Spring 2011 Contents The Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education Emotional Intelligence and Job Satisfaction: The EQ Relationship for Deans of U.S. Business Schools Charles M. Coco............................................................................................................1 Initial Program Review of Graduate Programs through Student Satisfaction Survey in Small Private Technical University in Southern California Christine Alexander .....................................................................................................9 Justice in the Classroom: Does Fairness Determine Student Cheating Behaviors? Mary A. Lemons & Jeff L. Seaton .............................................................................17 The Role of Leadership Substitutes Theory in Adjunct Professor Preferences for Academic Leaders: A Qualitative Examination Joy A. Jones .................................................................................................................25 Online and Traditional Courses: What are Demographic Differences? Tim Klaus & Chuleeporn Changchit ........................................................................45 Is it More Than Just GPA? An Examination of Work Experience and Test Preparation Effects on MFT-B Scores Susie S. Cox, Jiun-Shiu Chen, & Jeff Totten .............................................................53 Integrating Quantitative Methods into a Graduate Business Curriculum Robert D. O’Keefe & Lawrence O. Hamer................................................................59 Designing Incentive Systems to Enhance Faculty Qualifications David W. Denton & William E. Rayburn ...............................................................71 An Ethnographic Study of New College Presidential Learning in a Cultural Context Michael J. Siegel .........................................................................................................79 Volume 7 Issue 1 Volume Seven Issue One Spring 2011 JOURNAL OF ACADEMIC ADMINISTRATION IN HIGHER EDUCATION JW PRESS MARTIN, TENNESSEE Board of Reviewers Copyright ©2011 JW Press All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Published by JW Press P.O. 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Subscription and submission information is available online at JWPress.com/JAAHE.htm Emotional Intelligence and Job Satisfaction: The EQ Relationship for Deans of U.S. Business Schools Charles M. Coco Brimmer College of Business & Information Science Tuskegee University Tuskegee, Alabama ABSTRACT The main purpose of this study was to determine if a positive relationship existed between Emotional Intelligence and Job Satisfaction for deans of business schools. A secondary purpose was to determine which Emotional Quotient (EQ ) competencies were most important for satisfied deans and how these competencies assisted processes related to hiring, retention, and development. The discussion focused on theory and research in the areas of emotional intelligence, job satisfaction, and academic leadership. Research objectives and a general conceptual model were developed to illustrate the proposed relationship between emotional intelligence and job satisfaction. This study was focused on deans of AACSB and ACBSP accredited U.S. business schools. The data collected included a total of 111 self-reports on surveys to assess EQ and job satisfaction. The statistical procedures of factor analysis and regression analysis were utilized for this study based on the focus of the research objectives. The results of the factor analysis provided four EQ factors for regression analysis. The primary objective of this research was achieved by discovering that a positive relationship existed between emotional intelligence and job satisfaction in deans of business schools. The results from the multiple regression confirmed that three of the four EQ factors were statistically significant. The secondary research objective was also examined according to the regression results. The findings revealed that the following EQ subscale competencies were most significant: Flexibility, Assertiveness, Stress Tolerance, Problem Solving, and Self-Actualization. In conclusion, this study presented new research within the domain of higher education and the findings offered a glimpse into which EQ competencies had a positive relationship to job satisfaction for deans. INTRODUCTION The study of emotional intelligence (EI) and job satisfaction within occupational settings, such as higher education, has important implications. For instance, Chiva and Alegre (2008) stated that, “EI is becoming one of the most important individual competencies for organizations, and has been theoretically related to organizational performance and to individual variables like job satisfaction” (p. 692). Sy, Tram, and O’Hara (2006) emphasized the relationship between employees with high emotional intelligence and increased job satisfaction due to better assessing and managing of their emotions. Stein and Book (2000) conducted extensive EQ research on various occupations and developed top rated factor listings by significance for thirty groupings as well as an overall work success ranking. Concerning the ideal combinations of EQ factors, the authors contended that, “People who are most satisfied in their work tend to be those whose emotional skills fit the formula for that work” (p. 262). This study offered new research within the domain of higher education. The area of emotional intelligence and job satisfaction for deans of business schools was examined. Deans have a major role to fulfill within the administrative function Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education 1 Charles M. Coco of higher education. These individuals need to manage complex situations through effective planning, organizing, leading, and controlling. They have to respond effectively to various organizational stakeholders both inside and outside their respective institutions. Moreover, they need to balance task initiatives with relationship concerns in order to adequately function within a collegial yet demanding environment (Leaming, 1998; Morrill, 2007; Wolverton & Gmelch, 2002). These workplace challenges call for flexible individuals who can solve problems, manage stress, display optimism, etc., while staying satisfied and committed to their jobs. The purpose of this study was to examine the proposed linkage between emotional intelligence and job satisfaction for deans of business schools and attempt to discover which of the EQ competencies were most strongly related to job satisfaction. The construct of Bar-On’s conceptual and psychometric model was used as a method to determine if emotional intelligence was related to job satisfaction for the study group. The independent variables, EQ competencies, were measured and assessed by using the BarOn EQ-i:125 online test instrument (Bar-On, 2004). An examination was conducted of which EQ competencies were most essential for the dean position. This examination provided a snapshot of the satisfied dean in regard to EI. According to Bar-On, people tested with average (90-109) to above average EQ-i scores are considered emotionally intelligent and the EQ competencies supporting emotional intelligence are categorized into Total EQ, 5 composite, and 15 subscale. The composite variables include the following: Intrapersonal, Interpersonal, Adaptability, Stress Management, and General Mood. The subscale variables include the following: Self-Regard, Emotional Self-Awareness, Assertiveness, Independence, Self-Actualization, Empathy, Social Responsibility, Interpersonal Relationship, Reality-Testing, Flexibility, Problem-Solving, Stress Tolerance, Impulse Control, Optimism, and Happiness (Bar-On, 2004, pp. 44-46). The dependent variable, job satisfaction, was measured and assessed in an overall manner by using a Global Job Satisfaction survey (Lucas, 1996; Price & Mueller, 1981) with eight statements and five Likert scale choices ranging from 2 Emotional Intelligence and Job Satisfaction: The EQ Relationship for Deans of U.S. Business Schools strongly agree (5) to strongly disagree (1). A regression analysis was performed on the collected data to determine if a positive relationship existed between the EQ factors and job satisfaction for the study group of deans. In addition, a factor analysis was performed to account for multicollinearity among the independent variables and to examine if the EQ competencies were loading as expected for this study. LITERATURE REVIEW BACKGROUND Emotional intelligence (EI) is a current topic in the field of management with historical roots closely connected to psychology. One of the field’s earliest contributors was E. L. Thorndike (1920) who developed an innovative way to describe intelligence. He viewed a major component of human intelligence as social intelligence which means the ability to function in interpersonal situations. The study of intelligence in the emotional realm continued to develop over time. More recent contributors include Mayer-Salovey, Goleman, and Bar-On. The Mayer-Salovey model defines emotional intelligence as the ability to perceive, understand, manage and use emotions to facilitate thinking. The Goleman model views emotional intelligence as an array of emotional and social competencies that contribute to managerial performance. Bar-On defines emotional intelligence as, “An array of noncognitive capabilities, competencies, and skills that influence one’s ability to succeed in coping with environmental demands and pressures” (2004, p. 14). Bar-On’s definition illustrated the importance of emotional intelligence for determining an individual’s psychological well-being and potential for life success. For the purposes of this study, the Bar-On model was used as a way to describe and interpret emotional intelligence characteristics. The study of the concept of job satisfaction has enhanced the body of research committed to better understanding people within the context of the workplace. Spector (1997) wrote that: “Job satisfaction is simply how people feel about their jobs and different aspects of their jobs” (p. 2). Cranny (1992) emphasized the significance Spring 2011 (Volume 7 Issue 1) of job satisfaction theory by listing the many academic areas devoted to its research and understanding. These research fields include: organizational psychology, organizational behavior, vocational organizational sociology, and human resource management. Henne and Locke (1985) noted that workers who perceive their job values are being fulfilled tend to be content or satisfied whereas workers who perceive their job values as being frustrated tend to be discontent or dissatisfied. PRIOR RESEARCH Prior research on topic was limited, especially in higher education, due to the newness of studying relationships between emotional intelligence and job satisfaction. The following researchers provided diverse findings on similar subjects. For instance, Kafetsios and Zampetakis (2008) studied 523 educators in Greece. Results demonstrated that emotional intelligence was an important predictor of work affectivity and job satisfaction. In another study that included 475 educators, Kafetsios and Loumakou (2007) discovered that the EQ competencies of General Mood and In- terpersonal had significance to job satisfaction depending on the age group under consideration. Sy, Tram, and O’Hara (2006) conducted research on 187 food service employees and concluded that: “Our findings confirm the predictive power of EI beyond the Big Five Personality factors on important constructs such as job satisfaction and performance” (p. 471). Moreover, Howard (2009) found significant correlations between dimensions of emotional intelligence and levels of job satisfaction in human service workers and Bar-On (2004) cited an EQ study of 314 North American participants where the amount of association between EQ variables and work satisfaction were determined. METHODOLOGY CONCEPTUAL MODEL After reviewing the relevant literature a conceptual model was developed. The Conceptual Model (see Figure 1) for this study illustrated the overall EQ factor relationship to job satisfaction. Figure 1 Conceptual Model: EQ and Job Satisfaction OTHER FACTORS EQ COMPOSITE FACTORS EQ SUBSCALE FACTORS Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education JOB SATISFACTION 3 Charles M. Coco The EQ composite and subscale factors were highlighted. PARTICIPANTS The sample frame chosen for this study consisted of deans presiding over AACSB (Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business) and ACBSP (Association of Collegiate Business Schools and Programs) accredited U.S. business schools and programs. This sample frame was chosen since the AACSB and ACBSP are major accrediting bodies for business schools and represent a large number of business school deans located in the United States. These accredited schools presented an opportunity to focus on a substantial group of institutions with (1) readily identifiable business programs, (2) geographically dispersed locations, (3) significantly varying degrees of institutional size. An attempt was made to identify and contact all of the sample group deans during the survey process. A website search was conducted for each college or university in conjunction with a review of Prentice Hall’s Faculty Directory for 2008-2009 (Hasselback, 2008). The number that responded by successfully completing both surveys was 111 participants. INSTRUMENTS The independent variables, EQ competencies, were measured and assessed using the BarOn EQ-i:125. This survey was administered on-line through Multi-Health Systems (MHS). A reliability analysis was performed in SPSS to determine the coefficient alpha for the EQ scale scores. The Cronbach’s Alpha was determined to be .946 which suggested that the scale scores were reasonably reliable for the respondents. The job satisfaction survey consisting of a 5-point Likert type scale was administered via an alternate survey website and linked to MHS. The dependent variable, job satisfaction, was measured and assessed using a global job satisfaction survey to determine overall job satisfaction levels for respondents. Spector (1997) affirmed, “The global approach is used when the overall or bottom line attitude is of interest, for example, if one wishes to determine the effects of people liking or disliking their jobs” (pp. 2-3). The survey used for 4 Emotional Intelligence and Job Satisfaction: The EQ Relationship for Deans of U.S. Business Schools this study represented a valid and reliable instrument for gauging a respondent’s global job satisfaction (Lucas, 1996). The job satisfaction survey included eight statements which represented dependent items that combined to create global job satisfaction. A reliability analysis was performed in SPSS to determine the coefficient alpha for the job satisfaction scale scores. The Cronbach’s Alpha was determined to be .801 which suggested that the scale scores were reasonably reliable for the respondents (Green and Salkind, 2005; Nunnally, 1978). ANALYSIS Data analysis was conducted using various statistical techniques available within SPSS (Green & Salkind, 2005; Wagner, 2007). The dependent variable had a negative skew and did not pass the K-S Test for normalcy. Therefore, a transformation of the dependent averaged raw scores was computed in order to create normalized dependent scores. The transformed variable allowed for using parametric tests, while meeting the assumption of normality. A correlation matrix was generated and analyzed to check for collinearity among the independent variables. A preliminary factor analysis (Hair, Anderson, & Tatham, 1987) was performed to examine if the EQ variables were loading as expected and a final factor analysis was conducted with the highest loading variables (i.e., factor loadings greater than .50). Regression analysis was performed on the collected data to determine if a positive relationship existed between emotional intelligence and job satisfaction. The correlation coefficient (R), coefficient of determination (R2), and adjusted R2 were interpreted to identify the direction, linearity, and strength of relationship among the variables. Scatter plots were graphed and analyzed for an expected positive linear relationship between the EQ factors and job satisfaction. Normal probability plots were generated for each of the variables and examined for residuals clustering near the diagonal line. The level of significance (alpha value) chosen for this study was α = .05, and test statistics (F-statistic, t-statistics, and p-values) were interpreted to determine the significance of the results. The observed significance level (p-value) was analyzed to determine if the null hypothesis should be rejected. Spring 2011 (Volume 7 Issue 1) RESULTS isfaction, were (1) Flexibility, (2) Assertiveness, (3) Stress Tolerance, (4) Problem Solving, and (5) Self-Actualization. EQ means and standard deviations were calculated in SPSS for the 111 respondents. Total EQ had a sample mean of 104.28. The highest mean score was 107.72 for the EQ variable of Independence, while the lowest was 99.25 for Interpersonal Relationship. The highest standard deviation was 13.52 for the EQ variable of Emotional Self-Awareness, while the lowest was 10.00 for Adaptability. The EQ mean scores were slightly higher and the standard deviations were slightly lower for this study as compared to the EQ-i normal mean score of 100 and standard deviation of 15 (Bar-On, 2004). SUMMARY MEAN SCORES The global job satisfaction scores suggested that deans of business schools possessed a high level of job satisfaction. Since the research sample had an original grand mean satisfaction score of 4.27 out of 5.00, it appeared that the respondent deans were generally satisfied with their jobs. Lucas (1996) had similar findings with a calculated satisfaction score of 4.23 out of 5.00 for business faculty at church related liberal arts colleges and universities. REGRESSION Regression analysis was conducted on each of the EQ competencies in order to determine which items had the strongest positive relationship to job satisfaction for deans of business schools. The purpose of individually testing each independent variable with global job satisfaction was to gain a deeper level of understanding concerning the specific EQ subscale competencies related to job satisfaction. The regression analysis also allowed for determining a secondary objective of this study which considered a top-five EQ subscale competency profile for deans of business schools. The results of the regression analysis revealed that 15 out of 21 EQ competencies, including Total EQ, were statistically significant (p < .05). The relationship between Total EQ and global job satisfaction was significant to the .000 level (p < .05). The t-statistic was 4.230 for the regression. In addition, the top five EQ subscale competencies that emerged from this study, when analyzed individually with global job sat- The primary motivator for doing this study was the desire to better understand emotional intelligence and job satisfaction within the domain of academic leadership. Prior studies have shown the importance of having individuals with the right set of EQ competencies working in positions that best fit that emotional intelligence profile. Even so, limited research existed on the study of emotional intelligence and its significance of relationship to job satisfaction. This study, to the best of the author’s knowledge, was the first to examine emotional intelligence and job satisfaction within the context of deans of business schools. As a result, new research within the domain of higher education was explored. The primary objective of this research was achieved by discovering that a positive relationship existed between emotional intelligence and job satisfaction in deans of business schools. Furthermore, an interesting group of top five EQ subscale competencies emerged from the study. These findings offered a glimpse into which emotional intelligence traits most likely provided job satisfaction among the deans. For instance, this study revealed that deans who were—flexible within changing environments, assertive and confident, tolerant of stressful conditions, adept at solving multi-faceted problems, and able to selfactualize to reach their utmost potential—possessed the key traits linked to a more satisfying career in academic leadership. It is important to note that any inferences gleaned from this study have generalizability limitations and may not be applicable to all deans. FUTURE RESEARCH Although this study brought attention to the topic of emotional intelligence and job satisfaction in deans of U. S. business schools, it focused on an area with little if any previous research. Furthermore, the limitations of this study to only deans of business schools constrained the gen- Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education 5 Charles M. Coco Emotional Intelligence and Job Satisfaction: The EQ Relationship for Deans of U.S. Business Schools eral application to a small yet significant group within the broader domain of higher education. Therefore, an expansion of research into deans of other schools and disciplines would offer additional insight and opportunities for comparative studies. Other educational administrators, such as vice-presidents, also present possibilities for pursuing a better understanding of the impact of emotional intelligence on job satisfaction within academic leadership at various levels of authority. Additional factors beyond EQ should be explored as to their role in influencing job satisfaction. Certain criteria could be established that examine the capability and performance of the deans. Research into potential positive outcomes due to increased EQ and job satisfaction would provide beneficial knowledge. It would be useful to know, for example, if emotionally intelligent and satisfied deans have more respect and loyalty among their faculty and staff. Moreover, do these deans tend to get positive results in regard to accreditation, enrollment, donations, budgets, and other target measures. In conclusion, future research should build upon the knowledge gained from this study for assisting in areas of recruitment, selection, training, and development. The assessment of which EQ competencies have the most significant influence upon job satisfaction within academic leadership needs further investigation. It would be important to determine if the subscale competencies of Flexibility, Assertiveness, Stress Tolerance, Problem Solving, and Self-Actualization discovered in this study are consistently prominent among the other subscale competencies as to positive influence on job satisfaction. REFERENCES Bar-On, R. (2004). BarOn emotional quotient inventory: A measure of emotional intelligence. Toronto, Canada: Multi-Health Systems. Chiva, R., & Alegre, J. (2008). Emotional intelligence and job satisfaction: The role of organizational learning capability. Personnel Review, 37(6), 680-701. Cranny, C. J., Smith, P. C., & Stone, E. F. (Eds.). (1992). Job satisfaction: How people feel about their jobs and how it affects their performance. New York: Lexington Books. 6 Green, S. B., & Salkind, N. J. (2005). Using SPSS for Windows and Macintosh: Analyzing and understanding data (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. Hair, J. F., Jr., Anderson, R. E., & Tatham, R. L. (1987). Multivariate data analysis with readings (2nd edition). New York: Macmillan Publishing Company. Hasselback, J. R. (2008). Accounting faculty directory for 2008-2009. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. Henne, D., & Locke, E. A. (1985, April). Job dissatisfaction: What are the consequences? International Journal of Psychology, 20(2), 221240. Howard, M. C. (2009). Emotional intelligence as a predictor of job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and occupational commitment among human service workers. Dissertation Abstracts International, 69,12B, 7842. Kafetsios, K., & Loumakou, M. (2007). A comparative evaluation of the effects of trait emotional intelligence and emotion regulation on affect at work and job satisfaction. International Journal of Work Organization and Emotion, 2(1), 71-87. Nunnally, J. C. (1978). Psychometric theory (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Price, J., & Mueller, C. (1981). Professional turnover: The case of nurses. New York: S. P. Medical and Scientific Books. Spector, P. E. (1997). Job satisfaction: Application, assessment, causes, and consequences. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. Stein, S. J., & Book, H. E. (2000). The EQ edge: Emotional intelligence and your success. Toronto, Canada: Multi-Health Systems. Sy, T., Tram, S., & O’Hara, L. A. (2006). Relation of employee and manager emotional intelligence to job satisfaction and performance. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 68, 461-473. Thorndike, E. L. (1920). Intelligence and its uses. Harper’s Magazine, 140, 237-235. Wagner, W. E., III (2007). Using SPSS for social statistics and research methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press. Wolverton, M., & Gmelch, W. H. (2002). College deans: Leading from within. Westport, CT: The American Council on Education and Oryx Press. Kafetsios, K., & Zampetakis, L. A. (2008). Emotional intelligence and job satisfaction: Testing the mediatory role of positive and negative affect at work. Personality and Individual Differences, 44(3), 710-720. Leaming, D. R. (1998). Academic leadership: A practical guide to chairing the department. Bolton, MA: Anker Publishing Company. Lucas, D. J. (1996). Need fulfillment, localism/ cosmopolitanism and job satisfaction: An investigation of business faculty at church related, liberal arts colleges and universities. (Doctoral dissertation, Indiana University, 1996). Dissertation Abstracts International, 57, 07A, 2899. Morrill, R. L. (2007). Strategic leadership: Integrating strategy and leadership in colleges and universities. Westport, CT: American Council on Education and Praeger Publishers. Spring 2011 (Volume 7 Issue 1) Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education 7 Charles M. Coco 8 Spring 2011 (Volume 7 Issue 1) Initial Program Review of Graduate Programs through Student Satisfaction Survey in Small Private Technical University in Southern California Christine Alexander Department of Graduate Studies Coleman University San Diego, California ABSTRACT Accrediting bodies are looking towards Program Review as an essential practice driving quality assurance processes (WASC, 2009.) One of the ways in which to establish a baseline of information for future comparison is to survey student satisfaction among alumni and current students (McKeachie, 1996.) This study examines student satisfaction in the graduate studies programs in a small private technical university in Southern California. As a method to provide baseline data, this study explores areas of student satisfaction that include overall program satisfaction, teacher communication, and curriculum aligned to program objectives. A Likert scale and short answer questions were used for the student survey sent to recent alumni and current students of the graduate programs. The results provide a baseline of student satisfaction and identify areas for improvement. INTRODUCTION One of the goals of the study is to determine a baseline assessment measure of program effectiveness at the graduate level. A new MBA program, as well as a change in leadership within the graduate department serves as impetus for the current program review. In addition, the university is at the preliminary stage of applying for regional accreditation. While program reviews were part of the self-study process in past accreditation applications, the new accrediting body has identified additional criteria in determining accreditation eligibility. Western Association for Schools and Colleges offers a Resource Guide for Good Practices in Academic Program Review. Criteria for a review include CFR4.4, “The institution employs a deliberate set of quality assurance processes at each level of institutional functioning, including periodic program review. These processes include assessing effectiveness, tracking results over time using comparative data from external sources, and improving structures, processes, curricula, and pedagogy” (WASC, 2009). In order to begin the process of program review, a baseline of overall graduate program satisfaction needs to be determined. One of the preliminary measures to be included in this program review will be student satisfaction used as a rough gauge of how the programs are being assessed by current students and recent alumni. LITERATURE REVIEW It is a nationally recognized tool for American colleges and universities to use student evaluation of faculty to measure instructional effectiveness of teachers. The review of literature suggests that student ratings can lead to changes in course delivery and thus more favorable student evaluation (McKeachie, 1996.) In addition, research indicates that student ratings are acceptably reliable and valid indicators of teaching effectiveness that can lead to modest improvements in teaching (Braskamp & Ory, 1994). One of the areas assessed in the student satisfaction survey is communication with instructors. Parayitam, Desai, and Phelps, 2007, posed the hypothesis that students’ perception of teacher’s communi- Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education 9 Christine Alexander cation is positively related to student satisfaction with teachers. One of the findings was a high correlation between perceived course content, communication, satisfaction and effectiveness (Ibid, 2007). Our student survey included communication with instructors as a measure of student satisfaction. Additional areas included in the student satisfaction survey are the questions of whether the curriculum addresses the program objectives of developing leadership and team building skills, enhancing existing technical expertise, and improving understanding of advanced system management techniques, current trends and future trends in information system management. These goals are a synthesis of the goals of the three graduate programs offered at this small private technical university in Southern California. The goals of the graduate programs are in alignment with industry measures of workplace skills. Noll and Wilkings (2002) conducted a survey to elicit the importance of specific skills in three employment-staffing groups. Noll and Wilkins recommendations for information systems curricula included: knowledge of business functional areas, business environment and specific industry; ability to interpret business problems and to develop appropriate technical solutions; and ability to work collaboratively in a team project environment, and to plan, organize and lead projects (2002.) The overall quality of the curriculum was surveyed from the student’s perspective, as well as determining whether the curriculum meets the program objectives. The survey also determined overall program satisfaction. Current students and recent alumni of the graduate programs were surveyed as to whether the programs, as a whole, develop leadership and team building skills, enhance existing technical expertise, and improve understanding of advanced systems management techniques, current trends and future trends in information systems management. CURRENT STUDY The current study aimed to determine the overall satisfaction level of current students and alumni of three graduate programs of a small private technical university in the Southern Califor- 10 Initial Review of Graduate Programs in Small Private Technical University in Southern California nia. The current study was exploratory and was meant to provide baseline information for a newly launched (start-up less than one year) MBA program, the current level of satisfaction for a graduate program in information systems, and an online business and technology management program. The study also examined student reaction to whether curriculum is aligned with program objectives, the quality of the curriculum, communication with instructors, overall program satisfaction and additionally, short answer questions asked students to list areas of interest, most valuable courses, and reasons for selecting most valuable courses, and additional topics to be added to curriculum. