Chapter 12 The Origin and Dispersal of Modern Humans 1
Origin and Dispersal •  Homo sapiens sapiens: little genetic diversity •  Questions: –  When did they first appear? –  Where did the transition take place? –  What was the pace of evolutionary change? –  How did dispersal to the old world take place? 2
First Modern Homo sapiens •  The first modern Homo sapiens evolved in Africa close to 200,000 ya. •  Within 150,000 years, their descendants had spread across most of the Old World. •  All contemporary populations are placed in the subspecies Homo sapiens sapiens. •  Most paleoanthropologists agree that several fossil forms, dating back as far as 100,000 ya, should also be included in the same subspecies. 3
1
Upper Paleolithic •  Began around 40,000 ya and ended roughly 10,000 ya •  Marked increase in rate of cultural changes. •  By 12,000 – 10,000 ya, human technology was as diverse and effective as that of historically documented hunter-­‐gatherers. 4
Theories of Human Origins •  Complete Replacement Model •  Multi-­‐Regional Evolution Model •  Compromise: Partial Replacement Model 5
Complete Replacement Model •  Modern populations arose in Africa in the last 200,000 years then migrated from Africa, replacing populations in Europe and Asia. –  Supporting evidence: mitochondrial DNA suggests a single African lineage (female line) –  Y chromosome studies (male line) –  Chromosome 12 studies: African populations have much more diversity. –  Neandertal mtDNA distinctive. –  Other scientists still disagree. 6
2
Par?al Replacement Model •  The dispersal of H. sapiens sapiens out of Africa was gradual. •  In Eurasia, modern humans hybridized with local archaic populations and eventually replaced them. –  This model includes components of the other theories. 7
Mul?-­‐regional Evolu?on •  Denies that the earliest modern H. sapiens populations originated exclusively in Africa. •  Some local archaic populations in Europe, Asia and Africa continued their evolutionary development from archaic H. sapiens to anatomically modern humans. –  Modern humans are not separate species due to gene flow between archaic populations. 8
Time line of Modern Homo sapiens Discoveries 9
3
Early Modern Homo sapiens Discoveries from Africa and the Near East Dates (ya) 110,000 Site Evolu1onary Significance Qafzeh (Israel) 115,000 Skhul (Israel) 160,000 – Herto 154,000 (Ethiopia) 195,000 Large sample; definitely modern, but some individuals fairly robust Earliest modern humans known outside of Africa Well-­‐preserved cranium; best-­‐
preserved early modern human found anywhere Omo Two crania; Oldest modern humans (Ethiopia) found anywhere 10
Modern skull features 11
Regional Evidence: Africa •  Africa –  Earliest finds of modern humans is at Omo – 195,000 ya. –  Anatomically modern forms at 120,000 to 80,000 y.a. –  Klasies River Mouth and Border Cave all dated to the later time period. •  Modern humans appeared in East Africa at about 200,000 ya, and migrated to southern Africa by 100,000 ya. •  Consistent with replacement theory. 12
4
Africa: Homo sapiens idaltu •  Discovery of “near-­‐human” skull dated to 160,000 to 154,000 y.a. in Herto, Ethiopia. •  Skull not totally modern, but very large cranial capacity (1450 cm3) •  Some brow ridges, occipital bun -­‐ but clearly in human range. •  Intermediate species between Heidelbergensis and totally modern humans. •  H. sapiens idaltu means “elder” 13
Regional Evidence: Israel •  At least 10 individuals were found in the Skhul Cave at Mt. Carmel, a site close to the Neandertal site of Tabun, dated to about 115,000 y.a. •  Qafzeh Cave: intermediate forms with some Neandertal features, some modern H. sapiens. •  Some support in this region for multi-­‐regional evolution. 14
Regional Evidence: Asia •  Asia –  Ordos (50,000 years ago) is probably the oldest anatomically modern find in China. –  Zhoukoudian dated to 27,000 ya. –  Evidence supports African origin, but with possibility of some interbreeding with older forms. 15
5
Regional Evidence: Australia •  Australia –  By 50,000 y.a., Sahul, the area including New Guinea and Australia, was inhabited by modern humans. –  Archeological sites in Australia: 55,000 y.a. Human fossils: 30,000 y.a. –  Earliest dates from Lake Mungo, but mtDNA studies now place dates in question. –  Kow Swamp: 14,000 and 9,000 y.a., with archaic traits such as brow ridges and receding forehead, but other modern traits. 16
Regional Evidence: Central Europe •  Central Europe –  At many sites in Central Europe, the fossils display Neandertal and modern features, supporting the regional continuity model. –  Earliest discovery of moderns in Europe 35,000 ya – Oase Cave, Romania. –  In Mladec in the Czech Republic, moderns have been found that date to 33,000 y.a. 17
