencing negative emotions such as fear and
anger.
30 year old patient named SM with damaged amygdala.
He could not recognise fear shown in photos of faces that portrayed a range of emotional
expressions, nor could he experience fear.
This suggests a link between perception of emotion and behaviour which allows us to
understand other people.
Rizzolatti et al. (1996)
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When macaque monkeys observe actions carried out by other macaque monkeys, the
premotor cortex is activated.
Some of the cells in the F5 area of the premotor cortex are sensorimotor neurons which
become activated regardless of whether the monkey is performing the action or perceiving
the action being carried out by another monkey.
These neurons are known as mirror neurons because they fire when an animal acts and also
when the same action is performed by another.
Levenson and Ruef (1992)
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Studied 31 participants who viewed 15 minute interactions between married couples.
Used fMRI scans to show that when two people experience the same emotion they are more
accurate at determining each other’s intentions.
Morrison et al. (2004)
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Compared the neural pattern of activation during the actual experience of pain to observing
another person’s pain. Participants either experienced a needle prick to the hand or were
shown a video of someone else’s hand being pricked.
The fMRI scans showed similar patterns of anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) activity in both
conditions
However there were differences in the specific areas of the ACC activated when
experiencing pain in the first person or third person. This allows us to differentiate between
empathetic responses to other’s pain and our own distress.
Blakemore and Frith (2003)
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Right parietal cortex also ensures we know our own experiences from someone else’s.
This part of the brain enables us to distinguish self-produced actions from actions performed
by others.
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