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY The purpose of the study is to gather data as a starting point for program evaluation of three graduate programs. This university is also at the beginning stages of working towards application for regional accreditation. With the accreditation criteria including more data driven outcomes, the survey will be utilized as part of that trend or expectation towards an increase in data collection and analysis. This study is important in initiating a process of program review that includes determining the strengths and weaknesses of the graduate programs as viewed by current graduate students and recent alumni. The student satisfaction areas surveyed include curriculum, faculty communication with students, and overall program effectiveness. The results will be instrumental in making improvements to curriculum, teacher communication with students, and student satisfaction. METHODS The survey instrument was designed to address program review questions in the following areas: curriculum’s relationship to the program objectives, the quality of the curriculum, communication with instructors, overall program satisfaction. Short answer questions were also included. The open-ended short answer questions identified student areas of interest, most valuable courses taken, reasons for selecting most valuable courses, and additional topics that should be added to curriculum. The survey asked students to rank the items on a five point Likert Scale with 1 representing that they strongly disagree and 5 indicating that they strongly agree. PROCEDURE AND SUBJECTS The instrument referenced above was distributed to all recent alumni (within last six months) and current graduate students enrolled in the Master in Business Administration, Master of Science Information Systems Management, and online Master of Science in Business and Technology Management program of a small technical private university through the university electronic mail system. The recent alumni graduating within the last six months were surveyed in order to tap into the most current iteration of the graduate curriculum. All students were given equal opportunity to respond to the survey, which consisted of a combination of statements and a Likert Scale and a series of open-ended ques- DISCUSSION In this study, current students and recent alumni of the graduate studies department at a small technical university in Southern California were surveyed on overall satisfaction. The survey results can be seen in Table 1. The survey was divided into five areas. The first area addressed the relationship of the curriculum aligning with the program objectives: • Did the curriculum develop leadership and team building skills? • Did the curriculum enhance existing technical expertise? • Did the curriculum improve your understanding of advanced system management techniques, current trends and future trends in information system management? These questions were of particular interest because of their importance to industry professionals (Noll & Wilkings, 2002.) The students gave these particular measures a mean score of 4.3, Table 1 Student Satisfaction Item Q1 Q2 THE INSTRUMENT Q3 To provide baseline data and to determine the current level of student satisfaction with the curriculum and overall quality of three graduate level programs, a survey instrument was utilized. The instrument was designed to address areas related to the curriculum and overall program satisfaction. The instrument was not designed to address student services or environmental features of the university. Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Spring 2011 (Volume 7 Issue 1) tions. After six weeks, a reminder was sent to all students requesting responses if they had not yet participated. Total number of students sent the survey was 65. Total number responding was 21. The response rate was 32%. Q10 Curriculum Develops leadership & team building skills Curriculum enhances existing technical expertise Curriculum improves understanding of advanced system mgmt techniques, current trends and future trends in IS management Increase in overall competence in field Program curriculum is effective and current Faculty interested in student learning Instructors available to answer questions Overall, program developed leadership and team building skills Overall, program enhanced existing technical expertise Program improved understanding of advanced system management techniques, current trends and future trends in IS management Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education Mean SD 4.3 3.5 1.10 1.50 4.1 0.96 3.8 3.8 4.1 4.2 4.2 3.3 1.10 1.10 0.91 0.88 0.98 1.20 3.9 1.00 11 Christine Alexander 3.5, and 4.1 respectively. Questions numbered 1 and 3 yielded scores pointing to program effectiveness. Leadership and team building skills are objectives students felt satisfied in having been addressed in the curriculum. The student survey results from Question #2, however, “Did the curriculum enhance existing technical expertise,” suggests future consideration. As a historically “technical” university, do the graduate programs offer students sufficient opportunity to enhance their technical skills? The score of 3.5 indicates that there is room for improvement in this particular objective. As part of the Program Review process, this particular objective also needs to be evaluated for future inclusion. Is it a viable objective in light of the fact that the programs focus on skills related to management, versus technical expertise? This is an area where further examination is needed. The second area of the survey addressed quality of the curriculum. Item #4, “The program has increased my overall competence as a working professional in computer-related fields” yielded a mean score of 3.8 with a SD of 1.1. Item #5 resulted in similar scores of a mean of 3.8 and an SD of 1.1. These items prompt further questions for future surveys. A follow up question in this particular area of the survey might include feedback that generates specific skills that are currently not being addressed in the curriculum. If overall competence is not being enhanced to an expected degree, what future inclusions in the curriculum would create greater student satisfaction? As a baseline, however, these results provide needed information for initial assessment of the graduate programs. Next are the survey questions related to communication with instructors. Students are given the opportunity to evaluate teacher effectiveness at the end of each course. Data on individual teacher effectiveness is maintained. These questions in the survey, though, addressed areas of communications with instructors that focus on instructor receptivity. Specifically, the survey asked if faculty were interested in student learning and if they were available to answer questions. The median scores of 4.0 and SD 1.0 and 4.1 and SD 0.95 indicate a general trend that students feel that instructors are interested in student learn- 12 Initial Review of Graduate Programs in Small Private Technical University in Southern California Table 2 Summary of Open-Ended Questions ing and available to answer questions. This is also supported in later open ended questions. The last three Likert style questions asked students to rate overall program effectiveness. These questions were posed to examine the overall collection of courses meeting the program objectives, versus individual course curriculum. These questions asked students to step back and assess the program offerings as a whole. The interesting result here is that these last three questions mirrored the first three questions of the survey. The first three questions asked if the curriculum: • Develops leadership and team building skills • Enhances existing technical expertise • Improves understanding of advanced system mgmt techniques, current trends and future trends in information system management The last three questions ask these questions of the program versus the curriculum. The results of the last three questions are very similar to the first three. Q1 = 4.3, 1.0 Q8 = 4.2, 0.98 Q2 = 3.5, 1.5 Q9 = 3.3, 1.2 Q3 = 4.1, 0.96 Q10 = 3.9, 1.0 One of the reasons for the last three questions was to examine one of the features of the master’s programs: students may enter the programs at any time. There is not a set sequencing of courses. Student may enroll at any time, and none of the courses hinge on material covered in past courses. These results were interesting in that they suggest that non-sequential course offerings bears neither negatively nor positively on student satisfaction. The open ended responses are summarized in Table 2. The trends emerging from these responses are extremely useful in providing comparison information. The first question identifies general areas of interest. This cluster of responses generates a way to characterize the students who are choosing the graduate programs. They are students, for ex- Spring 2011 (Volume 7 Issue 1) Areas of Interest Project mgmt, systems analysis & design International business Business management Team projects and presentations Business and IT IT management in financial industry Most Valuable Courses Reasons for Selecting Most Valuable Courses Additional Topics to be Added to Current Curriculum Instructors and the More emerging knowledge I acquired from technologies them Areas of interest and International Business most useful in current job and Project Management position Leadership Instructor was informative Project Management More related to Enhances skills and Leadership leadership Mgmt in 21st Century Financial Analysis, Project Management IT Legal Environment Instructor was great Compliance Networking and virtualization Decision Support Systems and Cyberlaw Decision Support Systems helps in making informed choices at work and in personal life. Cyberlaw was relevant yet new info Theory and practical course in networks and servers Computer security and law Financial Planning, Emerging Technologies, Database Design, and Project Management Provides valuable insight on current business trends and a core knowledge for the future The program is good for now, but Supply Chain & Enterprise Systems, LAN Design can be added in the future Finance Professor provided the right kind of work as well as the right amount of work Engineering Decision Support Information security and Systems, Project networking Management, Financial Planning IT and management IT, business & computer technology and innovation Information systems management Courses in Information Systems Mgmt Every class is a mindopener, learn new things and new ideas Leadership, Project Management, Information Security, Database Systems They were taught well Latest trends and upcoming changes in IT and improve leadership qualities Helps expand career horizon and creativity in business Business & IT should be integrated and synchronized Well taught Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education 13 Christine Alexander Initial Review of Graduate Programs in Small Private Technical University in Southern California Table 2 Summary of Open-Ended Questions Areas of Interest Most Valuable Courses Information management, networking, software quality assurance Financial Planning, Information Security, Project Management, Network Readiness Systems management Systems Engineering Software engineering Networking Networking Business and hotel management HR, Financial Planning, Emerging Technologies, Decision Support Systems Financial Planning, Project Management Project Management, Financial Planning Finance ample, interested in systems analysis and design, international business, project management, financial management, networking, and virtualization. The second question is by far the most important to the Program Review process. It indicates which courses student find the most valuable. Overall, the most valued courses were Project Management and Financial Analysis (both listed 9 times as most valuable), Leadership, Decision Support Systems, Emerging Technologies, and Security. The reasons students selected these courses as the most valuable points to, first and foremost, the instructors. Comments included, “instructor was great,” “taught well,” and “instructor was very knowledgeable.” Another reason was the course utility, “most useful in my current job.” Another interesting comment included, “Decision Support Systems helps in making informed choices at work and in personal life.” Additional positive feedback included “provides valuable insight on current business trends and a core knowledge for the future.” Among other reasons for course value was the fact that the course of- 14 Reasons for Selecting Most Valuable Courses Instructors were exceptional in teaching those courses. Very knowledgeable Related to my work experience Additional Topics to be Added to Current Curriculum Enterprise resource planning, business intelligence Learned a lot Instructors make us learn and understand the course Group presentations and projects I learned more aspects of business, helped me to make decisions based on my observations Dot net or java More programs other than MS and MBA fered information in which the students had no prior exposure. One class that stands out as most valuable for this reason is the course in finance. The last item of the open-ended questions asks students to suggest additional topics to be added to current curriculum. The responses here provide useful feedback when refreshing existing courses. Some of the suggestions include additional examples of emerging technologies, more topics related to leadership, compliance, and the theory and practice of networks and servers. Students viewed their positive experiences with instructors as one of the most important reasons why they indicated a course as being most valuable. Another highly repeated response was the importance placed on courses such as Project Management and Finance. Leadership and team building skills were objectives students felt satisfied in having been addressed in the curriculum and graduate programs as a whole. The student survey results also indicated students were satisfied in the programs improving student understanding of advanced system management techniques, current trends, and future trends in information systems management. Additional information gleaned from the survey addressed the feature of the graduate program that included the ability of students to enter the program cycle at any time. These results were interesting in that they suggest that non-sequential course offerings bears neither negatively nor positively on student satisfaction. The data provided in the student surveys provide useful baseline data from which to proceed toward program improvement, higher levels of student satisfaction, and possible other future course offerings. Future surveys will be compared to this baseline to help establish progress towards these goals. REFERENCES Braskamp, L.A., & Ory.J.C. 1994. Assessing faculty work. San Francisco, CA; Jossey-Bass Publishers. Ehie, Ike. C. (2002). Developing a Management Information Systems (MIS) Curriculum: Perspectives from MIS Practitioners. Journal of Education for Business. 77(3), 151-158. McKeachie. W.J. (1996). Student ratings of teaching. American Council of Learned Societies Occasional Paper No. 33, Washington DC. http://www.acls.org/op33.htm#mcKeachie. Noll, Cheryl L., Wilkins, Marilyn (2002). Critical Skills of IS Professionals: A Model for Curriculum Development. Journal of Information Technology Education1(3), 143-153. Valle, Matthew (2006). A Model of Engaged Learning for the 21st Century. The Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education. 2(1), 49-56. WASC Resource Guide for “Good Practices’ in Academic Review, September, 2009. http:// wascsenior.org/node/253. WASC Document Library, Assessment Plan MBA for Executives in Life Sciences. http:// www.wascsenior.org/dindit/files/forms/SDSU_ A ssessment _ Pla n _ a nd _Curricu la r_ Map _ EMBA_LifeSciences.pdf. Yew, Bee K. (2008). A Perspective on a Management Information Systems (MIS) Program Review. Journal of Information Technology Education These suggestions will be further explored as we continue the Program Review process. The data provided in the student surveys provide useful baseline data from which to proceed toward program improvement and higher levels of student satisfaction. Future surveys will be compared to this baseline to help establish progress towards these goals. CONCLUSION The implications of the results point to a significantly high level of overall student satisfaction. Spring 2011 (Volume 7 Issue 1) Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education 15 Christine Alexander Appendix 1 Graduate Survey Please place an “X” to indicate whether you are a current student or alumni Current StudentqAlumniq Please place an “X” to indicate which program MSISMq MBAq MSBTMq On a scale of 1 to 5, please rank the following: 1 Represents Strongly Disagree; 5 Stands for Strongly Agree Student and Alumni Survey of Curriculum’s Relationship to the Program Objectives Did the Curriculum address the following objectives? 1. Develop leadership and team building skillsq 2. Enhance existing technical expertiseq 3. Improved your understanding of advanced system management techniques, current trends and future trends in information system managementq Quality of Curriculum: 1. The program has increased my overall competence as a working professional in computer-related fieldsq 2. The graduate program curriculum is effective and currentq Communication with Instructors: 1. Faculty were interested in student learningq 2. Instructors were available to answer questions q Overall Program Satisfaction: 1. Overall, the program developed leadership and team building skillsq 2. The program enhanced existing technical expertiseq 3. Program improved understanding of advanced system management techniques, current trends and future trends in information system managementq Short Answer Questions: 1. What are your areas of interest? 2. What are the most valuable courses taken? 3. What are your reasons for selecting the most valuable courses? 4. What are additional topics you think should be added to the current curriculum? Thanks for taking part in the survey; your feedback is appreciated! 16 Spring 2011 (Volume 7 Issue 1) Justice in the Classroom: Does Fairness Determine Student Cheating Behaviors? Mary A. Lemons University of Tennessee-Martin Martin, Tennessee Jeff L. Seaton Murray State University Murray, Kentucky ABSTRACT As cheating behaviors increase in higher education, it has been predicted that these behaviors will carry forth to the workplace. Using scenarios, we investigated cheating behaviors in regards to distributive and procedural justice. We propose that students use cheating as a coping response to balance the perceived injustice created by their instructor’s use of unfair grading methods. The results of our study show that the relationship between unfair treatments in the classroom had a significant effect on students’ cheating behaviors. INTRODUCTION Cheating behaviors in the classroom are a serious problem that has garnished national attention (Ahlers-Schmidt & Burdsal, 2004; ChoryAssad, & Paulsel, 2004; Maramark & Maline, 1993; McCabe & Trevino, 1997; Petress, 2003; Pincus & Schmelkin, 2003; Zimny, Robertson & Bartoszek). Petress (2003) defined cheating as “intellectual theft” and suggested that it is spreading widely throughout our academic environments. Research demonstrates that society believes that schools, especially business schools, have the responsibility to increase students’ awareness of the importance of maintaining strong ethical standards (Cole & Conklin, 1996; KonheimKalkstein, 2006; George, 1988; Knotts, Lopez & Mesak, 2000; Volpe, 2008). Although the focus on academic cheating has increased, and most universities have proclaimed a vigilant effort to prevent such behavior, relatively little attention has been directed at discovering why such behavior occurs. Past research on academic cheating has examined individual characteristics such as age, gender, grade point average, social class, moral identity and extracurricular activities of college students as antecedents to cheating (Pino & Smith, 2003;Wowra, 2007). While these studies are important in an effort to identi- fy the students who exhibit a higher proclivity to cheat, teachers have no control over these factors. Teachers need suggestions for what actions they can take to reduce cheating in their classrooms. Stearns (2001) suggested a need for research into the contextual factors that might influence cheating. Organizational management literature offers one contextual variable, perceived justice, which might be responsible for academic integrity. Many studies exist that examine the perceived justice of situations and the effects on employees. However, to our knowledge, this is the first study to empirically examine the relationship between perceptions of justice in the classroom and students’ academic integrity. THEORETICAL FOUNDATION In 1994 a report on academic integrity was prepared and published for the National Association of Student Personnel Administrators by Gehring and Pavela. In their report they defined the term dishonesty (cheating) as: an intentional act of fraud, in which a student seeks to claim credit for the work or efforts of another without authorization, or uses unauthorized materials or fabricated information in any academic exercise….. includes forgery of Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education 17 Mary A. Lemons & Jeff L. Seaton academic documents, intentionally impeding or damaging the academic work of others, or assisting other students in acts of dishonest. (1994: 5). In separate studies, 54 percent of students at a southwest university (Haines, Diekhoff, LaBeff & Clark, 1986), 82 percent at a Midwest university (Stern & Havlicek, 1986), and 86 percent at a large southern university (Michaels & Miethe, 1989) admitted to cheating during their years at college. Bernard Whitley, Jr. (1998) conducted a meta-analysis of 107 studies related to college cheating. He found that 70.4 percent of students in the studies had admitted to being involved in some type of cheating incident while attending college. The publicized situations where individuals exhibit ethical lapses in corporate America are not a result of a sudden decline in moral values, but instead, much of their ethical behavior developed over time, and may be attributed to time spent in the academic environment (Petress, 2003). Some suggest the continuous spread of academic misconduct in our schools is due to the lack of vigilant and proactive stance on academic integrity by parents, teachers, administrators and school boards (Petress, 2003; Volpe, 2008). Unfortunately, students not respecting the climate of academic integrity while in college may carry their unethical behavior into their professional and personal relationships (Norris & Swift; 2001; Wowra, 2007). Based on the above information, we conducted an informal ad-hoc survey where students were asked for their opinion about instructors’ behaviors in the classroom and the response students have to those behaviors. One issue that seemed to permeate throughout the students’ responses was the degree of fairness of the behaviors. It appeared that when the student perceived the behaviors of the instructor to be unfair it unleashed a multitude of negative behaviors by the students. One such behavior was the students’ desire to continue to follow a strict code of academic integrity. The students justified their negative actions as a coping response to the unfair treatment by the instructors. 18 Justice in the Classroom: Does Fairness Determine Student Cheating Behaviors? PERCEPTIONS OF JUSTICE Distributive justice refers to the fairness or equity of the manner that rewards are distributed. Adam’s equity theory (1965) was one of the first acknowledgements of justice. This theory suggests that individuals compare the input/outcome ratio of relevant others to their own input/outcome ratio to form equity perceptions. Equity theory is primarily concerned with distributive justice, or the fairness of outcome distribution. In our study, inputs are the contributions students make in the classroom for which they expect a fair grade. The inputs are in the form of effort, such as studying, attending class, and completing assignments. The outcomes or rewards are student grades. When students perceive inequitable distributions of grades, negative coping behaviors (cheating) may be used to justify unethical behaviors. In a study of 1,369 college students, Sterns (2001) found that a large majority of the students who admitted to acts of academic dishonesty had evaluated their instructor’s behaviors much lower than did the students who did not commit acts of academic dishonesty. He also suggests that the relationship between students and instructors affects academic integrity. However, we could not find any studies testing the justice construct and cheating. We developed the following hypothesis to test this relationship. some control over the process and outcome attainment tend to be perceived by participants as fairer than procedures that deny process control (Greenberg, 1990). Process control (or “voice”) refers to the opportunity participants have in communicating their views and opinions in a decision‑making process. The greater the process control allowed to participants, the more likely they regard the decision‑making procedures as fair (Leung & Li, 1990). In addition, when decision‑makers communicate a justification for the decision reached and the decision‑maker is considered sincere, participants view the process as more fair (Bies, 1987). Students who have poor grades may express their dissatisfaction by focusing on how unfair the decision was because students who had better grades put forth less effort by not coming to class or by studying less. However, when individuals have a “voice” in the decision‑making process, they are generally more satisfied with the outcome, even when it is not the one they favor (Folger & Greenberg, 1985). In other words, when the perception of procedural justice in classroom decisions is present, students should experience higher satisfaction with grade outcomes, even when their grade is low. Perceptions of a fair process regarding student grades may result in improved student motivation as well as reduced cheating incidents. The following hypothesis describes the relationship tested. H1: Perceptions of distributive justice influence student cheating behaviors. H2: H1a: Students who experience high perceptions of fair distributive justice in the classroom have a low proclivity to cheat in the same class. H2a: Students who experience high perceptions of fair procedural justice in the classroom have a low proclivity to cheat in the same class. H1b: Students who experience high perceptions of unfair distributive justice in the classroom have a high proclivity to cheat in the same class. H2b: Students who experience high perceptions of unfair procedural justice in the classroom have a high proclivity to cheat in the same class. Procedural justice refers to the fairness of the procedures used in making decisions (Folger & Greenberg, 1985). Thibaut and Walker developed procedural justice in the early 1970’s as the result of a series of reactions to dispute‑resolution processes. As additional research was conducted in this area (for reviews, see Lind & Tyler, 1988; Tyler, 1987), it became clear that the findings were reflective of a more general tendency across a variety of settings. Procedures granting The likelihood of being caught may also contribute to students’ proclivity to cheat. When instructors leave the room during a test, it may be hard for even the most ethical students to keep their eyes on their own papers. In addition, we believe the harsher the penalty for cheating, the less likely individuals are to engage in cheating. Thus, we controlled for both of these variables. Spring 2011 (Volume 7 Issue 1) Perceptions of procedural justice influence student cheating behaviors. METHOD To test the hypotheses, data were collected from 282 traditional undergraduate students (44% women, 79% Caucasian) from several large Southeastern universities. The age range of respondents was from 20 to 50 years with a mean of 20 years. The mean college status was junior level with 46% having a G.P.A. higher than 3.0 on a 4.0 scale. The students were administered the survey during regular class and were offered no inducement for their participation. While much research has been conducted in this area, no studies exist examining student’s perceptions of their professor’s fairness in the classroom and ensuing cheating behaviors. The first section of the survey presents four scenarios (fair distributive, unfair distributive, fair procedural, and unfair procedural), which we asked students to rate based on their perceptions of fairness. The items used to measure perceptions of fairness were based on Folger and Konovsky’s 1989 scales, which use four items for distributive justice and three items for procedural justice. The variables were measured using a frequency of response method with a Likert scale ranging from 1 to 5 (1 = very unfair; 5 = very fair). Estimates of reliability for the scales yielded .80 for the distributive fair, .92 for the distributive unfair scenario, .92 for the procedural fair and .84 for the procedural unfair scenario. We used one item to ask respondents to rate the degree of likelihood they would cheat were they students in the developed scenarios. Cheating behaviors were defined as plagiarism (using someone else’s words without giving them credit), buying or using a friend’s paper and pretending it is your own, copying from someone else’s test, using cheat sheets, or using other forms of cheating, such as text messaging, picture phones, or calculators. Next, we asked students to tell us the possibility they would cheat in college based on the likelihood of being caught (0% chance of being caught to 100% chance of being caught). The scale for likelihood of cheating based on the chance of being caught yielded an estimate of reliability of .80. The variables were measured using a frequency of response method with a Likert scale ranging from 1 to 5 (1 = very likely; 5 = very unlikely). Finally, we asked students to rate the likelihood they would cheat based on the severity Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education 19 Mary A. Lemons & Jeff L. Seaton Justice in the Classroom: Does Fairness Determine Student Cheating Behaviors? of the punishment. Examples of penalties ranged from no penalty to expulsion from the university with the same rating scale as above (1 = very likely; 5 = very unlikely). Reliability estimates for penalty yielded .83. RESULTS Table I shows the partial correlation coefficients of the predictor and criterion variables. In H1a, we state that student perceptions of fair distributive justice in the classroom affect cheating. Specifically, as perceptions of fair distributive justice increase, student cheating should decrease. An examination of the correlation between these variables indicates the proposed negative relationship between fair distributive justice and cheating in the classroom. However, this relationship was not significant; therefore H1a was not supported by this study. In H1b, we propose that student perceptions of unfair distributive justice in the classroom influence cheating. As students perceive that professors are unfair with the distribution of grades, cheating increases. An examination of the correlation between these variables indicates a positive significant relationship (p <. 05) between unfair distributive justice and cheating in the classroom. As the perception of unfair grade dis- tribution increases, the cheating behaviors also increase. Thus, H1b was supported in our study. Our second set of hypotheses states students’ perceptions of fair procedures during the grading process affect cheating behaviors in the classroom. A positive significant relationship (p <. 