Early Modern Homo sapiens Discoveries from Europe Dates Site Human Remains (ya) 24,500 Abrigo do Child’s skeleton; controversial sugges?on Lagar of possible hybrid between Neandertal Velho and modern human. (Portugal) 28,000 Cro-­‐
Most famous early modern human find Magnon in world; earliest evidence of modern (France) humans in France. 18
6
Neandertal & Modern skulls 19
Regional Evidence: W. Europe •  Western Europe –  Best known site: Cro-­‐Magnon, discovered in 1868 in a shelter in southern France. –  Crania reflect some mixture of modern and archaic traits 20
Cro-­‐Magnon 21
7
Western Europe: Portugal •  A child’s skeleton – age 4 -­‐ from Portugal: evidence of possible hybridization between Neandertal and anatomically modern Homo sapiens. Dated to 24,000 ya. •  Child buried with red ocher and pierced shell. •  Teeth, lower jaw, pelvis like moderns – but little chin, Neandertal-­‐like limb proportions, and robust muscle insertions suggested Neandertal influence. 22
Anatomically Modern Homo sapiens and Homo floresiensis (Asia and Australia) 23
Regional Evidence: Homo floresiensis •  New discovery on island of Flores -­‐ 2004 •  Partial skeleton of female and pieces from 9 others. More recently discovered. •  Dated to 18,000 -­‐ 10,000 years ago. •  Female = 3 feet tall. –  Brain size = 417 cm3 – similar to chimpanzee •  How did they get to the island? 375 -­‐ 400 miles off shore. Rafts through islands? 24
8
Homo floresiensis 25
Homo floresiensis 26
Homo floresiensis •  Possible descendants of H. erectus. –  Resemble Erectus in skull shape, teeth, robust bone. –  Alternative theory: direct descendants of Australopithecus? •  Derived characteristics –  Small stature: island adaptation? –  Dwarf elephants also on Flores. •  Extinct by 10,000 years ago. 27
9
Synthesis: Confusing Picture! •  Genetic evidence suggests single origin and replacement. •  Local fossil evidence supports some degree of hybridization, since transitional forms seem present in some areas. 28
Upper Paleolithic Culture •  Period begins about 40,000 years ago. •  Overall overall climatic trend was one of gradually cooler average annual temperature, which reached its coldest with the last major glacial advance of the Ice Age between 20,000 and 12,000 ya. •  Tundra and grasslands served as an enormous pasture for big game animals hunted by Upper Paleolithic groups. Game included reindeer, mammoths, bison, horses, other large animals. •  Why lag in development of culture, long after anatomically modern humans appeared? 29
Upper Paleolithic Technology •  Five cultural periods based on stone tool technologies: –  Chatelperronian (Neandertal) –  Aurignacian 35,000 – 22,000 –  Gravettian 22,000 –18,000 –  Solutrean 22,000 – 18,000 –  Magdalenian 18,000 – 10,000 30
10
Tool Making •  New techniques based on Levallois, or prepared core technique, but more advanced •  Blades removed from core instead of flakes •  Blades then shaped for specialized tools •  Dates for blade tools: –  Africa: 100,000 y.a. –  Israel: 40,000 y.a. –  W. Europe: 35,000 y.a. 31
Blade Tool Technique 32
Blade Technique 33
11
Blade tool 34
Burin A small flake tool with a chisel-­‐like end, used to cut bone, antler, and ivory. Arrow indicates the tool’s working edge. 35
Tool tradi?ons of U.P. •
•
•
•
Tool industries were remarkably standardized. Tool-­‐makers over wide areas made nearly identical tools. Evidence of sharing specialized knowledge. Relatively rapid changes and advancement in technologies. 36
12
Aurignacian and Perigordian •  Dates: 35,000 – 22,000 years ago. •  Aurignacian: S.E. Europe and Near East. –  Large #s of bone and antler tools. –  Grotte Chauvet (cave art) •  Perigordian: France and Spain –  Fewer bone tools 37
Solutrean •
•
•
•
Dates: 22,000 – 18,000 Location: France and Spain Magnificent laurel-­‐leaf blades Few bone tools, but 1st to produce bone needles with eyes. 38
Gravedan •  Dates: 22,000 – 18,000 years ago •  Location: Eastern Europe •  Many mammoth ivory tools 39
13
Magdalenian •  Dates: 18,000 – 10,000 y.a. •  Specialized tools: microblades, or microliths –  Tiny blades .5 to 1 inch –  Purpose: mounted on bone/antler handle for fine cutting tasks •  Many special purpose tools of all materials. •  Major cave art sites, including Lascaux and Altamira. 40
Microliths 41
Magdalenian Tools for Food •  Many different kinds of tools invented to get food: –  Harpoons –  Fishhooks –  Fishnets –  Atlatl (spear thrower) 42
14
Atlatl 43
Atlatl and Points 44
Decorated “Shaf Straightener” 45
15