01) emerged between fair procedural justices and cheating behaviors. This was the most significant and interesting relationship in our study. Instead of fairness decreasing cheating as hypothesized, the positive sign of the correlation indicates as the perception of fair grading procedures increase, cheating behaviors also increased. To investigate this relationship, we split the student respondents into two groups based on one standard deviation (.04) plus or minus the mean (4.17) of likelihood of cheating. We named the groups ethical (n=174) and unethical (n=101). We ran a simple linear regression on each group, resulting in two equations. See Figure 1 for a plot of the groups. For the ethical group, when there was a 75 – 100 percent chance of not being caught (4.41), they were as likely as the cheaters to take advantage of the situation. The unethical students start with a likelihood of cheating much quicker than the ethical group at 2.51 (50% likelihood of not being caught) on a 5-point scale, and the chance of cheating accelerates more quickly. As their perceptions of justice in the classroom Control Variables Dist Proc Dist Fair Unfair Unfair Total Total Total DistFairCheat1 1.000 .357** .417** .150* -.024 Proc Unfair Cheat .357** 1.000 .428** .117 -.018 Dist Unfair Cheat .417** .428** 1.000 .262** -.051 Proc Fair Total .076 -.130* -.034 .182** .003 -.090 .185** .127* .002 Likely .150* .117 .262** 1.000 .009 -.001 -.038 Total Proc Fair Cheat Penalty Dist Fair Total -.024 -.018 -.051 .009 1.000 -.007 .174** Total Proc Unfair Total .076 .182** .185** -.001 -.007 1.000 .152* Dist Unfair Total -.130* .003 .127* -.038 .174** .152* 1.000 Proc Fair Total -.034 -.090 .002 .299** .090 -.152* -.003 **. Correlation is significant at 0.01 level *. Correlation is significant at 0.05 level 20 behaviors. As the perception of unfair grading procedures increase, the cheating behaviors also increase. Therefore, results lend support to H2b. Several issues merit further study. First, because this is the first study of relationships between classroom justice and cheating behaviors, future researchers should attempt to identify additional variables related to this association. One moderator of this relationship might be affect, or the positive or negative mood or emotion of the individual at the time of survey administration (Forgas, 1992). A student who comes to class after a disagreement with his or her roommate might perceive the fairness of decisions differently than before personal problems arose. Similarly, a student who has recently received a low grade might perceive lower justice than the day before the grade was given. In addition, we found the harsher the penalty and the higher the likelihood of being caught cheating; the less Our last hypothesis, H2b, states students’ perceptions of unfair grading procedures by professors influence cheating in the classroom. Specifically, as students perceive their teachers are not using fair procedures, cheating increases. A positive significant relationship (p <. 05) was found between unfair procedural justice and cheating Figure 1 Ethical and Unethical Student Groups Under the Fair Procedural Justice Scenario Likelihood of being caught 5 Ethical 4.41 + .071 4 Table 1 Correlations Dist Proc Dist Un- Proc Fair Unfair fair Fair Cheat Cheat Cheat Cheat go up, their likelihood of cheating also goes up. At that point, justice in the classroom is perhaps seen as an opportunity to cheat even more. Maybe, they see their fair teachers as “suckers” or “easy A” teachers. Additionally, if a teacher is seen as too fair, students may perceive a lighter penalty if they do get caught. Some professors tell students there will be penalties, but when they catch them cheating; they fail to follow through with the appropriate punishment. Although H2a was not supported in this data set, our results demonstrate an interesting phenomenon that deserves further investigation. .299** .090 -.152* -.003 1.000 Spring 2011 (Volume 7 Issue 1) Unethical 2.51 +. 25 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 Perceptions of Justice Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education 21 Mary A. Lemons & Jeff L. Seaton likely individuals were to engage in that type behavior. Therefore, further research on these variables is also needed. The cross-sectional nature of the study also renders it difficult to draw causal conclusions about the relationships among the variables. Although the correlations exist, crosssectional research does not explain why they exist or what other external factors might have caused the observed correlations. We did control for likelihood of being caught and harshness of penalties, but other variables may exist also. Because the collected data were self-reported, some of the observed relationships may be exaggerated because of common-method variance or the consistency motif; the results of the partial correlation test did not indicate this to be a critical issue. Discussion This study examined students’ perceptions of fairness in the classroom and the effect they might have on cheating behaviors. A significant relationship emerged between unfair distributive and unfair procedural justice and the proclivity to cheat. As the perception of unfair justice increased, so did the cheating behaviors of the students. A significant relationship between fair distributive justice and cheating was not found, but a significant and surprising result emerged between fair procedural justices and cheating. In this scenario, when the expectation of being caught is 25% or less, even the ethical students would cheat. In our pilot study, comments from some of the students included statements that they believe cheating is wrong and they would never cheat regardless of the teacher’s actions; our numbers relay something different. Before conclusions are drawn, however, future research is needed in this area. This study supports the conclusion that perceptions of unfair justice in the classroom affect students’ propensities to cheat. When unethical behavior is ignored, students face a point where their personal ethics are most important. We suggest that additional precautions be taken to alert students to the likelihood of being caught. Should students feel the teacher is lax about cheating behaviors, they may be more likely to attempt to “get away” with unethical practices. Making students aware of your own values toward unacceptable behavior is the first step to 22 Justice in the Classroom: Does Fairness Determine Student Cheating Behaviors? influencing their behavior. Listing your expectations on the syllabi also demonstrates your commitment to maintaining acceptable behaviors in your class. The more likely a harsh penalty will be enforced, the less likely students are to cheat in the classroom. Thus, issuing and enforcing stiff penalties for unethical acts, such as cheating, is one way to reduce these behaviors in the classroom. Another lesson from this study involves monitoring and diligence by educators. Since the likelihood of being caught in the act of cheating reduces students’ unethical behavior, strict monitoring by instructors is necessary to curtail dishonesty in the classroom. Our findings demonstrate the need for educators to define what penalties will be administered should students be caught cheating, and to be consistent with enforcement. Some professors list requirements for attendance, classroom participation, and grade distribution, but when citing requirements for academic conduct, they refer students to their college handbooks. Students need more explicit instructions regarding what is considered cheating. New technology provides many options for educators today. Safe Assignment, for example, can be used to curb plagiarism as well as to teach students how to avoid it. This program allows students to enter their papers as drafts. They can see the sections highlighted as plagiarism, and then correct the problems before final submission. Professors also see the results throughout the process; thus, they can also offer help and suggestions. The result is a paper without plagiarisms and a lesson learned by the student. In addition, student papers are entered into a database; if future students try to use the paper again, the entire content will be flagged. As well as educators, the results of our research also hold implications for managers. In today’s business environment more and more incidents of unethical behavior are surfacing. Students not respecting the climate of academic integrity while in college will likely carry their unethical behavior into their professional and personal relationships (Petress, 2003). Harsh penalties and strict monitoring may help curtail unethical behaviors. First, by providing explicit guidelines in the form of a written Code of Ethics, managers will make employees aware of expectations. Spring 2011 (Volume 7 Issue 1) Second, consistent enforcement of penalties for unacceptable actions is necessary to show the commitment of the company. Finally, a good monitoring system removes temptations that some employees might have. We also suggest organizations support education in their area. Offering input regarding the importance of ethical training in Academia, especially business schools, provides awareness of this issue to the creators of curriculums. Ethics should be incorporated into all aspects of education. As students become aware of the importance of high morals in business, they may begin to see that it can be an employment requirement of some organizations. While managers cannot hope to change deeply ingrained values in their employees, they can and should control their subordinates’ behaviors during work hours. Conclusion The effects of justice perceptions in the classroom are products of individual cognitive processes, which develop in response to cultural expectations (Bazerman et al., 1994). The causal attributions made by students during the formation of justice perceptions in the classroom may explain why some students cheat while others do not. If academic cheating has reached an epidemic level, as stated by today’s researchers (Ahlers-Schmidt & Burdsal, 2004; Chory-Assad, & Paulsel, 2004; Maramark & Maline, 1993; McCabe & Trevino, 1997; Petress, 2003; Pincus & Schmelkin, 2003), and if their predictions hold true that these behaviors will transition into the professional environment, corporate America’s future managers are going to definitely be “the most ethicallydiverse generation in history” (Pelton & True, 2004). When these students reach professional environments, we may see many of the newer generation of managers willing to engage in unethical behavior. We hope this study will serve as a strong impetus to researchers for more in-depth studies of justice and cheating in the classroom. REFERENCES Adams, J. S. (1965). Inequity in social exchange. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.) Advances in Experimental Social Psychology. Orlando: Academic Press. Ahlers-Schmidt, C. & Burdsal, C. (2004). Passive Cheating in Back-to-Back Classes. Teaching of Psychology [H.W. Wilson-EDUC]. Spring, 31, 2, 108. Bazerman, M. H., Schroth, H. A., Shah, P. P., Diekmann, K. A., & Tenbrunsel, A. E. (1994). The inconsistent role of comparison others and procedural justice in reactions to hypothetical job descriptions: Implications for job acceptance decisions. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 60:326–352. Bies, R. J. (1987). Beyond “voice”: The influence of decision-maker justification and sincerity on procedural fairness judgement. Representative Research in Social Psychology, 17(91): 3-14. Chory-Assad, R. & Paulsel, M. (2004). Classroom Justice: Student Aggression and Resistance as Reactions to Perceived Unfairness. Communication Education [H.W. Wilson – EDUC]. 53(3), 253. Cole, S. & Conklin, D (1996). Academic integrity policies and procedures: Opportunities to teach students about moral leadership and personal ethics. College Student Affairs Journal, 15(2), 30-39. Folger, R., & Greenberg, J. (1985). Procedural justice: An interpretational analysis of personnel systems. Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management, 3: 141-183. Folger, R., & Konovsky, M. A. (1989). Effects of procedural and distributive justice on pay raise decisions. Academy of Management Journal, 32(1): 115-130. Gehring, D. & Pavela, G. (1994). Issues and Perspectives on Academic Integrity. National Association of Student Personnel Administrations. George, R. (1988). The Challenge of Preparing Ethically Responsible Managers: Closing the Rhetoric-reality Gap. Journal of Business Ethics, 7, 715-720. Washington, DC: National Association of Student Personnel Administrations. Greenberg, J. (1990). Organizational justice: Yesterday, today, and tomorrow. Journal of Management, 16(2): 399-432. Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education 23 Mary A. Lemons & Jeff L. Seaton Haines, V., Diekhoff, G., LaBeff, E., & Clark, R. (1986). College Cheating: Immaturity, Lack of Commitment and the Neutralizing Attitude. Research in Higher Education, 25, 342354. Knotts, T., Lopez T. & Mesak, H. (2000). Ethical Judgments of College Students: An Empirical Analysis. Journal of Education for Business. Jan./Feb. 158-163. Konheim-Kalkstein, Y. L. (2006). Use of a classroom honor code in higher education. The Journal of Credibility Assessment and Witness Psychology, 7(3), 169-179. Leung, K., & Li, W. (1990). Psychological mechanisms of process-control effects. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75(6): 613-620. Lind, E. A., & Tyler, T. (1988). The Social Psychology of Procedural Justice. New York: Plenum. Maramark, S. & Maline, M. (1993). Academic Dishonesty among College Students. Issues in Education, US. Department of Education, 1- 14. McCabe, D. & Trevino, L. (1997). Individual and Contextual Influences on Academic Dishonesty: A Multicampus Investigation. Research in Higher Education, 38, 379-396. Michaels, J. & Miethe, T. (1989). Applying Theories of Deviance to Academic Cheating. Social Science Quarterly, 70, 870-885. Norris, S. & Swift, C. (2001). An Examination of the Relationship between Workplace Dishonesty: A Multicampus Investigation. Journal of Education for Business. 77, 2, 69-78. Petress, K. (2003). Academic Dishonesty: A Plague on our Profession. Education, Spring, 123, 3, 624-627. 24 Pincus, H. & Schmelkin, L. (2003). Faculty Perceptions of : A Multidimensional Scaling Analysis. The Journal of Higher Education, 74, 2, 196-210. Pino, N. & Smith, W. (2003). College Students and Academic Dishonesty. College Student Journal. December, 37, 4, 490. Stearns, S. (2001). The Student-Instructor Relationship’s Effect on Academic Integrity. Ethics & Behavior, 11(3): 275-285. Stern, E. & Havlicek, L. (1986). Academic Misconduct: Results of Faculty and Undergraduate Student Surveys. Journal of Allied Health, 15, 129-142. Thibaut, J. W. & Walker, L. (1975). Procedural Justice: A Psychological Perspective. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Tyler, T. R. (1987). Procedural justice research. Social Justice Research, 1, 41–66. Volpe, R., Davidson, L., & Bell, M. C. (2008). Faculty attitudes and behaviors concerning student cheating. College Student Journal, 01463934, 42(1). Whitley, B. (1998). Factors Associated with Cheating among College Students: A Review. Research in Higher Education, 39, 235-274. Wowra, S. (2007). Moral identities, social anxiety, and academic dishonesty among American college students. Ethics and Behavior, 17(3), 303-321. Zimny, S. T., Robertson, D. U., & Bartoszek, T. (2008). Academic and personal dishonesty in college students. North American Journal of Psychology, 10(2), 291-312. Spring 2011 (Volume 7 Issue 1) The Role of Leadership Substitutes Theory in Adjunct Professor Preferences for Academic Leaders: A Qualitative Examination Joy A. Jones Regent University Virginia Beach, Virginia ABSTRACT This phenomenological study examined preferences of adjunct professors for academic leaders. Utilizing structured interviews of eight adjunct professors and thematic coding procedures, this study reveals that adjunct professor preferences for academic leaders align with leadership substitutes theory. Although distance between academic leader and adjunct professor neutralizes the effects of leadership, informal communication appears to substitute for leadership. This study indicates that adjunct professors prefer supportive and approachable leaders but do not want to be micromanaged. This study also shows that although adjunct professors need formal directives regarding resources, they look to informal communication networks for motivation and direction. Future research should include quantitative studies examining differences between adjunct and full time professor preferences for leaders and substitutes for leadership. INTRODUCTION The purpose of the current study was to investigate preferences of adjunct professors for academic leaders. Implicit leadership theory suggests that leaders are evaluated based on beliefs and assumptions about the attributes and behaviors of effective leaders (Eden & Leviatan, 1975). Yukl (2006) explained that, “Implicit theories involve stereotypes and prototypes about the traits, skills, or behaviors that are relevant for a particular type of position” (p.130). Situational theories of leadership contend that not all traits and behaviors associated with leadership are effective in all situations. Thus, a leader might be effective in one organizational context, but ineffective in another (Fratangelo, 1999). Designers of situational models of leadership (e.g., Fiedler, 1964; House, 1971; Hersey & Blanchard, 1977; Kerr & Jermier, 1978) agree that leadership effectiveness varies according to the nature of environmental factors (McPherson, Crowson, & Pitner, 1986). Kerr and Jermier (1978) argued that certain contexts, such as physical distance, might minimize the influence of leadership. As distributed and dispersed employees, adjunct professors may not have frequent contact with academic leaders. Luby (2001) noted that leaders of dispersed employees cannot observe the daily performance of employees; therefore, the leader’s ability to provide guidance may be limited. According to leadership substitutes theory, under these types of conditions, rather than experience ambiguity, employees search for other sources of direction (Kerr & Jermier). In contrast, Jackson and Schuler (1985) suggested that role ambiguity is highest when one works alone, receives limited feedback, and has limited interactions with the leader. Adjunct faculty are a key component in higher education because approximately 44% of faculty at four-year institutions are adjunct (Ronco & Cahill, 2004), and approximately 64% of community college faculty are adjunct (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2005). Thus, the aim of the current study was to examine adjunct professor preferences for leader attributes. Specifically, through interviews with eight adjunct faculty members, this study investigated the following research questions: (a) what are adjunct professor preferences for academic leaders; and (b) do ad- Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education 25 Joy A. Jones junct professor preferences for academic leaders align with leadership substitutes theory. Taking a phenomenological approach to this exploratory study permitted understanding of participant experiences in working with academic leaders. Although the study provides practical and theoretical implications for leaders of distributed employees in higher education, the study has limitations. The use of snowball sampling was effective in finding information rich cases (Patton, 2002); however, participants might have recommended others with similar views, ideas, and beliefs about the organization and leadership. Byrne’s (1971) similarity attraction paradigm suggests that people tend to be drawn toward individuals who are similar in terms of demographic characteristics, activities, and attitudes. Thus, the use of snowball sampling might have created a homogeneous sample. Although the sample varied in age, tenure, and teaching discipline, the homogeneity of race and gender may have limited the findings to a predominately-Caucasian male perspective. Furthermore, researcher bias could be a limitation in the study. The researcher served as an adjunct professor and, due to previous experiences working with an academic leader, the researcher may bring certain biases to the study. Although the researcher made efforts to ensure objectivity, biases might shape the way the researcher views and understands the data (Creswell, 2003). Bias cannot be fully eliminated. However, the researcher largely negated bias by the richness of the data and the use of clear and specific rules established prior to conducting interviews (Flanagan, 1954). The Role of Leadership Substitutes Theory in Adjunct Professor Preferences Leadership Kerr (1977) suggested that the assumption that leadership has powerful effects on the functioning of an organization is the basis for leadership theory. Yukl (2006) explained, “Leadership has been defined in terms of traits, behaviors, influence, interaction patterns, role relationships, and occupation of an administrative position” (p.2). Although there are multiple definitions of the construct (Stogdill, 1974), Yukl contended that most definitions of leadership include the following assumptions: (a) leadership involves a process, and (b) intentional influence is exerted by one person over another to guide, structure, and facilitate activities and relationships in a group or organization. The current study utilizes the following operational definition of leadership, “Leadership is an interactive process between the leader and follower whereby the leader attempts to influence the follower to achieve a desired goal” (Meadows, 1997, p.7). Academic Leadership Leadership development has received scarce attention in the realm of higher education (Astin, 1993). Gmelch and Wolverton (2002) suggested that effective academic leadership involves building community, setting direction, and empowering others. This study utilizes the following operational definition of academic leadership, “Academic leadership is the act of building a community of scholars to set direction and achieve common purposes through the empowerment of faculty and staff” (p. 5). Adjunct Professor THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Adjuncts are not a homogeneous group A review of the literature led to three fun- (Ronco & Cahill, 2004). Ronco and Cahill damental theoretical underpinnings for the noted, “In addition to the ‘aspiring academpresent study: (a) implicit leadership theory, ics’ who piece together part-time teaching (b) contingency theory, and (c) leadership assignments because full-time opportunities substitutes theory. Prior to discussing the are not available, there are professionals, speliterature, defining leadership, academic cialists and experts who bring the advantage leadership, and adjunct professor is im- of their primary careers to the classroom” (p.2). Furthermore, adjuncts may teach part perative. time as a transition into retirement or post26 Spring 2011 (Volume 7 Issue 1) retirement from full time teaching. For the purpose of the current study, adjunct professor refers to all “part time faculty who are hired either on a long term or short term basis, but paid on a part-time contract outside of the regular faculty pay plan” (Ronco & Cahill, p.2). Implicit Leadership Theory Implicit leadership theory refers to the general ideas that people have about traits and behavior of leaders. Eden and Leviatan (1975) developed the construct in their landmark study that asked participants to describe the leadership of a plant. Schyns (2006) explained that “implicit leadership theories are cognitive structures incorporating traits and behaviors that individuals associate with the word leader” (p.189). These schemata are stored into memory and activated when individuals encounter a leader (Kenney, Schwartz-Kenney, & Blascovich, 1996). Yukl (2006) explained that implicit leadership theories involve stereotypes or prototypes about characteristics pertinent to a particular type of position, individual, or context. Research has been conducted on the relationship between implicit leadership theory and performance appraisals (e.g.,Stumpf & London, 1981; Bauer & Baltes, 2002; Syhns, 2006); leader-member exchange theory (e.g., Engle & Lord, 1997; Epitropaki & Martin, 2005); relational leadership theory (UhlBien, 1996); organizational citizenship behavior (Heilman & Chen, 2005); charisma (Awamleh & Gardener, 1999); perceptions of transformational and transactional leadership (Maher, 1997); and small group leadership (Philips & Lord, 1982; Nye, 2002). Researchers have also examined implicit leadership theories and cross-cultural perceptions (e.g., House, Javidan, Hanges, & Dorfman, 2002), as well as gender bias (Eagly & Mladinic, 1989; Morrison & Von Glimow, 1990; Schyns, 2001; Sczesny, Bosak, Neff, & Schyns, 2004), and minority bias (Morrison & VonGlimow, 1990; Peterson & Dietz, 2005; Chung-Herrara & Lankau, 2005) as detriments to perceptions of leaders. Wisniewski (2007) reported that academic leaders are viewed as more competent and effective when they demonstrate the following characteristics: (a) development of a core set of values and vision; (b) effective communication, including listening, written and oral communication; (c) reflection and analysis; (d) creation of a positive climate; (e) problem solving and risk taking; (e) perseverance; and (f) collaboration and facilitation. Gmelch and Wolverton (2002) noted that perceptions of effective academic leadership stem from leaders demonstrating empowerment, direction setting, and community building. However, previous research on faculty indicates that academic behaviors are discipline specific. For instance, Gmelch and Wolverton contended that academic leaders exhibit differences in leadership attributes because of socialization into different disciplinary cultures. In a like manner, faculty preferences for leaders differ depending on the academic department or type of position. Yukl (2006) noted, “It is more difficult to assess leader competence when reliable indicators of performance are absent, the opportunity to observe the leader’s actions is not available, or a long delay occurs before leader actions affect performance” (p.129). Despite being part of specific academic disciplines, adjunct faculties may not be acculturated into academic departments to the degree of full time professors. In addition, adjunct professors may not receive reliable and timely indicators of performance or opportunities to observe leader actions. Thus, adjunct faculty preferences for academic leader attributes may be contingent on the situation. Contingency Theories Contingency models of leadership (Fiedler, 1964) emerged as an answer to Stogdill’s (1948) “call for an approach based on the interaction of leader traits with situational parameters” (Chemers, 2000, p.29). Contingency theories encompass models that explain leadership effectiveness in terms of situational moderators. Contingency implies that the relationship between leadership traits/behaviors and effectiveness is contingent upon as- Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education 27 Joy A. Jones pects of the situation. McPherson et al. (1986) noted that designers of situational models of leadership (e.g., Fiedler, 1964; House, 1971; Hersey & Blanchard, 1977; Kerr & Jermier, 1978) agree that leadership effectiveness varies according to the nature of environmental factors. Examples of contingency models of leadership include path goal theory (House, 1971), least preferred coworker contingency theory (Fiedler, 1964), situational leadership theory (Hersey & Blanchard, 1977), cognitive resource theory (Fiedler & Garcia, 1987), and leadership substitutes theory (Kerr & Jermier, 1978). Leadership Substitutes Theory Kerr and Jermier’s (1978) leadership substitutes theory asserts that aspects of a situation can reduce the importance of leadership. Although the literature on leadership substitutes theory is not extensive and has attracted strong criticism (Dione et al., 2002; Keller, 2006), Keller concluded, “leader behaviors and substitutes account for unique variance in subordinate attitudes and performance” (p.204). Yukl (2006) explained the leadership substitutes model was developed to “identify aspects of the situation that may reduce the importance of leadership by managers and other formal leaders” (p. 225). Specifically, the theory distinguishes between two types of situational variables: neutralizers and substitutes. Yukl suggested that neutralizers “are any characteristics of the task or organization that prevent a leader from acting in a specified way or that nullify the effects of the leader’s actions” (p.225). Kerr and Jermier (1978) proposed thirteen dimensions, which may neutralize the effectiveness of leaders, such as: (a) follower’s ability, experience, training, and knowledge; (b) follower’s professional orientation; (c) intrinsically satisfying tasks; (d) closely knit cohesive work groups; (e) the follower’s need for independence; and (f) spatial distance between superior and subordinate. Yukl (2006) defined substitutes as aspects that “make leader behavior unnecessary or redundant…any characteristics …that ensure subordinates will clearly understand their 28 The Role of Leadership Substitutes Theory in Adjunct Professor Preferences roles, know how to do their work, be highly motivated, and be satisfied with their jobs” (p.225). Fratangelo (1999) noted that characteristics of the individual, task, and the organization might act as substitutes and neutralizers for leadership. In the original conceptualization of the model, Kerr and Jermier (1978) focused on identifying substitutes and neutralizers for supportive (i.e., consideration) and instrumental leadership (i.e., initiating structure). The theorists noted that professional orientation, intrinsic motivation, and cohesive workgroups might substitute for leadership, while dispersed subordinate work sites could neutralize leadership influence. Researchers, such as Weiss (1989) and Fratangelo (1999), reported that teachers perceive themselves as professionals. Bass (1998) argued that, in teaching, professionalism includes commitment to caring and commitment to the profession. Fratangelo suggested that educators are committed to pursuing certain paths because of their desire to conform to organizational and professional norms rather than because of leadership. Furthermore, Scott (1966) explained that professionals in bureaucratic organizations resist authority and cultivate horizontal rather than vertical relationships. Research on distributed employees indicates that subordinates, whose supervisors cannot observe their daily performance and activities, search for other sources of leadership and direction (Luby, 2001). As distributed and sometimes disconnected employees, adjunct professors may have different needs than full time professors. Although some studies have been conducted on leadership substitutes theory and education (e.g., Fratangelo, 1999; Pitner, 1988), research on adjunct professors preferences for academic leaders and leadership substitutes theory is nonexistent. METHODOLOGY The current study employed a qualitative research methodology to collect and analyze data. Erickson (1986) contended that conceptions of qualitative data emerge during Spring 2011 (Volume 7 Issue 1) data analysis. Therefore, this study did not test defined hypotheses. Participants Patton (2002) explained, “Qualitative inquiry typically focuses in depth on relatively small samples, selected purposefully” (p. 230). Purposeful sampling allows selection of information rich cases (Patton). In the current study, the researcher utilized snowballsampling procedures to select participants. In accordance with snowball sampling, the first interviewee contacted another in order to increase rapport and trust between the researcher and the participants (Quader & Oplatka, 2008). A colleague recommended the initial participant. The study sample consisted of eight adjunct professors from a community college in the northeast. Six participants were male and two were female. Participants varied in age: three participants were 25-35, two participants 35-45, one participant 45-55, and two participants were sixty or over. All participants were Caucasian. Participants represented diverse teaching disciplines and departments, and varied in years of experience teaching. Data collection procedure This study utilized a phenomenological approach in order to understand participant experiences with academic leadership. Husserl (1965) explained that researchers should “exclude all empirical interpretation and existential affirmations” (p.577). The nature of phenomenology encourages the researcher to remain distant and unbiased in the discovery of meanings. Flanagan (1954) suggested that establishing rules eliminates potential bias and allows data collection to be more simplistic. In the current study, the researcher established clear and specific rules prior to conducting research in order to reduce potential researcher bias. Utilizing structured, open-ended interviews, this study employed Seidman’s (2006) recommendations for interviewing including (a) avoiding leading questions, (c) limiting researcher interaction, (d) tape recording interviews, and (e) tran- scribing interview tapes. Following Creswell’s (2003) guidelines, the interviews began with a grand tour question (i.e. what do you want in an academic leader) , followed by four follow up questions (i.e. what kind of specific interactions do you need from your leader, what would you like to see regarding communication with your leader, what specific behaviors of your leader do you believe are effective, and what specific behaviors of your leader to you believe are ineffective). The researcher interviewed participants face to face in various locations at the participants teaching institution. Interviews were video recorded, supplemented with field notes of the data. Prior to taking part in the interviews, the researcher provided participants with background information including (a) the purpose of the study, (b) sponsorship (i.e., data were collected as part of a doctoral research project), and (c) anonymity. Data analysis procedure Marshall and Rossman (1999) suggested that data collection analysis in qualitative research should be a simultaneous process. Flanagan (1954) explained that researchers should classify and transcribe information while information is fresh. For this reason, the researcher transcribed interviews verbatim immediately following data collection. The researcher took field noted as a precaution for losing data. The analysis of this study followed Tesch’s (1990) thematic coding procedures. The researcher read the data several times and took notes on patterns and regularities, coded the data into categories, and then grouped and compared the data. ATLAS version 6 qualitative software aided thematic coding. In order to ensure internal validity, the researcher utilized member checking and peer review procedures. The participants reviewed the final themes to determine whether the findings were accurate reflections of their experience (Creswell, 2003). Furthermore, another professor at the researcher’s institution reviewed the transcriptions and coded themes, checking for accuracy. In addition, the researcher ensured internal validity by presenting negative or discrepant information and by clarifying bias (Creswell). Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education 29 Joy A. Jones The Role of Leadership Substitutes Theory in Adjunct Professor Preferences they were intrinsically motivated to do their job and did not need to be motivated by a The following themes emerged from the anal- leader. One participant explained, “I look ysis of the data: micromanagement, profes- for distance and confidence in my expertise. sionalism, resources, supportive leader, and I don’t want anybody in my backyard. I have informal communication. been teaching for many years and I want my leader to have faith in my ability.” Findings Micromanagement and Professionalism A common theme in the data included negative attribution to academic leaders who micromanaged. The theme of micromanagement emerged twenty-two times in the data. One participant explicitly stated, “Micro managers put too much stress on the people they manage.” Another participant explained that an effective academic leader should be “confident, efficient, delegating, the opposite of a micro manager.” Participants indicated that effective academic leadership encompassed treating faculty as professionals. Three participants used the term professional as the opposite of micromanager. The following comments from the interviews further explain the theme of professionalism. • I need a leader who understands we are part time and we have other things going on. We are still experienced professionals though and we don’t need to be talked down to [sic]. They often belittle the contributions of adjunct faculty. • I don’t want a leader who diminishes what I bring to the table. The leadership needs to be more professional and less micromanaged. It’s operated here like a factory or an industrial plant, not like a professional environment. • We get paid nothing and they expect a lot from us. I am a professional. I don’t cut class just for the heck of it. I should be treated like a professional. I had surgery and they wanted to dock my pay for missing class. I feel like there is a parent child relationship. We are treated childishly rather than professionally. Participants also remarked that micromanagement was a sign of distrust. One participant suggested, “A good academic leader delegates authority and trusts the people they delegate to.” Participants also suggested that 30 Resources When asked what specific interaction or communication the participants wanted from academic leaders, the majority of participants reported wanting interaction that related to scheduling, textbooks, and the goals and objectives of the institution. None of the participants indicated wanting or needing more communication from their leader. One participant explicitly stated, “All I need from my leader are the resources to do my job.” Other participants indicated: • I like my own space; I don’t want to be contacted all the time. • All I need to know is the book, the schedule and that is it. • I just need to know what affects me as a teacher. • I need someone who will get the schedule done in a timely manner and let me know about events happening on campus. • It would be good if adjunct faculty could access the minutes to department meetings since we are not able to attend. • The leader should articulate goals and objectives of the department and college. • A leader is effective when the employees are clear about the college mission statement, goals, and objectives. We get a lot of broad emails about the college plans and those are good. Supportive Leadership. A few participants reported wanting a supportive leader. When describing an ideal academic leader, the majority of participants indicated that they wanted a leader who was supportive, open, and approachable but left them alone to be independent. One participant reported that Spring 2011 (Volume 7 Issue 1) he did not want to be micromanaged, but suggested that the academic leader should be visible on campus. Another participant noted, “It would be nice to have someone to contact about issues or problems. I don’t want too much involvement though. I guess there is a fine line there.” Several participants suggested that approachability was an important characteristic of an academic leader. Many participants also acknowledged that they wanted a leader with previous teaching experience in order to understand the needs of adjunct faculty. Informal Communication Surprisingly, the theme of informal communication emerged in almost every interview. Although most participants did not report needing more interaction with or communication from their leader, all participants suggested the need for informal communication networks among adjunct professors. Furthermore, the participants who suggested a need to improve formal communication linked the discussion to a failure of informal communication networks. In addition, many participants acknowledged feeling disconnected from the institution and reported that improvement in informal networks would help them feel connected. Participants reported: • Adjuncts don’t have much of a presence on campus and this is because they are not paid to be here so they leave. Adjuncts should have some place to meet on campus that is bright and open. We need a place where we can meet and bounce off ideas. • We are often not around and don’t get notified about campus events. The grapevine is important for us and it doesn’t flow to us most of the time. Since the grapevine doesn’t flow, we need better information on campus events and happenings. • Adjuncts often feel isolated and don’t get connected. I would like to see a group of adjuncts joining together in a network. Communication with my colleagues is more important to me. It is important not just to come and go but to be connected to the group. • If someone is new, they [sic] may feel like they are floundering. This is probably going to come from us making a community for ourselves. • I would like face-to-face meetings with all adjuncts. It seems like adjuncts are breaking apart from full time faculty and aren’t a part of the group. Adjuncts need a place to meet and talk to other adjuncts and discuss problems and concerns. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Data analysis revealed that adjunct professor preferences for leadership attributes align with leadership substitutes theory. Kerr and Jermier (1978) noted that aspects of the situation that may substitute for leadership include any characteristic of the subordinate, task, or organization that ensure employees understand their roles, know how to do the work, motivate employees, and provide job satisfaction. Although distance between an academic leader and adjunct professors might neutralize the effects of leadership, informal communication appears to substitute for leadership. These findings align with Kerr and Jermier’s discussion of neutralizers and substitutes for supportive and instrumental leadership. Although participants want leaders who are supportive and approachable, they prefer not to be micromanaged. For adjunct instructors, micromanagement is the antithesis of professionalism and trust. The study reveals that adjunct instructors need formal directives regarding schedules, campus events, textbooks, and other resources, but seek informal communication networks for motivation and direction. As Gmelch and Wolverton (2002) noted, “Academic leadership is the act of building a community of scholars to a set direction and achieve common purposes through the empowerment of faculty and staff” (p.5). This study’s findings reveal the importance of community and empowerment in the academic leadership of adjunct professors. Furthermore, this study’s findings support Scott’s (1966) assertion that Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education 31 Joy A. Jones The Role of Leadership Substitutes Theory in Adjunct Professor Preferences professionals in educational institutions re- Dionne, S. D., Yammarino , F. J., Atwater , L. E., sist authority and cultivate horizontal rather & James, L. R. (2002). Neutralizing substithan vertical relationships. From a practical tutes for leadership theory: Leadership effects perspective, the findings indicate that acaand common source bias. 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Retrieved October 18, 2009, from www.academicleadership.org Yukl , G. (2006). Leadership in organizations (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson . Schein, V. E. (2001). A global look at psychological barriers to women’s progress in management. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 675-688. Scott , W. R. (1966). Professionals in bureaucracies: Areas of conflict . In H. Volmer, & D. Mills (Eds.), Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Sczesny, S., Bosak, J., Neff, D., & Schyns, B. (2004). Gender stereotypes and the attribution of leadership traits: A cross-cultural comparison. Sex Roles, 51, 631-645. Seidman , I. (2006). Interviewing as qualitative research (3rded.). New York: Teachers College Press. Stogdill, R. (1948). Personal factors associated with leadership: A survey of the literature. Journal of Psychology, 25, 35-71. Stogdill, R. M. (1974). Handbook of leadership: A survey of the literature . New York: Free Press. Stumpf, S. A., & London, M. (1981). Capturing rater policies in evaluating candidates for Promotion. Academy of Management Journal, 24, 752-766. Tesch, R. (1990). Qualitative research: Analysis types and software tools. New York: Falmer. Uhl-Bien, M. (2006). Relational leadership theory: Exploring the social processes of leadership and organizing. The Leadership Quarterly, 17(6), 654-676. Weiss , J. A. (1989). Theories in control in organizations: Lessons in schools. Paper de- 34 Spring 2011 (Volume 7 Issue 1) Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education 35 Joy A. Jones 36 The Role of Leadership Substitutes Theory in Adjunct Professor Preferences Spring 2011 (Volume 7 Issue 1) Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education 37 Joy A. Jones 38 The Role of Leadership Substitutes Theory in Adjunct Professor Preferences Spring 2011 (Volume 7 Issue 1) Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education 39 Joy A. Jones 40 The Role of Leadership Substitutes Theory in Adjunct Professor Preferences Spring 2011 (Volume 7 Issue 1) Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education 41 Joy A. Jones 42 The Role of Leadership Substitutes Theory in Adjunct Professor Preferences Spring 2011 (Volume 7 Issue 1) Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education 43 Joy A. Jones 44 Spring 2011 (Volume 7 Issue 1) Online and Traditional Courses: What are Demographic Differences? Tim Klaus College of Business Texas A&M University–Corpus Christi Corpus Christi, Texas Chuleeporn Changchit College of Business Texas A&M University–Corpus Christi Corpus Christi, Texas ABSTRACT The number of online courses offered by higher education institutions and the number of students enrolling in these courses continues to grow. The wide-spread availability of high-speed Internet, technological advances of software used for online courses, and increasing numbers of non-traditional students enrolled in college courses contribute to this growth. This study examines the demographic differences between students in online courses versus traditional courses. Over four semesters, the demographic data was examined to determine what significant differences exist between students enrolled in an online section of a required core business course and a traditional section of the same required core business class. Four demographics are found which are significantly different between the online and traditional sections of a course. The differences and conclusions from the data analysis are discussed. INTRODUCTION Traditionally, distance-learning classes were offered through the mail. This provided some flexibility to students as assignments and tests could be completed remotely and sent in to the university for grading. The problems with this course medium were the slow correspondence and minimal lack of interaction with instructors. Thus, many universities chose not to offer courses in this format. However, over the past 15 years, online courses have overcome these negative aspects as near instantaneous interaction became available. In addition, the various tools offered by online course interfaces such as email, online discussion boards, real-time chat rooms, whiteboards, the posting of files, and online whiteboards have led to an improved learning forum. The number of online courses offered by universities as well as the number of students enrolled in these courses has increased greatly over the past few years. As college demographics change and technological tools are available and widely adapted, the education needs are altered and there is a higher demand for more flexible and convenient methods in obtaining a higher education (Klaus & Changchit, 2009). One study reports that the number of students enrolled in at least one online course doubled to four million between the years 2003 and 2008 (Clark, 2009). No longer are higher education institutions focused on just the traditional, right out of high school, full-time students who live on campus since many students are now completing degrees while working full-time. This leads to a greater demand for flexible classes as job schedules are often unpredictable and the desire to minimize time commuting to the college campus. From the perspective of universities and instructors developing online courses today, questions remain regarding the cost of successfully implementing online courses as well as the quality of online courses. For students, there are many viewpoints that exist regarding whether an online course is desired. Some students prefer taking online courses while others are very hesitant Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education 45 Tim Klaus & Chuleeporn Changchit to enroll in an online section of a course if a traditional section is available. Thus, this study seeks to examine if there are any demographic differences between students desiring an online section versus students who desire a traditional section of a course. To pursue this objective, this study discusses prior studies that relate to student perceptions of online courses. The methodology of this study is then discussed, followed by an analysis of the data collection and a discussion of the results. This knowledge should lead university administrators as well as instructors designing online courses to better tailor courses to the students that enroll in them. LITERATURE REVIEW Some case studies have shown that technology can be an effective tool at enabling course instruction (Tennent, Windeknecht, and Kehoe, 2004; Hong, 2002; Lee, Tan, and Goh, 2004). Online courses provide some benefits over traditional course instruction as it can help to individualize the education process. Students taking online courses are forced to have a greater degree of self-reliance and discipline. Students who do not put forth the required initiative in the course will likely fail the course, which may be a reason why online courses tend to have a slightly higher failure rate than traditional courses. However, students which do take charge of their own learning often end up increasing their level of learning in the course. Typically, students who better handle online course formats have been shown to be those who are more independent, self-motivated, and with clear career goals. Lower retention rates for online courses have been attributed to reasons such as lack of personal interaction, inexperienced faculty, students unaware of the expectations, and students with multiple obligations. Students’ willingness and ability to adapt to the environment and work within the online environment are usually found to be the major determinants of satisfaction with the learning experience (Stokes 2001). Online and Traditional Courses: What are Demographic Differences? teleconferencing via telephone and video, are necessary for classes to be effective (Hazari, 2004). It is important that institutions assess what is effective for their students and the types of courses before structuring the online aspects. The type of course that best suits a student should not be determined solely by the administration, but through soliciting student input as classes that follow a more traditional classroom setting may not be appropriate in some cases while in others it is. Even if financial data may support the use of online courses in terms of saving money, it would not be beneficial to implement the online courses if there was resistance by students (Wang, 2004). Online courses are growing in number, both in the number offered in universities and in the number of students participating in the classes (Lee, Tan, and Goh, 2004). These courses can be tailored in several ways, with varying degrees of video, web-material and participation of faculty members that best suits the student population, the course, and the time-frame. No one format for a course is best for everyone or for every course. Therefore, it is especially important that institutions take these characteristics into consideration when tailoring their courses with online formats. Understanding the characteristics of students who are attracted to online courses can help determine the format and options for course design so the course may be most effective at providing a learning environment. From the perspective of higher learning institutions, an important concern is to develop the courses that best allow the students to participate and gain an appropriate learning experience (Lam, 2005). It is important that institutions conduct a prior assessment of students’ attitudes toward online courses in order to make an optimum course for the institution as well as its participants. This study examines the demographics of students, analyzing the differences between students enrolled in an online section and a traditional section of a course. The following section describes the demographic factors that may affect students’ preference towards online courses. For this study, we are exploring the demographics of students to determine if there are significant differences between students who are taking an online section of a course and those that are taking a traditional section of a course. The following hypotheses are proposed and will be tested in this study: H1: There is no significant difference in the gender of students taking an online course versus students taking a traditional course. H2: There is no significant difference in the age of students taking an online course versus students taking a traditional course. H3: There is no significant difference in the ethnicity of students taking an online course versus students taking a traditional course. H4: There is no significant difference in the employment status of students taking an online course versus students taking a traditional course. H5: There is no significant difference in the distance a campus is from the home of students taking an online course versus students taking a traditional course. Research Model H6: There is no significant difference in the prior experience of online courses of students taking an online course versus students taking a traditional course. H7: There is no significant difference in the owning a computer of students taking an online course versus students taking a traditional course. H8: There is no significant difference in the level of Internet access at home of students taking an online course versus students taking a traditional course. Based on the hypotheses described above, the model used to guide this research is illustrated in Figure 1 below. Eight measurement variables and one response variable were measured as follows: METHODOLOGY A questionnaire was developed to investigate the hypotheses. To derive the questions, two instruments created by Rovai (2002) and Driver (2002) were adapted and combined (Changchit and Hostetler, 2003). Additional minor changes in wording were made to tailor the questionnaire versions to their respective settings. Two professors were asked to pretest the questionnaire in order to ensure its clarity. Their feedback was incorporated into the final version. Figure 1 Research Model Gender (H1) Age (H2) Ethnicity (H3) Employment Status (H4) Distance from Home (H5) Decision to Take an Online or a Traditional Class Have Taken an Online Course (H6) Computer Owned (H7) As most organizations have been demanding technological familiarity, it is important for universities to assess what parts/types of technology best suit their courses. Not all options, such as 46 PROPOSED DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS AND RESEARCH MODEL Internet Access at Home (H8) Measurement Variables Spring 2011 (Volume 7 Issue 1) Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education Response Variable 47 Tim Klaus & Chuleeporn Changchit Data were collected from Junior and Senior level Business students enrolled in a required Management Information System (MIS) course. The same instructor taught this course over the period of four semesters. Every semester, this MIS course had both an online section (fully online through the Blackboard classroom management portal), and a traditional section (taught fully in a classroom). Both online and traditional students responded to the same questions, but the questionnaire format differed. To obtain the responses from students in the traditional section of the course, the questionnaire was hand distributed in order to encourage them to respond. These participants were given the survey and allowed class time to complete the survey. Sixtytwo (58 were valid responses) students taking the traditional section voluntarily responded to the questionnaire. For the online students, the questionnaire was created as a web form. An email was sent to all students in the online section with a hyperlink to the online questionnaire, requesting their participation in the questionnaire. One hundred and thirty-two (126 were valid responses) students taking the online section responded to the questionnaire. The questionnaires informed students that all responses would be anonymous and there was no question included which would allow anyone to identify a particular student. In addition, students were informed that their decision to participate in the study was completely voluntary. Table 1 summarizes demographics of the respondents. ANALYSIS DATA ANALYSIS In order to test the hypotheses stated in the prior section, two groups were created (Online and Traditional), based solely on whether the student was in the online section or the traditional section of the course. ANOVA was used to examine the differences of these groups based on the demographic data obtained from the students. The results of Hypotheses H1-H8 are summarized in Table 2, which shows ANOVA results pertaining to the hypotheses. 48 Online and Traditional Courses: What are Demographic Differences? H1 – there is a significant difference in the gender between students that chose online versus traditional sections of the course. Females took a significantly higher portion of online sections. H2 – there is no significant difference in the ages of students that took the online section versus those that took the traditional section of the course. H3 – there is no significant differences in the ethnicities that took the online section versus the traditional section of the course. H4 – there is a significant difference in the employment status of students taking the online section versus the traditional section of the course. A much larger percentage of students not employed enrolled in the online class while a much larger percentage of students who were employed either part-time or full-time enrolled in the traditional section of the course. H5 – there is a significant difference in the distance from students’ homes to the university between students enrolled in the online section versus the traditional section of the course. For students living 30 minutes or less from campus, there was a higher percentage which chose the traditional section. For students living 30 minutes or more from campus, there was a much larger percentage that chose the online section. H6 – there is a significant difference in previously online course experience between the students which chose the online section versus the traditional section. The online section had a significantly higher percentage of students who had previously taken an online course. The traditional section had a significantly lower percentage of students who had previously taken an online course. H7 – no significant difference was found between the online and traditional sections for whether students own a computer at home. H8 – no significant difference was found between the online and traditional sections for whether students had Internet access at home. Spring 2011 (Volume 7 Issue 1) Table 1 Respondent Demographics Male Gender Computer at Home Computer at Work Traditional Online Traditional Online Traditional Online Taken an Online Course Traditional Before Online Employment Status Traditional Online Internet Access at Home Traditional Online Computer Knowledge Ethnicity Age Traditional Online 31 (53.4%) 46 (36.5%) Yes 57 (98.3%) 125 (99.2%) Yes 50 (86.2%) 66 (52.4%) Yes 35 (60.3%) 94 (74.6%) Full Time 31 (53.4%) 45 (35.7%) Part Time 20 (34.5%) 3 (2.4%) None Dial-up 2 (3.4%) 7 (5.6%) Very Poor Poor 1 (1.7%) 3 (5.2%) 3 (2.4%) 2 (1.6%) 1 (1.7%) 5 (4.0%) Fair 8 (13.8%) 24 (19.0%) Anglo Traditional Online Traditional Online University’s Distance from Traditional Home Online Female 30 (51.7%) 69 (54.8%) Under 18 1 (1.7%) 3 (2.4%) <10 min. 14 (24.1%) 2 (23.8%) Asian Black 4 (6.9%) 2 (3.4%) 12 (9.5%) 2 (1.6%) 18-25 >25-35 43 (75.4%) 9 (15.5%) 84 (66.7%) 32 (25.4%) 10-30 min. >30-60 min. 32 (55.2%) 11 (19.0%) 54 (42.9%) 32 (25.4%) 27 (46.6%) 80 (63.5%) No 1 (1.7%) 1 (0.8%) No 8 (13.8%) 60 (47.6%) No 23 (39.7%) 32 (25.4%) Not employed 7 (12.1%) 78 (61.9%) High speed (i.e., DSL, Cable) 55 (94.8%) 114 (90.5%) Good Very Good 24 (41.4%) 22 (37.9%) 58 (46.0%) 39 (31%) Native Hispanic American 22 (37.9%) 0 (0.0%) 42 (33.3%) 1 (0.8%) >35-50 Over 50 4 (6.9%) 1 (1.7%) 6 (4.8%) 1 (0.8%) 1-2 hours >2 hours 1 (1.7%) 0 (0.0%) 2 (1.6%) 8 (6.3%) Table 2 ANOVA Results Hypothesis H1 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 H7 H8 Demographic Gender Age Ethnicity Employment Status Distance from Home Taken an Online Course Previously Own Computer at Home Have Internet Access at Home F Value 4.7538** 0.0002 0.2752 2.8099* 2.8765* 3.8927* 0.3169 0.7791 * p<0.10 ** p<0.05 Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education 49 Tim Klaus & Chuleeporn Changchit DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION As shown in the results section, there are various significant differences in the demographics of students who are taking online sections of a course versus students taking traditional sections of a course. Gender, employment status, distance the university is from a student’s home, and whether a student has taken an online course previously all are significant demographic differences between the sections of the course. The results for gender is consistent with previous studies (Rothmund, 2008), as a higher level of females tend to enroll in online courses, although there is little consensus regarding the reason. Distance from the university was expected since the convenience of an online course tends to be an important factor why students choose an online course. In addition, it was expected that students who have taken an online course will be more likely to take another online course. It was typical that students who tend to choose an online course once have various reasons to do so such as preferring that instruction medium and the convenience of online courses; thus these students are likely to repeat the choice of enrolling in an online section. However, of the four significant factors that were identified, the result of employment status was a surprising finding. Previous research has indicated that flexibility is a major benefit of online courses (i.e., Drennan, 2005), which implies that students who are employed full-time or part-time would be more likely to enroll in an online course. However, the opposite was found in this study since it was the students not employed which constituted a significantly larger percentage of students who selected the online course. This may be due to a large number of night classes offered at the university in which this study was conducted. Since night classes were available, students employed full- or part-time may have not needed the flexibility of schedule available with online courses and thought it may be easier to participate in a traditional course after a long day of work rather than setting forth the self-discipline often required to complete online courses. Another reason could be that since few online courses are offered at the university, students who are not employed prefer an online course if it is available in order to have more variety in course offerings. 