Other Cultural Products •  Torches and oil lamps •  Buttons, necklaces, game pieces (first appearance of non-­‐utilitarian manufactured materials). –  Example of necklace: dentalium shells, 3 large bear teeth, and one lion tooth – 13,000 ya. •  Period between 33,000 and 10,000 ya a time of amazing development of art and personal expression. •  Included portable art and cave art – more on that later. 46
Subsistence Base •  During the Upper Paleolithic, people relied on an expanded number of foods, far more than in Middle Paleolithic. •  Greater variety in hunted meats and more fishing and use of birds. –  Reindeer, deer were heavily used – also horses and mammoth. –  Wooly rhinoceros, foxes, and other small mammals, also. •  Hunting of reindeer, deer changed little from Middle to Upper Paleolithic periods. •  Seasonal availability largely dictated hunting in these periods – migration patterns in fall and spring prime hunting opportunities. 47
Sehlements and Dwellings •  Much larger human settlements evident. Consisted of 25 to 50 people living together – perhaps more during prime fall and spring hunts. •  Dwellings created in substantial numbers –  Huts 15 – 20 feet in diameter. •  Mammoth bone shelters best known (Dolni Vestonice) 48
16
Mammoth Shelters 49
Trade/Travel •  Raw materials traveled considerable distances. –  Obsidian: 325 miles from source –  Flint: 65 miles from source •  Either people or materials (or both) traveled over great distances. 50
Burials •  Burials of dead included substantial grave offerings. –  Differences in offerings could indicate status differences. –  Examples of grave goods: •
•
•
•
•
•
Thousands of mammoth ivory beads Mammoth ivory bracelets A belt with 250 polar fox teeth Carved ivory disks Ivory figurines Red ocher pigment on bodies 51
17
Art •  Upper Paleolithic art included cave art and portable objects. •  There is considerable variety in style, medium, content and meaning. •  European prehistoric art reached its peak during the Magdalenian phase. 52
Cave Art •  The majority of cave art comes from southwestern France and northern Spain. •  Well known sites: Lascaux, Altamira. •  Preservation: collapsed entrances, mineral pigments –  Pigments used included charcoal, manganese oxide, iron oxides (yellow and red), and clay and calcite (white). Brushes made by chewing the end of a stick or plant stem. 53
Lascaux •  Date: about 17,000 years ago •  Discovered by chance in 1940. –  Had been sealed for up to 15,000 years. •  Ropes, torches, stone lamps found inside, in addition to paintings on walls. •  Subjects: mostly animals •  Closed to public in 1963 for preservation – replica built for public visits. 54
18
Lascaux Aurochs 55
Lascaux Horses 56
Lascaux Dead Hunter? 57
19
Lascaux Great Black Bull 58
Lascaux Falling Cow 59
Lascaux “Chinese” Horse 60
20
Lascaux Bison 61
Grohe Chauvet •  Grotte Chauvet –  Aurignacian period, 30,000 y.a. –  Images: stylized dots, human handprints and hundreds of animal representations. –  Dozens of footprints on the cave floor produced by bears and humans. 62
Chauvet Bison 63
21
Chauvet engraved panels 64
Chauvet engraved Owl 65
Chauvet Panther 66
22
Chauvet Aurochs and Rhino 67
Chauvet Horses 68
Chauvet combina?on panel 69
23
Chauvet handprint 70
UP Cave Art: Meaning? •  Many proposed interpretations: –  Fertility themes: pregnant animals, hunting. –  Hunting magic: Depiction of game as way of gaining power over them for hunt? Sympathetic magic? •  Or depiction of predators as way of sharing in their hunting powers? –  Creative expression for its own sake. –  Caves may have been sites for ceremonies – or for teaching youngsters about culture. Torches & shadows add to drama of narratives. •  Technique: stay as close as possible to culture of people who created the images. 71
Cave Art subjects 72
24
Portable Art •  Some subjects of sculpture same as cave art, and found in caves with sculptures. –  E.g. Bison, aurochs figures. 73
Bison figure 74
Engraved Aurochs pendant 75
25
Female figures •  So-­‐called “Venus” figurines •  Imposition of later concept •  Fertility symbols? Or some other meaning unknown to contemporary humans? •  Portable art also included ceramic figures – far ahead of earliest known use of clay pottery. 76
Female Figures 77
End of the Upper Paleolithic •  End of period marked by mass extinctions of megafauna about 10,000 ya. –  35 species of giant land mammals extinct: giant sloth, giant beaver, horse, camel, mammoth, mastodon, lion, cheetah, giant bear. •  Theories about cause: –  Climate change –  Overkill by increasingly skilled human hunters •  E.g. cliff drives would cause mass deaths in herds. •  Climate more likely; many giant species not hunted, and 45% of birds also became extinct at the time – no likely human role. 78
26