50 Online and Traditional Courses: What are Demographic Differences? The other four factors, age, ethnicity, owning a computer at home, and Internet access at home, did not result in significant differences between the students enrolled in the online section versus the traditional section of the course. Of these, age was a surprising result with a very low and non-significant f-value. Since previous studies have suggested that college students that are not of the traditional college age (18-23) prefer online courses (Rothmund, 2008), the fact that no significant difference was found is surprising. However, upon looking on the data further, over 90% of respondents for both the traditional section and the online section ranged in age from 18-35 years old. Since the courses did not have many students in other age categories, the data may have been skewed, causing the data analysis not to detect differences that may exist in the 35 and above age categories. For universities considering online classes, this study presents several areas that a university can focus on. Since there are gender, employment status, distance from home, and previous online course experience differences between students that take online sections and traditional sections of a course, courses can be better tailored to meet the students enrolled in each class. Course designers should be aware of the demographics of students more likely to take the course to better meet their learning needs. In addition, a university could promote online courses in such a way that students more likely to prefer online courses are aware of the options available to them. These initial findings warrant further investigation. To achieve a better understanding of all of the demographics in online courses, future research should gather more demographic data from a larger sample base, so that demographics such as age have large categories of data particularly in the age categories above 35. Furthermore, investigating the characteristics of courses that are better suited as online courses would benefit higher education institutions striving to meet the needs of students. REFERENCES Changchit, C. and Hostetler, E. (2003). A Comparative Study of Student Perceptions: Online Spring 2011 (Volume 7 Issue 1) vs. Traditional Classrooms. Communications of the IIMA Journal, 3(3), 107-118. Clark, Kim. (2009). Online Education Offers Access and Affordability. U.S. News and World Report. April 2. http://www. usnews.com/articles/education/online-education/2009/04/02/online-education-offers-access-and-affordability.html, accessed 1/29/2010. Drennan, Judy and Jessica Kennedy. (2005). “Factors Affecting Student Attitudes Toward Flexible Online Learning in Management Education.” The Journal of Educational Research. Jul/Aug. 98(6), 331-338. Driver, M. (2002). Exploring Student Perceptions of Group Interaction and Class Satisfaction in the Web-Enhanced Classroom. The Internet and Higher Education, 5(1), 35-45. Rovai, A.P. (2002). Development of an Instrument to Measure Classroom Community. The Internet and Higher Education, 5(3), 197-211. Stokes, S. P. (2001). Satisfaction of college students with the digital learning environment: Do learners’ temperaments make a difference? The Internet and Higher Education, 4(1), 3144. Tennent, B., Windeknecht, K., & Kehoe, J. (2004). Teaching with technology: Valueadded innovation or necessity? Campus-Wide Information Systems, 21(4), 144. Wang, W. (2004). How university students view online study: A PCP perspective. CampusWide Information Systems, 21(3), 108. Hazari, S. (2004). Strategy for assessment of online course discussion. Journal of Information Systems Education, 15(4), 349-355. Hong, K. (2002). Relationships between students’ and instructional variables with satisfaction learning from a Web-based course. The Internet and Higher Education, 5(3), 267-281. Klaus, T. and Changchit, C. “Online or Traditional: A Study to Examine Course Characteristic Contributing to Students’ Preference on Classroom Settings,” International Journal of Information & Communication Technology Education, V(3), 2009, pp. 14-23. Lam, W. (2005). Teaching e-business online: The Universitas 21 global approach. Journal of Electronic Commerce in Organizations, 3(3), 18-41. Lee, C. S., Tan, D. T. H. T., & Goh, W. S. (2004). The next generation of e-learning: Strategies for media rich online teaching and engaged learning. International Journal of Distance Education Technologies, 2(4), 1-16. Rothmund, Constance. (2008). Correlation between Course Interactivity and Reported Levels of Student Satisfaction in Hybrid Courses. Dissertation – Capella University. Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education 51 Tim Klaus & Chuleeporn Changchit 52 Spring 2011 (Volume 7 Issue 1) Is it More Than Just GPA? An Examination of Work Experience and Test Preparation Effects on MFT-B Scores Susie S. Cox McNeese State University Lake Charles, Louisiana Jiun-Shiu Chen McNeese State University Lake Charles, Louisiana Jeff Totten McNeese State University Lake Charles, Louisiana ABSTRACT This study looks beyond the individual demographic characteristics that may influence performance scores on standardized tests such as the Educational Testing Service’s Major Field Test in Business (MFT-B). We investigated the influence of grade point average (GPA), work experience, perceived preparedness, review sessions, and practice exams on student performance on the MFT-B. Our findings reveal that in addition to students’ GPA, students reporting having more work experience scored higher on the MFT-B than students reporting less work experience did. Furthermore, students that felt their college course work had prepared them for the exam also scored higher than those students who perceived not being well prepared by college course work. We did not find a significant relationship between attending review sessions or taking practice exams and performance on the MFT-B. These findings and possible implications are discussed. INTRODUCTION Although assessment has always been a critical element of education, it has gained renewed attention from colleges of business seeking to receive and maintain accreditation. Accrediting bodies such as the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB) set standards for colleges of business to meet in order to gain and maintain accreditation of programs. AACSB (2010) requires that the college develops learning goals based on its mission, assesses the progression toward goals, and monitors revisions in curriculum taken to move toward achievement of learning goals. To ensure quality of programs at all accredited institutions, minimum standards for a broad business education are defined; however, specific learning objectives of the college are to be determined by the participative faculty. Because of the broad base of general business knowledge required, many colleges have one or more learning goals that address basic business knowledge that warrant assessment. AACSB does not specify the types of assessment tools to be used in the assessment process. It only requires that there be direct assessments of student learning. Course embedded questions, projects, presentations and standardized tests are all part of the assessor’s toolbox. However, each type of assessment comes with both advantages and disadvantages (see Pringle & Michel, 2007). For example, multiple instructors and multiple sections of courses can complicate the assessment process. Recent research has also suggested that there may be a cohort effect on assessment (Contreras, Badua, Chen, & Adrian, in press). Therefore, assessors must put careful thought Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education 53 Susie S. Cox, Jiun-Shiu Chen, & Jeff Totten, into which form of assessment will provide the greatest benefit in spite of the disadvantages. As part of the movement to establish direct assessments that confirm student learning, a number of colleges have begun to use comprehensive standardized tests to evaluate students’ knowledge. The Major Field Test in Business (MFTB) developed by Educational Testing Service (ETS) is an assessment tool designed to evaluate basic learning outcomes in the area of business education. The MFT-B assesses a variety of core business areas such as accounting, economics, management, information systems, quantitative business analysis, finance, marketing, legal and social environment, and international issues (ets. org, 2010). The MFT-B offers several benefits. It not only allows assessment of individual students but also allows schools to compare results with other schools. Thus, the MFT-B allows colleges to benchmark their progress with other colleges across the United States. To date, there have been a number of studies in various disciplines that have examined the relationship of comprehensive test performance and grade point average (GPA), major field of study (Contreras, et al., in press), demographic variables (i.e., gender, age) (Loewen, Roessen, & Katzman, 1988; Buckless, Lipe, & Ravenscroft, 1991), and individual states such as motivation (Bycio & Allen, 2007: Bagamery, Lasik, & Nixon, 2005; Terry, Mills & Sollosy, 2008). Bycio and Allen (2007) found that core business GPA was a significant predictor of MFAT-B performance as well as other GPAs and SAT scores. In addition, student motivation was found to be associated with MFAT-B performance. This study supported their findings from a previous study (Allen & Bycio, 1997). Terry et al. (2008) found that when ETS performance is part of the capstone course grade, students’ performance on the MFT test increased. Contreras et al. (in press) found that in addition to age, gender, and GPA, students’ major was related with performance on the MFT. These findings suggest that the differences in curriculum could influence performance on the exam. Yet, there remains virtually a limitless number of factors that can and do influence performance on standardized testing. Therefore, in the present study, we attempted to replicate findings of prior 54 Is it More Than Just GPA? An Examination of Work Experience and Test Preparation Effects research and extend the knowledge by examining additional variables: review session, practice exams, perceived preparedness and work experience. The college of business where the data were collected was interested in evaluating the effectiveness of newly implemented review sessions and practice exams provided by the college. Because a large percentage of the student body is employed, the college also was interested in the effect of work experience on MFT-B performance scores. From these interests, we developed several hypotheses, which are provided in the section that follows. HYPOTHESES Our first hypothesis for this study was to replicate previous findings that posit grade point average is positively related to MFT scores (Allen & Bycio, 1997; Bycio & Allen, 2007; Contreras et al., in press). Therefore, the following hypothesis is offered. H1: Student’s GPA will be positively related to MFT scores. The perception that the content of the MFT-B was measuring what was learned in coursework may be viewed as the student’s ability to recall course material and understand its relevance. The survey given to the students after they completed the MFT-B addressed this by asking the question, “How well do you feel that your college course work has prepared you for this exam?” The following hypothesis is offered. H2: Student’s perception of college coursework preparing them for the MFT exam will be positively related to MFT scores. With the rising educational cost, more and more students have to work to support themselves and the educational expenses. The Bureau of Labor and Statistics reported that 54.1 percent of college students are employed (bls.gov, 2008). Employment in addition to being a college student is often viewed as a disadvantage. Employment may reduce time for study, class attendance, and course projects or homework. In addition, there may be an added level of stress by having to deal with work demands and inflexible bosses. To address this concern, the survey asked, “How many years have you worked more than 20 hours Spring 2011 (Volume 7 Issue 1) a week?” The purpose of the question was to address the issues that many small regional universities face. Students often attempt to work more than part-time while registered in college as full-time students. Having additional demands on one’s time would seem to present a challenge for the student to learn and retain information from the course work. Therefore, the following hypothesis is offered. H3: The years of work experience will be negatively related to MFT scores. Some schools, in hopes of improving standardized test scores, provide review sessions for students and encourage students to take practice exams. We believe that review sessions and practice exams would be helpful since students may have taken foundation courses several years before they take the MFT-B. The review sessions and practice exams would help students recall course material from foundation courses. Therefore, by attending the review session and taking practice exams it is posited that students’ performance on the MFT-B test should improve. H4a: Attending review sessions will be positively related to MFT-B scores. H4b: Taking practice exams will be positively related to MFT-B scores. METHOD Procedure and Sample Graduating seniors in the college of business at a regional state university completed the Major Field Test in Business (MFT-B) available through the Educational Testing Service as a component of program assessment and a requirement for graduation. A survey was developed to assess current trends in the university. The assessment committee was interested in assessing the effect of newly implemented review sessions and the potential of outside employment influencing student performance. Immediately following the exam, students were asked to complete a brief one-page survey. Sixty-three students completed the survey. Three students failed to provide an identification number; therefore, the survey responses could not be matched with the individual student’s MFT-B score. These three surveys were discarded from further analysis. The sample consisted of 60 respondents. Measures Performance scores from the MFT-B were collected from the MFT-B report. A brief survey provided to students after taking the MFT-B contained the questions of interest. The only identifying information on the survey was a corresponding MFT-B code used for matching the survey responses to the MFT-B score. A five-point Likert-type scale was used with “1” representing “Strongly Disagree” and “5” representing “Strongly Agree” for the first question. The question stated, “My course work in the College of Business adequately prepared me for the MFT exam.” Students were also asked to report their GPA and how many years they have been employed at least 20 hours per week. In addition, students reported if they had attended review sessions or taken practice exams. The MFT website offers a thirty-question practice exam, in which the students were informed. RESULTS The correlations, means, and standard deviations for the variables are reported in Table 1. The MFT-B scores were positively correlated with GPA, years of work experience, and perceived preparedness but negatively correlated with taking practice exams. The MFT-B scores were not correlated with attending the review sessions. GPA was not correlated with years of work experience or perceived preparedness; nor were years of work experience and perceived preparedness significantly correlated with each other. For the next step in the analysis, MFT-B scores were regressed on GPA, perceived preparedness, work experience, attending review sessions, and taking practice exam. The results of the regression analysis revealed that Hypothesis 1 was supported. GPA was found to significantly predict MFT-B scores (B = .48, p < .00). Hypothesis 2 was supported. Perceived preparedness was significantly related to MFT-B scores (B = .33, p < .01). Years of work experience was found to be positively related to MFT-B scores (B = .25, p < .02). Although this is Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education 55 Susie S. Cox, Jiun-Shiu Chen, & Jeff Totten, Is it More Than Just GPA? An Examination of Work Experience and Test Preparation Effects Table 1 Correlations, Means, and Standard deviations Variable 1. MFT score 2. GPA 3. Years of work Experience 4. Perceived Preparedness 5. Attend Review Session 6. Practice Exam N = 60; *p<.05; **p<.01 Mean SD 159.07 3.14 4.72 3.35 .38 .12 13.18 .45 3.45 1.00 .49 .32 a significant result, the relationship is not in the direction predicted. Thus, Hypothesis 3 is not supported. We did not find significant relationships between attending review sessions or taking practice exams. Therefore, Hypothesis 4a and 4b were not supported. DISCUSSION This study contributes to the growing body of knowledge on the MFT-B. We were able to replicate previous findings that GPA is positively related to MFT-B scores. However, our study had several unexpected findings. From the regression analysis we found that the MFT-B scores were not significantly related with attending the review sessions or taking practice exams. One would think that practice exams and review sessions would benefit the student and have a positive effect on scores. However, there is the possibility that those attending the sessions were those that were more concerned about taking the MFT-B. Furthermore, the MFT-B test intends to measure the critical knowledge in a major field of study. 1 2 3 .49** .30* .43** .13 -.27* .07 .12 .26* .01 4 .07 .06 -.04 5 .05 -.34* .25 This scope is beyond the area of each individual course. It is comprehensive. Therefore, it will be very difficult to prepare for such a test in a short amount of time. This could be one reason why attending the review sessions did not appear to affect the outcome of the test. Students just cannot gain substantial knowledge by such short review sessions. In this study, there was an opportunity for students to attend ten review sessions, each covering different core topic on business. Another interesting finding was that work experience had a positive impact on MFT-B scores. This was opposite of what was hypothesized. Our findings may signify that the MFT-B exam is the type of test that does not only test basic knowledge but also integration of knowledge. According to the following statement about the MFT exams, this may be the case. The ETS Major Field Tests are comprehensive undergraduate and MBA outcomes assessments designed to measure the critical knowledge and understanding obtained by students in a major field of study. The Major Field Tests go beyond Table 2 Regression Analysis Results for MFT-B Scores Independent Variable B SE B t 14.25 .91 4.25 .14 -4.27 3.25 .39 1.47 3.02 4.70 .48 .25 .33 .01 -.11 4.38 2.35 2.88 .05 -.91 R R2 Adj R2 Std. Error of the Estimate .70 .49 .43 9.91 GPA Years of work Experience Perceived Preparedness Review Session Practice Exam *p < .05 56 Sig .00* .02* .01* .96 .37 Spring 2011 (Volume 7 Issue 1) the measurement of factual knowledge by helping you evaluate students’ ability to analyze and solve problems, understand relationships and interpret material from their major field of study (ets.org). There are several plausible reasons that students who reported having more work experience scored higher on the exam. The first possible reason is maturity. Students reporting more work experience are not only likely to be physically older but also have likely gained maturity through work and additional responsibilities. Furthermore, one goal of a business school is to teach students about business so that they can apply it in real life settings. Those that have been employed longer have had the opportunity to apply the business knowledge gained and this experience may have solidified the knowledge with the experience. Thus, these students may be better equipped to analyze the material and made better decisions. Although not hypothesized, we noticed that GPA and work experience were not significantly correlated although both are significantly related to performance on the MFT-B. An explanation for why working experience may affect MFT-B test scores but not be related to GPA could be that GPA is more likely to assess knowledge of specific material for each course rather that integration of all business knowledge. A student’s GPA is a reflection of knowledge gained in a specific course. It is more narrowly focused. Students may easily grasp course concepts and do well in each class even without significant working experience. Work experience may not benefit student learning in a particular class but may benefit overall understanding of all business knowledge, which may positively affect the student’s performance on the MFT-B test. IMPLICATIONS AND LIMITATIONS Our findings suggest that working for business major students may not be a bad idea. From our own teaching experience at the College of Business, we found working may have some positive impact on student learning. Students with more working experience tend to grasp concepts and integrate knowledge better. They find it easier to relate knowledge they learn from the class to their real life situation. By working the student is gaining real world knowledge and witnessing the concepts taught in business courses put into action. In contrast, students without significant working experience tend to view the concepts from the class just as theory. Even though they may learn the knowledge and do well on class exams, they may not be able to apply such knowledge. The findings of this study could imply that although GPA is a predictor of performance on the MFT-B, work experience is also a potential predictor. A practical implication of this finding for colleges of business is to find methods of providing students with experience applying the concepts learned in class. This may occur within courses or required internships. This concept has been recognized by some MBA programs, which now require applicants to have a certain number of years of work experience. In order to enhance student learning, colleges could require at the advanced level business courses that students have some form of work experience. For example, consider which students will benefit most from a senior level leadership course – those with work experience or those who have no experience in dealing with a boss, coworkers, or subordinates. Although this study does present some interesting findings, it is not without limitations. The sample size of study is quite small. However, significant findings were noted. Another limitation to the study is that it was conducted at one university with one cohort of students. Testing these findings with a larger, more diverse sample would be beneficial. The findings presented in this study suggest a number of additional variables that should be considered. The fact that perceived preparedness was significantly related to MFT-B scores would suggest that variables such as test anxiety, self-efficacy (Bandura, 1993) and locus of control may play a role in test performance. Confidence in one’s preparedness for an exam may directly influence one’s ability to perform better on an exam. CONCLUSION There is a broad area of literature that has evaluated test performance. This study contributes to Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education 57 Susie S. Cox, Jiun-Shiu Chen, & Jeff Totten, that knowledge and suggests that further study is merited. Although cognitive ability as represented by GPA does influence test performance, we found that there are other factors that affect performance. Understanding these factors, can help colleges of business improve not only test scores but address program and curriculum changes that will truly impact student learning. REFERENCES AACSB Eligibility Procedures and Accreditation Standards for Business Accreditation Revised 2010. Retrieved from www.aacsb.edu/accreditation/AAACSB-STANDARDS-2010. pdf. Allen, J.S. & Bycio, P. (1997). An Evaluation of the Educational Testing Service Major Field Achievement Test in Business. Journal of Accounting Education, 15, 503-514. Bagamery, B., Lasik, J., & Nixon, D. (2005). Determinants of success on the ETS Business Major Field Exam for students in an undergraduate multisite regional university business program. Journal of Education for Business, 81, 55-63. Educational Testing Services (2010). Retrieved from http://www.ets.org/portal/site/ets/ menuitem.1488512ecfd5b8849a77b13bc392 1509/?vgnextoid=f119af5e44df4010VgnVC M10000022f95190RCRD&vgnextchannel= 86f346f1674f4010VgnVCM10000022f9519 0RCRD. Loewen, J.W., Roessen, P., & Katzman, J., (1988). Gender Bias in SAT Items. EDRS Document ED 294 915, Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans. Pringle, C., & Michel, M. (2007). Assessment practices in AACSB-Accredited business schools. Journal of Education for Business. 82(4), 202-211. Terry, N., Mills, L., & Sollosy, M. (2008). Student grade motivation as a determinant of performance on the business major field ETS exam. Journal of College Teaching & Learning, 5(7), 27-32. Bandura, A. (1993). Perceived self-efficacy in cognitive development and functioning. Educational Psychologist, 28, 117-148. Buckless, F.A., Lipe, M.G., & Ravenscroft, S.P. (1991). Do gender effects on accounting course performance persist after controlling for general academic aptitude? Issues in Accounting Education, 6(2), 248-258. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2008). Economic news release: College enrollment and work activity of 2008 high school graduates. Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/news.release/hsgec.nr0.htm. Bycio, P., & Allen, J. S. (2007). Factors associated with performance on the Educational Testing Service (ETS) Major Field Achievement Test in Business (MFAT-B), Journal of Education for Business, March/April, 196-201. Contreras, S., Badua, F., Chen, J., Adrian, M. (in press). Documenting and explaining Major Field Test results among undergraduate students. Journal of Education for Business. 58 Spring 2011 (Volume 7 Issue 1) Integrating Quantitative Methods into a Graduate Business Curriculum Robert D. O’Keefe College of Commerce and Kellstadt Graduate School of Business DePaul University Chicago, Illinois Lawrence O. Hamer College of Commerce and Kellstadt Graduate School of Business DePaul University Chicago, Illinois ABSTRACT The need for business practitioners to have a working knowledge of mathematics and statistics is widely accepted. However, MBA programs seem to be constantly struggling with how quantitative skills and techniques should be integrated into a curriculum. While the present study focuses on business programs (more specifically, graduate business programs), discussions with faculty members from other colleges within our University and other universities suggest that the problems described within the article are endemic across all areas of study within which mathematical and statistical analysis and interpretation are critical components. The authors present a number of alternative ways that quantitative methods have been incorporated within a curriculum and point out the respective advantages and shortcomings of each approach. The authors conclude that the traditional approaches to integrating quantitative methods all have significant shortcomings and suggest that a technology-enabled, just-in-time approach included as a component of each course beyond the required courses in quantitative methods may be the most effective approach to enhancing the overall curriculum and satisfying both student and faculty expectations. INTRODUCTION During a wide ranging interview Peter Drucker made the following remark: “I’m always appalled at how little statistics my students or my clients know; yet it is a core discipline, a vital area of knowledge.” (Chapman 2001 p.16) This is a very revealing comment which incorporates two separate but related points with which a number of faculty members have expressed agreement 1) quantitative skills are a crucial component of decision making and 2) students appear to have a limited ability to apply quantitative techniques to managerial decision-making. Basic mathematics and statistics are essential components of graduate education in many disciplines (Mills 2002, Giesbrecht 1996). In business education, basic quantitative and interpre- tive skills have always been included in graduate (MBA) curricula. These topics are frequently designated as “tools” required for advanced MBA coursework. Traditionally applicants whose transcripts showed no completed coursework in either or both mathematics and statistics have been advised to complete coursework in these areas early in their program of studies. This report discusses the procedures put in place to assure that students were offered the opportunity to acquire both a working knowledge of basic mathematical and statistical methods and an appreciation of the relevance of these methods to business decision making. All of the approaches instituted over the years were well-meaning and seemed relevant to the objectives set for them. In the end, however, an honest assessment of the outcomes achieved so far shows that, for one Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education 59 Robert D. O’Keefe & Lawrence O. Hamer reason or another, the procedures proved largely ineffective. Following a discussion of the approaches implemented, the problems associated with each of the approaches are outlined and a new approach designated as the just-in-time method is suggested as a means of overcoming these problems. The authors hope that readers will recognize their own institutions in the discussion of experiences and consider the suggested approach for adoption and implementation within their own MBA programs. THE CORE CLASSES APPROACH For a long period of time DePaul’s MBA curriculum relied on a traditional approach which offered formal courses in both Mathematics and Statistics. The curriculum included two core Graduate School of Business (GSB) courses. The two courses and the policy regarding the waiver of each course appeared in the graduate bulletin are shown in Figure 1. As shown in Figure 1 the policy resulted in granting waivers of both courses to individuals who had graduated from an accredited business undergraduate program. With regard to nonbusiness school graduates seeking admission to the MBA program it was noted that a number of Integrating Quantitative Methods into a Graduate Business Curriculum traditional Liberal Arts and Science undergraduate programs included coursework in both mathematics and basic inferential statistics. Certainly engineering and physical sciences undergraduate programs included both mathematical and statistical techniques, and behavioral and social science programs required one or more courses in statistics. Therefore, the same waiver policy was applied to applicants who had completed such programs. As outlined in the policy statement (Figure 1) examination of their academic transcripts resulted in almost all of the applicants with undergraduate business degrees and a considerable number of applicants with non-business undergraduate degrees meeting the qualifications for a waiver of either or both GSB 501 and GSB 502. The critically important issue, however, was and still is, not whether the applicants had completed either undergraduate or graduate coursework in mathematics and statistics, but whether they really knew enough about mathematical and statistical applications to be able to proceed to more advanced coursework. Did those students who qualified for course waivers really have a sufficient level of command of the mathematical and statistical techniques Figure 1 Quantitative Classes in the Core Curriculum GSB 501—Mathematical Analysis for Decision Making. The objective of this course is to introduce the student to mathematical concepts necessary for the analysis of business problems. Topics covered are: a brief review of college algebra, differential calculus and linear algebra. Prerequisite: Graduate Standing. 4 hours. Waiver Policy: GSB 501 may not be required if a student has had at least one course in Differential Calculus. GSB 502—Statistical Analysis for Decision Making. The objective of this course is to introduce the student to statistical concepts necessary for the analysis of business problems. Topics covered are: descriptive and inferential statistics, hypothesis testing, and an introduction to regression. Prerequisite: GSB 501 or equiv. 4 hours. Waiver Policy: GSB 502 may not be required if a student has had at least one course in Statistics 60 Spring 2011 (Volume 7 Issue 1) expected in an MBA program? Experiences over time have shown such an assumption to be doubtful. Mathematics and statistics are often unpopular required courses in most undergraduate programs and students seem in a great hurry to get these courses over with, be satisfied with rote learning and hope to never see the material again. By the time they were admitted to the MBA program and received waivers of the basic courses, they had probably forgotten most of what they had earlier learned. So it was not surprising to hear that, when a professor incorporated a mathematical method or a statistical inference into a class presentation, he or she reported being frequently greeted with mostly blank expressions. From a faculty member’s perspective a waiver or the completion of the appropriate coursework should indicate some level of competence and so faculty members expected they would see evidence of both recognition and recall which would justify the waiver and validate competence. From the students’ perspective the statistical tests and mathematical formulae may look vaguely familiar—the contents of a bad dream they hoped would never reoccur—but here it is and so as not to look foolish: some will choose to nod knowingly while others will look away and keep silent. Faculty members who required either or both mathematical and statistical analyses as integral components of the courses they taught complained that the students were unprepared. They reported that when they introduced mathematical or statistical concepts which were relevant to the course objectives, student apathy or an obvious lack of understanding made it necessary for them to spend time reviewing the appropriate mathematical or statistical technique or to use even more time to teach it from square one. This represented a violation of faculty expectations, an unplanned use of valuable class time, and ultimately a departure from both the teaching and learning objectives of the course. Interestingly, this lack of preparation was equally apparent for many of those students whose transcripts showed evidence of having completed the requisite courses necessary for a waiver and for those students who had recently completed both GSB 501 and GSB 502. THE PREREQUISITE APPROACH Responding to the faculty complaints about the effectiveness of GSB501 and GSB 502 in preparing students to deal with mathematical and statistical techniques, tests and inference relevant to advanced MBA coursework, the College appointed a committee to study the situation and recommend appropriate actions toward a resolution. Based on faculty members’ feedback, the committee charged with examining the problems experienced with mathematics and statistics concluded that the two courses offered were ineffective in meeting the objectives set for them and recommended that they be dropped from the curriculum. The committee report took the position that the introductory mathematics and introductory statistics courses were to the MBA curriculum what the typical preparatory or bridge courses are to an undergraduate curriculum. The preparatory courses may count for some credit but, as substitutes for more substantive courses, they detract from a curriculum designed to enhance a student’s education and career preparation. Instead of continuing to offer statistics and mathematics courses which only extended the students’ programs of study, the committee recommended to position the completion of basic mathematical and statistical courses as requirements for admission to the MBA program. For those applicants, who otherwise met the requirements for admission but had never taken a formal course or courses in mathematics and statistics, admission to the GSB would be contingent on the successful completion of an appropriate course or courses. How and where the applicants completed the necessary courses and acquired knowledge of mathematical and statistical methods would be their personal decision. The committee’s recommendations did not exclude the applicants choosing to take these courses which were offered in the undergraduate programs. It did not take long to accumulate qualitative evidence that the recommended change in policy, which directed that applicants complete mathematics and statistics courses wherever they chose to take them, was a mistake. It was, in fact, an abject failure. Faculty complaints about the lack of preparation in mathematics and statistics increased in both number and volume. The Col- Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education 61 Robert D. O’Keefe & Lawrence O. Hamer lege administration took these complaints very seriously and again appointed a committee of experienced faculty members to study and make recommendations toward finding solutions to the problem. The College was then in a period of curriculum revision and so it seemed an opportune time to revise the operational policy governing mathematical and statistical preparation. Outsourcing Instruction The committee charged with examining the graduate mathematics and statistics policy decided to modify the “do it yourself” recommendation for applicants who had no prior courses in mathematics. The new recommendation maintained the requirement that applicants to the MBA program must present evidence of the having completed traditional coursework in basic mathematical and statistical concepts. The committee, however, further recommended that the College outsource the basic mathematics and statistics courses as well as seminar instructional and review sessions. The courses and seminar sessions were to be conducted by faculty members from the School of Computer Science. The committee expected that Computer Science would incorporate the very latest in technology and the instructors assigned to teach the courses and conduct the seminars would familiarize the students with contemporary software packages that would be used to learn and to later review the techniques. The committee’s report assumed that students who completed these seminars would retain the instructional software packages and later use them to review mathematical and statistical applications relevant to both subsequent elective and concentration courses. Completion of these “for credit” courses and seminars would be a required for entry into the sequence of courses which constituted the revised MBA curriculum. The seminars would be available to students who, as undergraduates, had completed the requisite mathematics and statistics courses but recognized that they needed to review mathematical and statistical applications. The “for credit” designation meant for a fee: it did not mean that the hours accumulated would count toward the hours needed to complete the MBA degree. The “for credit” designation was a very practical suggestion. The majority of stu- 62 Integrating Quantitative Methods into a Graduate Business Curriculum dents enrolled in the MBA program receive educational assistance from their employers and our experience had been that employers offered tuition reimbursement to students only for classes that were taken for credit. Should the content of classes make regular use of mathematical analysis, statistical inference, or both as components in support of the learning process, that should be an incentive for students to realize the benefits of these self-review techniques and it would be in their best interests to devote time to sharpening their skills. In preparation for these review workshops the committee performed a content analysis of concepts that had been included in the GSB501 and GSB 502 courses and spoke with faculty members who incorporated these mathematical and/or statistical concepts into their courses. The results of the survey and discussion yielded the list of concepts incorporated into Figure 2. Undergraduate Program Perspective The Department of Economics faculty members unanimously contended that undergraduate students did not know enough about Calculus to benefit from the sort of analyses necessary to grasp Economic principles. Interestingly enough, this reported deficiency in both basic statistical and mathematical knowledge seemed common to those undergraduates, who had only recently completed the three formal mathematics and statistics courses required in the their degree program. An undergraduate curriculum committee examined the reported deficiencies of mathematical and statistical knowledge among undergraduates and proposed that the undergraduate problem could be resolved by adding two additional credit hours of instruction to the twelve hours required in the undergraduate degree program. This recommendation was adopted. Formal and informal discussions with faculty members’ led to the conclusion that over the period of time between the implementation of the committee’s recommendation and the present there has been, at best, only limited evidence of appreciable improvement. The point to be made is that if undergraduate students, or at least some of them—and no one seems to be able to say exactly how many—who Spring 2011 (Volume 7 Issue 1) Figure 2 Mathematical and Statistical Concepts Relevant for MBA Curriculum Math Concepts Statistics Concepts Linear Equations & Functions Descriptive Statistics Nonlinear Equations Probability Theory Simultaneous Equations Sampling Differential Calculus Confidence Intervals Logarithmic Functions Hypothesis Testing Mathematics of Finance Nonparametric Statistics Notation/Vectors/Matrices/Summation Statistical Inference Graphic Representation Introduction to ANOVA Introduction to Regression recently completed their required sequence of mathematics courses are not prepared to apply what they had learned to their advanced required and elective courses then what ought to be expected of graduate students whose experience with Calculus is most likely a far more distant memory. As previously reported, for a time the program included instruction in basic mathematics and statistics in our GSB 501 and GSB 502 courses and even after that intense experience, the students still did not seem to measure up to faculty expectations. The well-meaning foray into outsourcing courses and review seminars seemed to yield no better results. Faculty members continued to report that if they introduced a computational technique relevant to understanding an aspect of course content, they had to extensively review it or just accept that they would have take the time to teach at least the basics of the technique. These reviews and additional course content took valuable time away from the substantive content of coursework. The Core Class Approach: Part I Faced with the inescapable conclusion that the several efforts toward trying to assure that students enrolled in the MBA or MS programs were familiar with the basic concepts of mathematics and statistics had not achieved the objectives set for them, the College appointed yet another committee to study the problem and to recommend solutions. The committee examined the problem, deliberated several possible solutions and eventually approved a proposal from the Department of Economics to add a comprehensive course in basic mathematics and statistics to the graduate curriculum. GSB 420: Applied Quantitative Analysis was pilot tested and eventually approved as a four-credit hour required course. The course incorporated several of the characteristics of the previous efforts. It was, however, more comprehensive in its content combining both mathematical and statistical applications in a single course. Also it was more comprehensive in its reach in that it was listed as a requirement for all entering students and the credit hours assigned to the course would count toward the hours required to complete a graduate degree. A waiver of the course was possible but only if a student could successfully pass an examination created by the Department of Economics. The topics included in the course description (see Figure 3) mirrored those which had been earlier identified for inclusion in the outsourced courses and seminars (see Figure 2). The Department of Economics agreed to staff the course and to offer the number of sections sufficient to meet student demand. Finally, the course would utilize the most recently available mathematical and statistical software packages. These packages would be used initially for learning and later for review. As was the case in the outsourced experiences Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education 63 Robert D. O’Keefe & Lawrence O. Hamer students were to be encouraged to retain the course software packages in order to review those mathematical and statistical techniques relevant to the content of both the required and elective courses which constituted their degree programs. A finding that reinforces the depiction of incoming applicants as not well prepared in the areas of mathematics and statistics is derived from the experience of students taking the test to qualify for waiver of the course. The results of the testing showed that that only about .01% of those who opted to take the waiver test actually passed it. By far the great majority of students who in the past would be considered qualified for a waiver of GSB 501 and GSB 502 were enrolled in GSB 420. It should be noted that the core class approach does not imply a face-to-face (as opposed to online) class. As compared to face-to-face courses, online courses have consistently been found to result in comparable levels of student learning (Garfield and Ben-Zvi 2007, Utts 2003, Ward 2004); although online students tend to be less satisfied with their courses (Summers et al. 2005). The issue is whether or not the quantitative skills are taught as a stand-alone course; not the course’s mode of delivery. Integrating Quantitative Methods into a Graduate Business Curriculum Math and Statistics Skills Evaluation The placement of quantitative skills, such as those typically taught in statistics and math courses, in the MBA curriculum has implications for faculty, students, and for the program itself. Faculty considerations: Faculty members have reported that teaching is easier and learning is more efficient when students have consistent backgrounds and levels of preparation. When students are exposed to quantitative courses at various times (due to course waivers, substitutions, and/or sequencing), the instructors often have a difficult time managing the balancing act between a) spending class time reviewing statistical and mathematical techniques that students need to use in a given course and b) helping students learn how to appropriately use the results of those techniques. It is almost always the case that faculty members preferred to focus on the latter but felt pressured by the course objectives and deficiencies in students’ level of preparation to focus on the former. Overall Program Considerations Perhaps the most obvious reason to be concerned about the placement of quantitative skills is that sound decision-making requires the ability to incorporate a variety of information (much of which is quantified) into the decision-making process. This is true across fields. Financial decisions often require computations of the present value of money, Operations decisions often require computations of the impact of discrete changes on the overall manufacturing process. Marketing decisions often require computations of break-even analyses, etc. Thus the entire curriculum benefits if students are adept at current quantitative techniques, and especially if these skills are present from the early stages of a program’s curriculum. However, knowledge of quantitative techniques in and of itself is rarely specified as one of a program’s learning goals. Rather most programs seek to teach students an ever-increasing amount of business-function related theories, concepts, skills, and abilities. Quantitative skills are generally conceived as foundation-level skills necessary to appropriately learn the business-function related material. However, as the length of a curriculum is generally fixed and space in the curriculum is a limited resource, incorporating mathematics and statistics courses into a curriculum often results in the exclusion of more topical subjects from that curriculum. Student Considerations Figure 3 GSB 420: Applied Quantitative Analysis This course provides a comprehensive review of some basic mathematical and statistical methods and stresses their practical applications in business and economics. The course will equip the student with the quantitative skills required in the MBA program and will also provide a good foundation for addressing typical problems that arise in business. Additionally, the skills acquired in the course will also help the student prepare for the quantitative sections of professional exams, such as the CFA, the CPA and the CMA exams. This course will stress learning through applications/problem-solving using Excel and/or Minitab software for data analyses. However, the course must be analytical and theoretical to the extent that is necessary to develop a correct understanding of the topics presented. The topics covered in the course include relevant mathematical concepts: use of relevant functions and solving equations in unknowns, elementary calculus and graphing functions. It also focuses on relevant statistical concepts: probability theory, hypothesis testing, regression analysis and forecasting. Prerequisite: Graduate Standing Waiver Policy: While students cannot waive this class based on previous coursework, you may attempt to waive the course through completing the waiver exam 64 Spring 2011 (Volume 7 Issue 1) Prospective MBA students often search for two conflicting criteria in a potential MBA program. First, these students want to be treated as individuals with respect to their academic preparation. In other words, prospective students are often attracted to programs that allow courses to be waived based upon past academic work and/or permit students to satisfy a given requirement by selecting from a range of courses. This criterion can lead a given MBA program to allow students to waive out of any required quantitative courses since such courses are often viewed as foundation skills or allow students with appropriate courses listed on their transcripts to take higher level quantitative courses. On the other hand, students are often seeking programs that provide opportunities for them to build relationships and camaraderie that often come from sharing the same experiences. Some of these experiences are extracurricular, but much relationship building occurs as a group of students progresses through a program at the same pace and in the same classes. The shared experience criterion suggests that MBA programs would improve the student experience by standardizing the quantitative course requirements and by not allowing students to waive out of the course without first demonstrating an appropriate level of knowledge. An honest evaluation of the effectiveness of the various approaches to the issue of mathematical and statistical skills would likely conclude that each of the approaches has serious drawbacks, and the treatment of mathematics and statistics skills within the MBA program still leaves a great deal to be desired. Table 1 summarizes the ability of each approach to meet the criteria discussed previously. Effect on Downstream Courses While incorporating a quantitative skills course into the core curriculum is a dramatic step, it does not appear to have had much of an effect on students’ quantitative abilities in other core classes. Evidence of this is seen in the grades for two core classes: Managerial Accounting (which has the quantitative course as a prerequisite) and Financial Management (which has Managerial Accounting as a prerequisite). Comparing the mean GPA for the two classes for the time period before the course was added to the MBA core to the time period since the course was added reveals that student performance has increased in Managerial Accounting as the mean GPA has increased from 3.37 to 3.51 (p-value = .002) but not in Financial Management (p=.068). Looking at the average GPA over time (see Figure 4) suggests that even the significantly different mean for Managerial Accounting is associated with very little substantive difference that can be attributed to the curriculum change. Student Complaints Most of the recommendations and subsequent actions regarding quantitative skills in the MBA curriculum were stimulated by the complaints about student abilities. Students have also registered their complaints regarding the inclusion of mathematical and statistical concepts in the curriculum. In exit interviews conducted over Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education 65 Robert D. O’Keefe & Lawrence O. Hamer Integrating Quantitative Methods into a Graduate Business Curriculum Student Considerations Allow for individual differences Program Considerations Save space Seminar Student Considerations Allow for individual differences Uniform experience 4 Lack of skill currency 3 Lack of Uniform preparation Student Considerations Mean GPA Lack of Uniform experience 2 1 Student Considerations Uniform experience 0 Faculty Considerations Uniform preparation 2008 Prerequisite Save space Uniform preparation Faculty Considerations Mean GPA for Core Accounting Course 2007 Program Considerations Skill currency 2006 Uniform experience Faculty Considerations Figure 4 Average GPA for Managerial Accounting and Financial Management Pre- and Post-Changes to MBA Core Curriculum 2005 Allow for individual differences (with waivers) Uses space sake of number crunching alone is frequently denigrated. But, an understanding of statistical computation and statistical inference should be integral components of our overall curriculum. 2004 Core Course(s) Program Considerations 2003 Student Considerations Disadvantage 2002 Advantage 2000 Approach able to use them to determine the likelihood of the success or failure of a policy, strategy, or tactic; or the direction new policies or strategies and tactics ought to take. Number crunching for the 2001 Table 1 Evaluation of Various Approaches to Quantitative Material in MBA Program Program Considerations Old Curriculum Save space Skill currency Student Considerations Uniform preparation Quasi-uniform experience 4 Student Considerations 3 Allow for individual differences 66 Mean GPA Spring 2011 (Volume 7 Issue 1) Old Curriculum 2008 2007 2006 2005 0 2004 Statistical inference is important. One can hardly interpret the contents of data tables and distributions without a working knowledge of what the numbers really indicate. A competent MBA ought to be able to make such inferences and be 1 2000 that the students were not familiar with these techniques and took the path of least resistance by glossing over or avoiding incorporating them in class presentations. Faculty members have made comments to that effect. 2 2003 Quasi-uniform experience several years students have reported that the College expected them to complete GSB 501 and 502 or required them to show equivalency for these courses or attend various seminars or, more recently, required them to complete GSB 420, only to have them find that the mathematics and the statistics they learned in these courses or workshops were rarely mentioned in any depth throughout the remainder of their programs of study. Some faculty members may have assumed Mean GPA for Core Finance Course 2002 Approach Faculty Considerations 2001 Self-paced Modules New Curriculum New Curriculum Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education 67 Robert D. O’Keefe & Lawrence O. Hamer Moving Forward: Just-in-Time Review An effort to integrate and to assume better control of the MBA required an objective assessment of which mathematical and statistical applications techniques were required to assure that students received maximum benefit from the courses which comprise the respective degree programs. It is not enough to collect a faculty wish list of techniques and applications which could be used if only the students were theoretical mathematicians, graduate nuclear engineers, or Nobel class econometricians. What is needed is a continual accounting of those techniques that are really necessary to assure that MBA graduates are competent in calculation and interpretation. Once a reasonable array of faculty expectations is recorded the next step is to infer the levels and methods of instruction which would be most effective in achieving quantitative methods competency objectives. Honesty compels the admission that the analyses required in MBA classes are very frequently not the sorts of computations one makes on a day-to-day basis. Further, even some otherwise very bright people, are near phobic when it comes to mathematics of any kind. They may have, at some time, memorized the calculation formulae and applied them without a clue as to their meaningfulness. It is widely agreed that learning which is not meaningful is soon and easily extinguished. It is also well accepted that when meaningfulness and repetition are combined, one sees learning that lasts and can be applied to new situations. (Hill, 1970) The mathematics and statistics course experiences lead to several conclusions. First, it appears that students need time to review quantitative techniques immediately before they are asked to apply those techniques. Second, including quantitative material in the core curriculum is an effective way to ensure that students can integrate quantitative skills in their decision-making. These observations are the foundation of the just-in- time approach recommended as an effective means for students to learn the quantitative techniques immediately before they are asked to integrate those skills into decision-making in the various business functions. The recommended procedure is outlined in figure 5. 68 Integrating Quantitative Methods into a Graduate Business Curriculum Figure 5 Procedure for Just-in-Time Quantitative Skills 1) Designate appropriate quantitative skills as prerequisites for the MBA program. 2) Make self-paced software packages that help students refresh their quantitative skills available to students. 3) Require instructors to explicitly state the mathematical and/or statistical techniques that students will be expected to know and at what point in the course schedule will each technique be used. 4) Require students to utilize the selfpaced packages in order to refresh their quantitative skills. 5) Encourage instructors to incorporate quantitative techniques into their classes and assignments. Evidence argues in favor of self-paced learning modules. Many disciplines (including business and non-business fields) have used computer simulation methods to teach a variety of statistical techniques including basic statistics for a number of years (Goodman 1986); Econometrics and regression (Farrall 1995); and statistical power (Arnholt 1997). Consequently, there are a number of software tools that have been shown to enhance students’ learning of quantitative skills (Chance et al. 2007), and these tools have consistently been found to enhance student learning (Mills 2002). The effectiveness of the simulations appears to stem from their interactivity. Interactive tutorials have been found to increase student learning (Aberson et al. 2003). Further, this just-in-time approach more easily allows quantitative skiils to be incorporated into core classes using active-learning techniques which have consistently been found to increase student learning (Giraud 1997, Garfield and Ben-Zvi 2007, Hamer 2006, Keeler and Steinhorst 1995, Magel 1998) The use of self-paced modules encourages students to be active partici- Spring 2011 (Volume 7 Issue 1) pants in their learning which may help improve their problem-solving ability. SUMMARY Statistical computation and inference, those things which many students learned at some time in the past are not exactly in the same class as riding a bicycle. One does forget: memory is like that. A 30-year-old who has not ridden a bicycle for 15 years can get on a bike and ride, but hardly with the grace of a 15-year-old. People who studied a foreign language in high school or college are not expected to translate text without access to a dictionary or phrase book. A person who computed his last “t”, “F” or “R” when Bill Clinton was President needs a little time and a little brush up on those skills. So if faculty members are disappointed in the level of skill they see in their classes, they will have to understand that both physiology and psychology are against them. Unless one computes and interprets on a regular basis, these skills erode. Business professionalism requires quantitative competence and the ability to incorporate quantitative skills into decision-making. Because the MBA is a business professional degree, quantitative material should be incorporated into the core curriculum of MBA programs. While few people would dispute the assertion that quantitative skills are important, effectively integrating these skills into MBA curricula seems to be very difficult. The authors presented a series of actions that have been taken in an attempt to ensure that MBA students in our College have sufficient knowledge of mathematics and statistics and the ability to apply this knowledge in decision-making situations. More specifically, these actions ranged from including quantitative courses with waivers allowed for prior coursework in the core MBA curriculum to treating quantitative skills as prerequisites and back to including quantitative skills in the core (while allowing students to test out of the course). While all of the treatments of quantitative skills have been well-reasoned and thoughtfully implemented, they each had serious shortcomings and none could be considered a success from the point-of-view of assessing students’ ability to demonstrate quantitative skills throughout their MBA programs and after graduation. In order for any approach to quantitative skills to be effective, it must meet a number of complex, and sometimes conflicting, criteria including the desire on the part of students to have a curriculum that is tailored to their needs and an experience that is consistent with their classmates’ experiences. Also the approach adopted must address and satisfy the faculty members’ expectations that students will proceed to advanced classes with uniform quantitative preparation and, as a result, allow for an ever increasing inclusion of current material relevant to each of the business functions that comprise MBA education. REFERENCES Aberson, Christopher L., Dale E. Berger, Michael R. Healy, and Victoria L. Romero (2003), “Evaluation of an Interactive Tutorial for Teaching Hypothesis Testing Concepts”, Computers in Teaching, vol. 30(1), 75-78. Arnholt, Alan (1997), “Using Simulation as a Teaching Technique in Determining Power and Efficiency of Various Statistics”, American Statistical Association Proceedings of the Section on Statistical Education, Alexandria VA: American Statistical Association, 143-147. Chance, Beth, Dani Ben-Zvi, Joan Garfield, and Elsa Medina (2007), ”The Role of Technology in Improving Student Learning of Statistics”, Teaching Innovations in Statistics Education Journal , accessed October 15, 2010 from http://repositories.cdlib.org/uclastat/ cts/tise/. Chapman, Christy (2001), “Taking Stock: An Interview with Peter Drucker”, Biz Ed, November/December pp.13-17, Quote on p.16. Ferrall, Christopher (1995), “Interactive Statistics Tutorials in Stata”, Journal of Statistics Education, vol 3(3). available online at www. amstat.org/publications/jse/v3n3 . Garfield, Joan and Dani Ben-Zvi (2007), “How Students Learn Statistics Revisited: A Current Review of Research on Teaching and Learning Statistics”, International Journal of Statistical Review, vol 75(3), 372-396. Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education 69 Robert D. O’Keefe & Lawrence O. Hamer Giesbracht, Norman (1996), “Strategies for Developing and Delivering Effective Introductory-Level Statistics and Methodology Courses”, ERIC Document Reproduction Service, No. 393-668, Alberta, BC. Giraud, Gerald (1997), “Cooperative Learning and Statistics Instruction”, Journal of Statistics Education, 5(3). Retrieved October 17, 2010, from http://www.amstat.org/publications/jse/v5n3/giraud.html Goodman, Terry (1986), “Using the Microcomputer to Teach Statistics”, Mathematics Teacher, 79, 210-215. Hill, W.F. (1970) Psychology: Principles and Problems. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Company Keeler, Carolyn M., & R. Kirk Steinhorst (1995), “Using Small Groups to Promote Active Learning in the Introductory Statistics Course: A Report From the Field”, Journal of Statistics Education, 3(2). Retrieved October 15, 2010, from http://www.amstat. org/publications/jse/v3n2/keeler.html 70 Magel, Rhonda.C (1998), “Using Cooperative Learning in a Large Introductory Statistics Class”, Journal of Statistics Education, 6(3). Retrieved October 17, 2010, from http:// www.amstat.org/publications/jse/v6n3/magel.html Mills, Jamie D (2002), “Using Computer Simulation Methods to Teach Statistics: A Review of the Literature”, Journal of Statistics Education, vol 10 (1). Utts, Jessica (2003), “What Educated Citizens Should Know About Statistics and Probability”, The American Statistician, 57(2), 74–79. Ward, Barbara (2004), “The Best of Both Worlds: A Hybrid Statistics Course”, Journal of Statistics Education, 12(3), 74–79. Retrieved October 17, 2010, from http://www. amstat.org/publications/jse/v12n3/ward.html. Spring 2011 (Volume 7 Issue 1) Designing Incentive Systems to Enhance Faculty Qualifications David W. Denton College of Behavioral and Health Sciences and Department of Psychology Austin Peay State University Clarksville, Tennessee William E. Rayburn Department of Management, Marketing, and General Business Austin Peay State University Clarksville, Tennessee ABSTRACT A review of faculty qualifications is undertaken at the applicant level by faculty search committees; at the program level by accrediting bodies and program review teams; and at the level of individual faculty by retention, tenure and promotion committees. Many academic departments struggle to find ways to promote faculty professional development that serves the needs of individual faculty and the department or program with which they are affiliated. This paper describes the creation of three professional development incentive systems to improve faculty qualifications. The paper emphasizes the importance of identifying overarching goals/objectives and particular strategies/initiatives intended to realize the achievement of those goals/objectives. The incentive systems include both performance-based and behavior-based components. These systems provide either financial or non-financial incentives intended to generate faculty behavior change which can lead to enhanced faculty qualifications. INTRODUCTION Faculty qualifications and the development of those qualifications is a concern throughout higher education. Regional accrediting bodies such as the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS) review faculty credentials as one element of a comprehensive accreditation or reaccreditation process. Similarly, particularly in applied discipline, specialty accrediting bodies such as the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB) or the National League of Nursing (NLN) review faculty credentials and/or accomplishments as part of making judgments about faculty qualifications. At the department level, it is not uncommon for external program review teams to assess the qualifications of faculty. To address this need, institutions often provide a set amount of money to faculty members on a non-contingent basis to reimburse them for “professional development” expenses. This approach can produce uneven outcomes. This paper outlines an approach to enhancing faculty qualifications that can produce more intentional results targeted toward achieving goals that are meaningful to the organization. The concept of faculty qualifications can be described as consisting of two categories – faculty credentials and faculty accomplishments. Faculty credentials referred to academic degrees, licenses, or other certifications that reflect a faculty member’s level of knowledge and/or skill. Faculty accomplishments refer to specific achievements in areas of teaching, research, or service. Institutions often attempt to enhance faculty qualifications by establishing faculty award programs or offering professional development or travel money. In the case of faculty awards such as a “researcher of the year” award, the thinking seems to be that such awards will motivate faculty to engage in the behaviors necessary to achieve research successes. These achievements will then culminate Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education 71 David W. Denton & William E. Rayburn in receipt of an award. Such awards are effective in recognizing excellence, but do little to generate excellence. In addition, faculty professional development funds can be used to generate faculty accomplishments, but these accomplishments may do little to help the unit achieve meaningful goals such as accreditation. Efforts to enhance faculty qualifications should be informed by the growing literature on payfor-performance and related contingent incentive systems. At their core, such systems involve identifying important outcomes or goals at the individual-, unit-, or organizational level of analysis and constructing incentive systems to generate employee behavior that advances those goals. Such approaches can be controversial, and are not without their critics (e.g., Pfeffer & Sutton, 2006). However, a recent review of the pay for performance literature notes that “... there is strong empirical evidence showing that [pay-forperformance] can improve performance” (Gerhart, Rynes, & Fulmer, 2009, p. 300). Pay for performance systems are likely to be maximally effective when they are targeted at individual performance where the outcomes for which performance is rewarded are objectively measurable. The work of faculty is generally considered to be individually-based, and thus the job of faculty member would seem to be a good candidate for a pay-for-performance system. Pay for performance systems are ultimately believed to produce results by impacting employee volition through the provision of incentives or by changing the composition of the workforce through what are referred to as “sorting effects” (Gerhart et al, 2009). Research on the job demands-control model and work engagement suggests that providing financial or non-financial incentives to employees represents a job resource that can produce increases in the motivational processes of vigor, dedication, and absorption associated with work engagement (Hakanen & Roodt, 2010). Improvement in work engagement can in turn lead to higher levels of performance. It is important to note that pay-for-performance can be viewed as a criterion-referenced reward system, i.e., all those who meet or exceed a criterion level of performance are rewarded. This kind of system can be contrasted with an “employeeof-the-month” approach in which only a single 72 Designing Incentive Systems to Enhance Faculty Qualifications employee is deemed to be worthy of reward. This latter approach has more to do with acknowledging excellence than developing it across a workforce. In addition, pay-for-performance systems can also impact performance by changing the composition of the workforce through sorting effects. Different kinds of compensation systems are differentially attractive to current and prospective employees, and thus can change the make-up of the organization over time. Those who remain are likely to thrive under the compensation system in place leading to higher performance. This is consistent with the attraction-selection-attrition model proposed by Schneider (1987). There are many different ways to construct payfor-performance systems. Among the many decisions that need to be made, two of the most critical are determining the extent to which the system will rely on financial versus non-financial incentives and the relative emphasis on resultsbased versus behavior-based measures of performance. In the context of faculty work, a potent financial incentive can come in the form of extra monetary compensation over and above salary. With many states facing financial burdens, salary increases for faculty employed at public institutions have been minimal. Perhaps the most valuable form of non-financial incentive to faculty is the provision of time. Time is a particularly valuable commodity that can be used to enhance ones scholarly and creative work. In addition to the distinction between financial and non-financial incentives, a decision needs to be made about whether incentives are to be provided for faculty who exhibit desired behaviors and/or faculty who produce specific results. This decision really centers on defining the goals for the pay-forperformance system. Incentives tend to be more powerful when the results or behavior for which incentives are offered are within the capacity of faculty to generate or exhibit. Where results are not easily quantifiable in some way, it may be best to tie incentives to desired behaviors rather than to results. In determining the particular behaviors and results for which individuals should strive, the research on goal setting suggests that goals that are specific and moderately difficult are more likely to be achieved than vague goals or “do your best” goals (Locke & Latham, 1990). Spring 2011 (Volume 7 Issue 1) Faculty awards and the general use of professional development funds fall short as effective tools for enhancing faculty qualifications. In the case of faculty awards, these awards are norm-referenced thus limiting the award to only those top performers rather than to everyone who meets a certain standard of performance. As a result, the goal of achieving such an award is not a “moderately difficult” goal as recommended in the gal setting literature. It is instead an exceedingly difficult goal to reach and thus lacks motivational potential. As for professional development money, the use of this money is framed as a “do your best” goal. Again, the goal setting literature suggests that “do your best goals” are less motivating than specific, moderately difficult goals (Locke & Latham, 1990). Finally, professional development money is typically available on anon-contingent basis, and is thus less motivating. What follows are descriptions of three incentive systems developed in a manner consistent with the framework described above and attempts to address the weaknesses of current strategies for enhancing faculty qualifications. Improving Scholarly Productivity in a Business Program One of the elements that the business accrediting agency AACSB reviews in assessing faculty qualifications is scholarly productivity. The goldstandard for scholarly productivity in business disciplines is the peer-reviewed publication. To increase the number of peer-reviewed publications being produced by faculty, an incentive system was put in place that encouraged desired behaviors that are conducive to research productivity and provided faculty with a financial incentive for publishing a peer-reviewed journal article. In order to be predisposed to success in writing for publication, faculty must first be inspired to conduct research and have access to the latest thinking in their field. The first element of the incentive plan offered faculty additional financial support, over-and-above the support provided by the University, to attend to the premier discipline-specific academic conference in their field. This is referred to as the Faculty Continuing Education Fund. Faculty conference attendance had been largely confined to regional conferences or interdisciplinary national conferences that did not feature the premier researchers in the various business disciplines. Exposure to the latest, cutting-edge research in a field is more likely to provide the knowledge base, motivation, and research connections necessary to embark on research projects. Once research projects are underway, faculty often need support to bring those projects to closure. An additional set of funds, known as the Faculty Research Support Fund, was made available to provide reimbursement for research related expenses such as the purchase of survey instruments. (It should be noted that this fund can also be used to reimburse faculty for per page production costs associated with articles accepted for publication.) The final piece of the incentive program, known as the Faculty Publication Incentive Fund, offers to faculty a payment for articles published in peer-reviewed journals. Payment levels were established based on faculty rank (or the highest rank among faculty co-authors). A total amount of money per faculty member is available to them every two years. The underlying assumption of the two-year time frame is that it is possible for faculty to write an article for publication once every two years and to be rewarded for doing so given the teaching and service responsibilities faculty have. That sum of money is available to an individual faculty member for producing one sole authored, peer-reviewed publication during that time frame. Where an author has taken on co-authors, the total pay-out is split among all coauthors. For example, if a faculty member (full professor) co-authors a paper with a colleague, the co-authors each receive a one-half payout at the full professor rate. In this example, for the authors to earn a full payout over the two year period, it would require them to collaborate again and successfully publish a second article during that time frame. If one of these authors was to publish a sole authored article, the payout for that article would be the difference between the total payout set aside for that faculty member minus the payout previously received for the coauthored publication. There are at least two elements of this incentive compensation plan worth noting. First, a faculty Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education 73 David W. Denton & William E. Rayburn member has little incentive to take on co-authors unless those co-authors are prepared to make a proportional contribution to the work. If the initiating author can write the paper without assistance, he/she stands to receive a full payout for the work. This provides an incentive for the initiating author to resist any pressure to add co-authors to a paper who might “need’ a publication on their record for retention, tenure, or promotion purposes. Where collaboration does occur, it behooves junior faculty to work with senior faculty because the payout for the junior faculty member will be higher than if he/she were to collaborate with another junior faculty member. If the senior faculty members have been productive, this increases the likelihood that junior faculty can benefit from that experience. In addition, it might very well spur senior faculty who have not been particularly productive to re-engage with research in anticipation that they might be approached by junior faculty as research collaborators. This program provides incentives for both behavior change alone (e.g., attending the premier, discipline specific conference in one’s field) and for behavior change that produces specific results (i.e., publishing articles in peer-reviewed journals). In the former instance, the incentive takes the form of being granted the time to attend such a conference and reimbursement for expenses. (In most instances, funds are sufficient so that there is no cost to the faculty member.) In the latter case, faculty can “profit” financially from publishing in peer-reviewed journals. In addition, faculty credentials improve in a tangible way and the reputation of their program improves as well. Anecdotal evidence suggests that this program has been favorably received by faculty. Modest increases have occurred in the number of faculty attending the premier, discipline-specific conference in their field. In addition, there has been an increase in the number of faculty publications and the level of collaboration among faculty has increased substantially. The degree of changes in behavior is very much in line with the strength of the incentives provided. 74 Designing Incentive Systems to Enhance Faculty Qualifications Enhancing Faculty Credentials in a Nursing Program program is supported from funds dedicated to a Doctoral Faculty Retention Fund. A growing challenge in baccalaureate nursing The workhorse element of this program is the education/development component as supported by the Doctoral Studies Tuition Reimbursement Fund and the Doctoral Studies Support and Performance Fund. The purpose of these funds is to encourage faculty to pursue doctoral studies in nursing at no personal cost, and to reward faculty with time and a modest performance bonus for doctoral course completion. More specifically, faculty are eligible for tuition reimbursement to cover tuition costs for enrolling in a doctoral program that are not reimbursed as part of the University’s standard tuition reimbursement benefit or as part of the statewide nursing tuition assistance program. Funding is available for faculty to pursue a research-oriented degree (i.e., Ph.D.), a practice-oriented degree, (i.e., the Doctor of Nursing Practice - DNP), or a nursing education degree, (i.e., Ed.D. in nursing education). (Support is not available to complete a nonnursing related Ed.D. degree.) It is also possible for faculty receive tuition support to pursue a degree in a related field. For example, a nursing faculty member specializing in mental health might elect to pursue a doctoral degree in psychology. In addition, faculty enrolled in one or more doctoral courses is offered a one course release from instruction to provide them with time for their educational pursuits. Finally, faculty are paid a modest course completion bonus for each course completed with a satisfactory grade. programs is securing the services of faculty who are doctorally prepared in the field. While the terminal degree in nursing according to most regional accreditation agencies and state governing boards has historically been viewed as a master’s degree, it is becoming increasingly the case that such agencies and boards are encouraging schools to increase the number of doctorally-prepared faculty. In addition, one of the premier accrediting agencies in the nursing field, the National League of Nursing Accreditation Council (NLNAC), requires that 25% of the faculty teaching in a baccalaureate nursing program be doctorally prepared (NLNAC Standards and Criteria). In an effort to increase the number of doctorally prepared faculty in nursing, a financial incentive program was developed. The incentive program was designed to address this challenge on three levels - faculty recruitment, faculty retention, and faculty education/development. One way to address this challenge is to enter the market place and “buy” the credentials one needs. To this end, the first element of the program allows the School of Nursing to offer faculty positions at the rank of associate professor to any successful candidates who are in possession of a doctoral degree in nursing or closely related field given their nursing specialty. (It has customary at this institution for all faculty positions to be posted at the rank of assistant professor.) In addition, successful applicants in possession of a relevant doctoral degree would be offered a substantial one-time signing bonus as an incentive to accept an offer of employment. Funds to support this element of the program come from a dedicated Doctoral Faculty Recruitment Fund. Once doctoral faculty have been hired in nursing, institutions sometimes struggle with the challenge of retaining them. To address this challenge, a longevity bonus system was instituted whereby doctoral faculty are eligible for a small longevity or loyalty bonus for each year they remain with the University as a nursing faculty member. (This bonus is also available to faculty who subsequently complete a doctoral degree after initially employed.) This element of the Spring 2011 (Volume 7 Issue 1) Beginning with faulty hired for the 2011 - 2012 academic year, it will be a requirement for tenure that faculty earn a doctoral degree in nursing or a closely related field. The decision to add this requirement was made by faculty after the details of the incentive program were made known to them. This can be taken as evidence that faculty believe the program is robust enough such that conscientious tenure-track candidates will be able to meet this standard in time for the tenure decision. Research & Writing Intensive Semester The two incentive programs previously described relied quite heavily on financial incentives in the form of results-based bonuses in the case of the incentive program for business faculty, and reimbursements for expenses connected with exhibiting desired behavior, i.e., pursing a doctoral degree, in the case of the incentive program for nursing faculty. However, funding to provide financial incentives is not always available. This section of the paper describes an incentive program that employs the non-financial incentive of time to encourage desired behavior. Encouraging and supporting faculty research productivity is a ubiquitous challenge in higher education. One approach often taken to address this challenge is the use of the faculty sabbatical. Faculty who are awarded a sabbatical are relieved of all faculty responsibilities for one semester, and sometimes longer, to pursue scholarly activity. The faculty member draws a full salary during this time. The faculty member’s department is usually required to staff his/her courses with adjuncts, and cover committee assignments, advising, other faculty work using colleagues. Because of the costs involved, many institutions limit the number of faculty who can be awarded sabbaticals. The faculty who receive sabbaticals are usually faculty who have demonstrated reasonable research productivity already. Sabbaticals are not a particularly effective tool for spurring research on the part of new faculty or senior faculty who have not been productive of late. The Research and Writing Intensive Semester program is a no-cost option that can create blocks of time for faculty to work on scholarly pursuits. A faculty member awarded a Research and Writing Intensive Semester is relieved of all non-teaching responsibilities for the term in question. Activities from which the faculty member would be relieved include: • Service on any College committees • Service on any unit level committees • Service as a Faculty Senate representative • Attendance at unit faculty meetings • Attendance at University faculty meetings • Attendance at graduation-related activities or commencement ceremony • Advising of students (advisees to be reassigned for term in question) Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education 75 David W. Denton & William E. Rayburn Designing Incentive Systems to Enhance Faculty Qualifications • Serving on thesis, research paper, or field study committees Research and Writing Intensive Semester. They cannot be awarded another such opportunity until this happens. • Internship, practicum, or independent study supervision Designing an Incentive Program • Program coordination responsibilities • Holding general office hours for advisees • All other faculty responsibilities not enumerated above EXCEPT teaching a full load of classes and holding office hours to serve the students being taught. Department chairs are encouraged to give faculty a teaching schedule (preps, teaching times) that is conducive to research productivity. If a faculty member happens to be teaching a full-load of classes online, he/she would not need to come to campus during this term. By relieving faculty members of these non-teaching responsibilities, it is hoped that larger blocks of time can be created for research. Because this is essentially a no-cost option for the University, each department can offer this opportunity to one colleague each semester provided that others are willing to shoulder some additional advising and committee assignments for a term. This program is useful in creating blocks of time for new faculty to start a research program or to encourage more senior faculty to reengage with research. Faculty typically provide a one-page description of the work they want to do during the term in question. This can range from completing a manuscript in progress, to collecting data, to initiating a new piece of research. The department chair consults with the dean to approve such “proposals.” Faculty who receive such an opportunity are asked to publish an article at some time in the future following receipt of the To design an incentive program, it is critical to begin by identifying the overarching goal one hopes to achieve with the program, e.g., increase faculty research productivity. This decision should be coupled with the identification of a specific criterion that will be counted, rated, or measured in some way, e.g. peer-reviewed article submissions, peer-reviewed article submissions accepted. This should be followed by setting the standard of performance to be achieved on the criterion, e.g., publication in a national journal featured in Cabell’s, publication in a journal with an acceptance rate of X. It is tempting to begin thinking immediately about what can be measured or counted. Instead, the focus should first be on the larger goal to be achieved by the program. Once that goal has been established, Table 1 table may prove helpful in framing the components of the incentive system. For example, it asks you to identify the kind of results and/or behaviors you want and what the financial and non-financial consequences of producing those results or exhibiting those behaviors will be. In some of the cells of the table are a few examples of the “funds” set-up as part of the previously described incentive programs. Much has been written about the need to secure buy-in for any change effort (e.g., Demers, 2007). However, buy-in should not be mistaken for participation in decision-making. The design of the incentive systems described in this paper was not the result of extensive consultation directly with Table 1 Components of an Incentive System Financial Non-Financial 76 Results Faculty Publication Incentive Fund Pfeffer, J., & Sutton, R. I. (2006). Hard facts, dangerous half-truths, and total nonsense: Profiting from evidence-based management. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Publishing. Schneider, B. (1987). The people make the place. Personnel Psychology, 40, 437-453. Yukl, G. (1998). Leadership in Organizations (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. REFERENCES Demers, C. (2007). Organizational change theories: A synthesis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. Gerhart, B., Rynes, S. L., & Fulmer, I. S. (2009). Pay and performance: Individuals, groups, and executives. The Academy of Management Annals, 3, 251 - 315. Hakanen, J. J., & Roodt, G. (2010). Using the demands-resources model to predict engagement: Analyzing a conceptual model. In A. Bakker & M. P. Leiter (Eds.), Work engagement: A handbook of essential theory and research (pp. 85 - 101). London: Psychology Press. Latham, G. P. (2007). Work motivation: History, theory, research, and practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. Type of Outcome Type of Incentive faculty. The first author worked in conjunction with the director of the unit in question to identify the overall goals to be achieved by the system and to construct the specific reward contingencies for each incentive system. While these systems are believed to be faculty-centric because of the developers experience as faculty members, the programs were not faculty-developed. Research cited in Yukl (1998) on the Vroom-Yetton Normative Decision Model suggests that there are circumstances when a non-participatory decision-making approach can be profitably employed. Similarly, research on goal-setting as described in Latham (2007) frames the issue in terms of the difference between participatively set goals and assigned (by the leader) goals. Based on his own seminal research in this area, Latham (2007) concludes that “... when the assigned goal is given with a logic or rationale, it is as effective as one set participatively.” The extent to which faculty have supported these programs suggests that the logic or rationale presented for their construction has been embraced. Behaviors Doctoral Faculty Retention Fund Research-and-WritingIntensive Semester Spring 2011 (Volume 7 Issue 1) Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990). A theory of goal setting & task performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc. National League of Nursing. (2008). National league for nursing accrediting commission accreditation manual. New York: Author. Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education 77 David W. Denton & William E. Rayburn 78 Spring 2011 (Volume 7 Issue 1) An Ethnographic Study of New College Presidential Learning in a Cultural Context Michael J. Siegel, Ph.D. Assistant Professor Director, Administration of Higher Education Program Suffolk University ABSTRACT This study examines the process by which new college presidents learn their role in a cultural context during the first year of the presidency. It explores the manner in which presidential newcomers utilize elements of campus culture (i.e., rituals, traditions, symbols, and stories) in carrying out their presidential duties. Data were collected on five new college presidents utilizing a qualitative research design, which included interviews, campus observations, and document analyses. Analysis of the data reveal four themes: First steps are critical; discovering tenets of campus culture should have primacy among early behaviors; symbolism in the presidency can be used as a powerful tool; and understanding the paradoxical nature of the position is crucial to learning. INTRODUCTION THE CRITICAL FIRST YEAR Newcomers to institutional settings often feel overwhelmed by the all they encounter. The early weeks and months after organizational entry are often characterized by “disorientation, foreignness, and a kind of sensory overload” (Louis, 1980, p. 230). As a result, it is often difficult for them to make sense of the environment in the midst of ambiguous cultural elements. Expectations run impossibly high for new college presidents. They are expected to be adept at entering the institution with a broad, wellinformed perspective, and immediately set about the task of not only leading, but managing with effective decision-making. Realistic or not, these expectations are driven by the need of the campus community to confirm its appointment of the new president. Newcomers to college and university settings face such challenges, as they are not typically familiar with the campus’ norms, and do not fully appreciate the meaning of certain campus behaviors, communication patterns and the use of language, symbols, rituals, and values that constitute the organizational culture. Difficulty in understanding the nuances of campus culture is often the result of too many competing interpretations and explanations, rather than too few. This study focuses on the college president as institutional newcomer, and its purpose is to examine learning experiences in the critical first year that are central to success in setting and implementing an effective agenda. To be sure, presidents face a paradox in their first year: They are often tasked with proposing or enacting an agenda for the institution in the early months, but to do so they must learn how to perform their presidential duties in the context of the institution’s culture. Indeed the first year of a college presidency will likely be ambiguous insofar as there are multiple, and often competing, interpretations of any number of cultural phenomena that exist in the institutional environment. Negotiating the cultural environment and bringing together constituent groups that have disparate views, beliefs, and behavioral norms are critical to first-year presidential success. Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education 79 Michael J. Siegel CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK This study uses a cultural framework to examine the process by which new college presidents learn their role and discover and utilize campus culture. The cultural framework, insofar as organizational studies are concerned, draws attention to “…aspects of organizational life…such as the stories people tell to newcomers to explain ‘how things are done around here,’ which offices are arranged and personal items are or are not displayed…the working atmosphere…the relations among people…” (Martin, 2006, p. 3). Culture studies such as this are grounded in the work of anthropologists and ethnographers who seek to examine norms, behaviors, belief systems, symbols, rites, rituals, values and other cultural elements existing in civilizations and societies throughout history. To the discipline of anthropology, culture is the fundamental concept encompassing the entire range of behaviors and beliefs in a society, from the symbolic forms of communication that are enacted to the narration of customs and practices by societal members to the transmission of cultural norms and values from one generation to the next. Translated into the current study, this perspective suggests that much of what presidents do is create and sustain belief systems about organizational life by invoking symbols, behavioral norms, rituals, values, language and other elements of culture, which govern and influence the way members make sense of the institution. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Employing culture concepts to analyze institutional behavior and leadership has become a standard in organizational studies (Deal & Kennedy, 1982; Louis, 1980; Louis, 1983; Lundberg, 1990; Martin, 1992; Morgan, 2006; Schein, 1991; Schein, 1992). Relatively few studies, however, have examined the role of culture in shaping the daily work of campus leaders such as college presidents. There is a significant body of higher education literature related to the roles and functions of college presidents. Scholars have studied the role of the college president (Kerr & Gade, 1986), power in the presidency (Fisher, 1984; Neustadt, 80 An Ethnographic Study of New College Presidential Learning in a Cultural Context 1960), leadership aspects (Birnbaum, 1992; Fisher & Koch, 1996), challenges facing presidents (Birnbaum, 1989), and the status of minority and women leaders (Bensimon, 1989). Though the literature addresses the role and leadership aspects of the college presidency, few studies (Bensimon, 1990; Bensimon, 1991; Bensimon, 1993; Gilmore, 1988; McLaughlin & Reisman, 1990) have investigated the process by which presidents learn role behavior and identify and interpret cultural phenomena. Moreover, there is a paucity of research that documents and assesses the perceptions presidents have about their role as president. Describing success and failure in the college presidency, Birnbaum (1992) examines complex factors in the collegiate environment that influence and have implications for presidential leadership. Drawing on the results of a comprehensive fiveyear leadership study of college presidents, called the Institutional Leadership Project (ILP), he examined how college and university leaders interact with members of the campus community, affect organizational functioning at their institutions, set and achieve goals, assess their own effectiveness, and make sense out the college environment in which they work. The study indicates five circumstances that new presidents generally face when they first assume the presidency: (a) There is faculty dissatisfaction with the former president; (b) there is initial faculty support for the presidential newcomer; (c) pressure exists for new presidents to take action; (d) new presidents effect an increase in communication; and (e) there are expectations of good leadership for new presidents. In the early months of a new presidential appointment, institutions can expect an increase in the level of communication, both oral and written, which is central to campus culture. Whether through town hall meetings or campus forums or written strategic plans, new presidents often attempt to foster an atmosphere cordial to open communication, which is a predictably powerful cultural component. According to the ILP data, it is not uncommon for new presidents to feel heightened pressure to take action quickly. New presidents are typically seen in the cultural milieu as a symbol of Spring 2011 (Volume 7 Issue 1) new direction and a fresh start; to that end, they are engaged immediately upon arrival by various constituency groups to address issues that have remained dormant or been neglected by previous administrations. In a cultural analysis of new presidents and their understanding of the campus as a culture, Bensimon (1990) offers three guiding questions which are instructive for this study: “(1) What does it mean to understand the campus as a culture? (2) What are the means of understanding (ways of knowing) an institution as a culture? (3) How can institutional researchers help new presidents acquire a cultural perspective as a way of knowing their institutions?” (p. 76). Focusing on how new presidents become aware of and adapt to organizational environments, this study primarily addresses the nature by which new presidents become effective leaders by learning their role and balancing their expectations and intentions with the expectations and demands of other members of the institution. Particularly relevant for the current research is Neumann’s (1995) interpretative case study on presidential leadership. In the study, the author analyzes the relationship between culture and leadership with respect to changes that occur on a college campus when a new president is appointed. Under the premise that leadership is, “…complex and multidirectional” (p. 252), Neumann addresses the manner in which the culture, and attitudes about the reality of what occurs in the social and cultural environment, is mutually constructed by presidents and other campus participants by a process factors in elements of culture, cognition, and context. In the case study, Neumann analyzes the relationship between the president and other organizational members as it evolves and changes through five phases. The first phase reflects the situation whereby the new president enters the organization and tries to make sense out of the setting (defining the setting); the second phase occurs with the new president adjusting to the cultural environment (redefining the setting); the third phase is punctuated by the new president stirring the setting (stirring up the setting); the fourth phase is reflected in the actions of the campus community as campus participants discover and respond to the changes that the presi- dent has made in the shared setting of the cultural environment (campus responses); and the fifth phase marks the president addressing the responses of the campus community and noting their effects on his presidency (calibrating). This research provides a unique framework for conceptualizing how presidents learn and adapt to the cultural environment in phases or stages and has relevance for the current research. RESEARCH QUESTIONS Underlying the current study is the basic assumption that understanding tenets of campus culture has broad implications for successful transition into the presidency. To that end, the guiding questions for this study are: (1) How do new presidents make sense of campus cultural environment and their role within it?; and (2) What cultural resources (for example, symbols, stories, myths, norms of behavior, and campus traditions) do presidents draw from during their first year to help them learn the role of president? METHODOLOGY AND DATA COLLECTION Because the current research is interpretive in nature and focuses on learning in a cultural context, I chose a qualitative research design (Creswell, 1998; Lincoln & Guba, 1985) for this study. More specifically, I utilized an ethnographic case study approach (Creswell, 1998; Rhoads, 1995) as the preferred method for discovering how new college and university presidents learn about and use the campus cultural environment to make sense of their role during the first year. Consistent with qualitative methodology, data were gathered from multiple sources, including: (a) semi-structured interviews; (b) document analyses (policy statements, presidential addresses, and inauguration materials, for example); and (c) observations of participants in their work environment and interactions with other organizational members. Sample The participants in the study are five college and university presidents, selected from a variety of backgrounds and institutional affiliations. Of Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education 81 Michael J. Siegel the five presidents, three are White males, one an African-American male, and one a White female. As the purpose of the study was to examine first year experiences, it was necessary to select first-time college presidents who were new in the truest sense of the word. It was also important to select new presidents who came from outside, as opposed to inside, the institution they served, which made for a richer portrait of cultural learning. Efforts were also made to ensure variation in the backgrounds of the presidents, including race and gender as well as academic experience and background. Presidents selected for the study, as well as their respective institutions, were assigned pseudonyms to ensure confidentiality and anonymity. The participants were: Willem, Caucasian male, President of Whittmore State College; Luanne, Caucasian female, President of Flowstone State University; Mack, Caucasian male, President of Northwest Stockton University; Martin, African-American male, President of Cloudland State University; and Everett, Caucasian male, President of Fisher University. All of the institutions are small- to mid-sized state universities and members of the American Association of State Colleges and Universities (AASCU). Procedures I made contact with the presidential participants and sent a prospectus outlining the methodology and design of the study; I then scheduled visits and interviews with each president. Prior to visiting the campuses, I sent a sample of key questions from an interview protocol to each of the presidents to further familiarize them with the study. Interviews took place over a three- to four-day period at each of the five institutions in the study. Several interview sessions were conducted with the presidents, each lasting approximately one to two hours in length. A standard, semi-structured interview protocol was used to facilitate discussion, and follow-up questions were modified and adjusted to the context of the discussion. During each visit, I attended as many meetings and college functions as possible that were relevant the study in an effort to gather additional data outside of the campus interviews. Further, I examined institutional documents and other 82 An Ethnographic Study of New College Presidential Learning in a Cultural Context written materials such as catalogs, presidential search materials, and letters and memos from the president, which factored into the data analysis. Data Analysis Data from interview transcripts, document analyses, observations of campus events, and interactions with new presidents were analyzed using an inductive process, whereby emerging categories, patterns, and themes (Whitt, 1993) were developed from smaller units of data. To that end, data were simultaneously collected, interpreted, and classified in the categories, and written in narrative format that laid the foundation for further analysis. During the course of the study, I recorded extensive field notes of my interviews and observations at each site in journals, which included narrative accounts of interactions, observations, interpretations, impressions of events, and other reflections that occurred. A coding process (Creswell, 1998, p. 67) was used in the initial stages to segment larger units of information into smaller, more manageable categories, and further sorting of the data helped to assemble the information in new ways. Categorizing and managing the qualitative, nonnumeric data was done by conducting multiple sorts of the data, the first of which yielded several narrow themes. Further analysis included cataloguing, storing, and indexing textual data with the goal of establishing relationships between segments of data and refining the themes. A second sort of the data, whereby the initial themes were collapsed into more broad-based and encompassing categories, yielded four major themes. The third and final sort, conducted after the completion of the first draft of the written analysis, served as an attempt to mine the data more thoroughly and ensure category reliability, soundness, richness, and trustworthiness in the final written analysis. I sent a draft report of my analyses to each of the presidents for review. These member checks (Creswell, 1998; Lincoln & Guba, 1985) were an opportunity to solicit information about the credibility of my findings and interpretations. Some of the presidents made slight alterations to direct quotations in the text, presumably in an attempt Spring 2011 (Volume 7 Issue 1) to refine the language and make clearer the context in which comments were made. FINDINGS Analysis of the data revealed four themes among the experiences of new presidents in the study: (1) First steps are critical; (2) Discovering, learning, and respecting institution-specific tenets of campus culture should have primacy among early behaviors; (3) Symbolism in the presidency can be used as a powerful tool; and (4) Understanding, and accepting, the paradoxical nature of the position is crucial to cultural learning. First Steps Are Critical, Literally: Leaping Before Looking The first theme examines the importance of early actions and behaviors of new presidents and explores the process by which new presidents make decisions about what first steps to take upon entering the presidency. All of the participants in the study indicated that the most critical step upon entering the presidency was to meet members of the faculty, in particular faculty leaders, and become familiar with the issues, values, and norms that were important to them. As reported by most of the presidents, taking first steps included a kinetic learning experience: a walk about the campus. Willem, President of Whittmore State College, first approached the vice president for academic affairs who had been at the institution for thirty years and asked questions about the faculty, such as “Who are the most respected members of this faculty? I would like to talk to them.” Seeking out a veteran member of the institution to inquire about important individuals with whom to meet was a common gesture among the presidents in the study. Willem talked about his first day as a new president, arriving at the institution where most people knew of his record but had not met him: “My first day here, I started to walk around like anybody would…management by walking around. So I walked down to the English department…I had been introduced to the campus, alright, but they didn’t know me. I saw a pro- fessor…and I sat down in his office said to him, ‘You know, I’m trying to learn about the campus and faculty…tell me a little bit about your colleagues.’” Willem found it very important to take the initiative to meet members of the campus on their own terms and in their departments, because it conveyed the sentiment that he was reaching out in his new position. He noted the idea of making unannounced appearances at individuals’ doors was very effective as well, for it gave him the opportunity to see people in their element. Upon arriving at her new institution, Luanne, President of Flowstone State University, walked around the campus unattended by staff and assistants, and she used the process to meet with various faculty and other groups around campus in their own environment, similar to Willem. In the course of her early months on campus, she also requested to meet with all of the department heads and deans on the campus; instead of asking them to come to her office to consort and talk about issues, she asked to be invited to their offices, letting them know that she did not want to impose her schedule on them and make it a formal discussion within their operating area. Mack, President of Northwest Stockton University, was familiar with some of the individuals on campus, having worked in business for several years near the University and served as a prominent member of the U.S. Congress from the area, he had not had a direct relationship with the university and its constituents and was therefore not particularly knowledgeable about the culture of the campus. Given the conditions under which Mack was hired, namely, that he was approached and selected by a board of trustees with minimal consultation from members of the campus community, winning the trust of the university constituents was critical to his early tenure. With the dual purpose of building a network of colleagues and being proactive in attempting to better understand the culture of the campus, he developed a plan to visit a new faculty department on campus each week. He noted during our interviews that he found the process to be quite useful in helping him understand the nuances of the multiple issues and concerns that various campus constituency groups faced. Like Luanne, he made intentional efforts to meet faculty on their own Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education 83 Michael J. Siegel terms, hoping that they would feel more comfortable sharing their issues and talking about their departments in their surroundings. It is evident from the data that new presidents are concerned with first steps, and often in the literal sense. Taking the Office of the President to the community, in essence, was the motivation behind many of the first actions of new presidents. Rather than summoning groups, individuals, and committees, to their offices, the presidents in the study relied on a first-move advantage to learn about the campus constituents on their terms. The presidents were all cognizant of how their first-action behaviors set the tone for their presidency and put them in a learning posture. Institutional Culture as a Gradually Opening Flower: Looking Before Leaping The second theme relates to the process by which new presidents become acclimated to the culture of the institution and understand the institution as a culture-bearing organization, and they themselves as cultural leaders. As the cultural drama of campus life unfolds or is in process, members of the campus community learn the tenets of institutional culture through various means, including that of improvisation and experimentation. For new college presidents, as it were, leading an institution means having a particularly deep understanding of campus culture and being able to interpret as well as communicate institutional values and beliefs. Consider Chaffee and Tierney’s (1988) follow up point that, “As a result, effective leadership has to do not only with planning and adaptation but also with interpreting and communicating institutional values and understanding organizational processes” (p. 3). I asked the presidents how they would characterize the values of the institution, and more importantly, how they each came to understand and respect the core values of the institution. The presidents described what it was like to enter into their positions as chief executive officer and attempt to discover, and make sense of, core tenets of campus culture amidst a multitude of stimuli. Martin, President of Cloudland State University, talked in terms of the cultural learning process as a “…gradually opening flower,” suggesting that 84 An Ethnographic Study of New College Presidential Learning in a Cultural Context the complexities of culture on a college campus culture do not unfold quickly or completely. He reflected that each day a little bit more of the culture reveals itself and that presidents need to be careful when asserting the values of the institution with an eye toward change. Presidents need to be careful when they want to assert the values of the institution, Martin further suggested, because the landscape and the culture of the institution can change from year to year based on several reasons. Whether from personnel changes, budgetary crises, the infusion of cash during big fundraising years, or a host of other dynamics operating on campus, the values of an institution have a tendency to change. When listening to the voices of the community, he admonished, a president should be cautious in arriving at picture of a shared set of institutional values, given that there are many constituent groups and many value sets represented on campus. Martin noted: …you have to be careful when people come to you and say, “The values that we hold dear at [Cloudland State] are….” Normally there are very few people who can articulate them because there are very few people who understand, who have got their fingers on the pulse of that much of the university to understand the value of it. And there is so much dynamism to it, that it does shift… you need to be very wary and let the values become visible to you…and unfold over time. Martin is implying the core and fundamental values of an institution are those that have stood the test of time and have become a part of the institutional ethos. As his words suggest, presidents should listen with caution to the pronouncements made about values in the campus culture and exercise discretion in subscribing to the multitude of values people claim are endemic to the institution. One of the challenges to Everett, president of Fisher University, during his first year was finding an effective and direct way to indicate to campus constituency groups that status quo (in terms of campus programming, curriculum development, and academic administration) was unacceptable. Spring 2011 (Volume 7 Issue 1) He realized early on it was politically prudent to move cautiously with change and honor the often disparate views of campus culture represented by the many constituency groups at the University. Indeed, his background as a student affairs administrator, he said, taught him about the nature of changing an academic culture and the need to wade in cautiously when trying to facilitate collaboration. All of the presidents found elements of the new culture ambiguous and difficult to read. They were used to operating in cultural environments where they understood the processes and procedures by which institutional tasks were carried out. Similarly, they were familiar with the norms of behavior, values, and beliefs that were indigenous to the institutional culture of their previous institution. Making the transition into a new environment with a different set of values, beliefs, norms, and ways of doing things meant learning, accepting, and respecting new cultural properties and patterns of behavior. It is not enough for a president to simply explore culture and learn how to strategically operate within a campus environment; he or she must be able to convey respect and an appreciation for the core values and traditions of a college or university. In short, the presidents in this study appeared to learn their role most effectively when they intentionally attempt to understand, respect, and utilize core institutional values. The Role of Symbolism: The President as Living Logo One of the dominant areas I explored concerned the nature of symbolism in the presidency, the third theme. All of the presidents talked about symbolism in the presidency and discussed elements of their daily work on campus where they invoked cultural customs and addressed issues related to the beliefs, values, and norms of the institution. Similarly, they spoke about the position of president being symbolic in and of itself, and discussed the phenomena by which the college community endows the president with symbolic properties and ascribe symbolic meanings to everyday behaviors of the president. As one president poignantly noted, “You become the living logo of the place as a president.” Whether attending faculty or committee meetings, visiting campus functions or athletic events, speaking to student groups, initiating town hall discussions, or participating in ceremonies such as graduation or convocation, the presidents felt their daily interactions in the campus environment were replete with symbolic gestures. Because, as one president said, “People hang on every word of the president when they speak,” the presidents indicated they used public appearances as a way to send messages to the community, both directly and symbolically. Similarly, they found they were able to learn more about the campus culture based on how institutional members reacted to their appearances and speeches. He noted that every for every formal program there is something for the president to say; whether it be Founder’s Day or Honor’s Day or any other ceremonial event on campus, “The president is supposed to be professorial and filled with wisdom and understanding.” As mentioned, the campus community typically wants to hear a new president talk about his or her vision for the campus, and they will want to hear about any new programs and initiatives that are abound in university planning. The consensus among the presidents is that practically every event on the campus in which the president is in attendance can be construed as symbolic. All of the presidents in the study recognized the importance of being aware of how internal and external constituents view their actions, interpret their interactions with people on and off campus, and conduct the business of the college. In terms of the symbolism surrounding attendance at events, the data suggest new presidents often feel they are not able to say no to attending programs; even when programs or activities are judged not imperative to attend, presidents still feel compelled to consider being present. In sum, it is common for presidents to commit themselves to a tireless and endless schedule of events, using each new event as an opportunity to introduce themselves as well as let campus members know the value of their programs. One of the most important ceremonies over which any president presides is the inauguration ceremony. The inauguration, one of the most celebrated events in the early stages of the college Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education 85 Michael J. Siegel presidency, is also one of the most highly symbolic in the life of any institution. In fact, many academicians who are critical of the inauguration ceremony argue that is nothing more than a symbolic event, serving no useful purpose other than putting the culture of the institution on display. I had the opportunity to attend the Inauguration ceremony of two of the presidents in the study – Luanne and Martin – where I documented the use of cultural artifacts and other items used in campus celebrations. I paid particular attention to the use of language by the president and others, noting the many ways presidents use the ceremony to issue a clarion call to the college community to work together in a collaborative effort to advance the institution. While I was unable to attend the inauguration ceremonies of the other three presidents in the study, I interviewed each of them and explored their thoughts on the ceremony. Interest was the way in which Everett invoked several values of Fisher University in his speech and fused them into the theme of the inauguration ceremony. Deliberating on the theme of his inaugural speech, it struck him one day that the words on a black cherry wood plaque hanging in the entrance of the campus library seemed most appropriate: “Character, Culture, Scholarship, Service.” This moment of epiphany, he said, helped launch the concept that would eventually become his inauguration speech. About the ceremony, Everett said: For me to use in the inaugural, the sign with the “Character, Culture, Scholarship and Service”…a sign that was given to the state normal school in 1912…that was very symbolic that I respected the past. I took those four tenants and values and said, “Here’s some challenges to our faculty and staff and students for the future.” An important phenomenon that Willem focused on during our first conversation together was the idea that members of the campus community bestow the presidency with symbolic attributes, and as a result they keep an observant watch over the behaviors and words of the president and ascribe meaning to many of the things the presi- 86 An Ethnographic Study of New College Presidential Learning in a Cultural Context dent does and says. Everett described this same phenomenon as “living in a fishbowl.” To be sure, individuals in the campus community pay close attention to what presidents do as well as what they don’t do. Behaviors and everyday activities that might be considered routine and customary for most members of a campus community are ascribed with highly symbolic attributes where presidents are concerned. Correspondingly, many of the decisions made, and actions taken, during the early tenure of the presidency are seen as symbolic gestures that impart messages about the values and beliefs of the president. Understanding, and Accepting, Paradox and Ambiguity The fourth theme in the study addresses the nature of paradox in the presidency. It examines the process by which presidents make sense of ambiguity in the campus culture and reconcile the myriad messages they receive concerning what they should and should not do in conducting the business of the college. As Weick (1995) notes, ambiguity in organizational functioning has to do with the presence of too much information rather than not enough. Several presidents discussed, for example, the ambiguity that develops when several institutional sagas or stories, or iterations or interpretations of stories, about the same event on campus are disclosed, making it difficult to get an accurate picture of what actually transpired in a particular situation. Presidents can observe how culture manifests itself in the daily actions of campus members, but they can never be assured that cultural behaviors are enacted in a patterned and predictable manner. While the process of role learning in the presidency is intended to reduce cultural ambiguity, it can have the paradoxical effect of instilling it. The participants in the study discussed their first year in the presidency as a time characterized by ambiguity and uncertainty. While they were often expected to propose and execute an agenda or strategic plan for institutional change, they were also aware that acting too quickly without proper and sufficient consultation and failing to take the necessary time to become familiar with institu- Spring 2011 (Volume 7 Issue 1) tional culture would be detrimental to their administration. The paradox is such that in order to initiate and execute an agenda or plan for change on campus they first have to learn how to perform their institutional duties in the context of the culture of the institution. Martin spoke of the strain to the presidency when ambiguity is extant in the campus culture, particularly when it affects interpersonal relations on campus. Once you build trust with individuals on campus, he believes, they will bring you information that can potentially reduce the amount of ambiguity that punctuates the presidency. He poignantly notes: People challenge…presidents when changes are made - presidents have to navigate through the various value sets of groups on campus and try to make changes that respect the values of the organization. It is a precarious position to be in because you will not be able to satisfy all constituency groups on campus - not everyone will agree on core values, and presidents have to make judgments about whose interests will be best be served when making particular decisions on campus. Martin shared a very important lesson he learned during his first year in the presidency. He found that the role of the president in general is very important to a lot of people on campus, and it can often become too important. That is, so many people in the college environment have a vested interest and stake in the presidency that it is doubtful anyone who assumes the office can live up to the expectations inherent in the position. He said: …People believe the president can do more than he or she can do, and therefore there is a lot of attention [given] to a place called the presidency, and the president. That’s awfully humbling and scary…I’ve learned that along with people expecting a lot and making the position too important, that…a part of your success is to jog people back into reality about what it is you can do and cannot do. And I’ve learned that the reason why people do this is they want some place to store the success and failures of the institution, and they store it in the office of the president… Several of the presidents noted that it is a very complicated process to get an accurate picture of the presidency as well as the institution when one first assumes to mantle of the leadership. Given that the selection of new presidents is the product of many dynamics that include the organizing and composition of search committees, applicant screening processes, constituent group self-interest, and politics and hidden agendas to name a few, it is often a significant challenge for new presidents to accurately gauge the level of support from particular groups. Given the often disparate interests and needs of various campus constituency groups, as well as the multiple meanings assigned to any one particular event on campus, it is no wonder that presidents experience ambiguity when trying to arrive at an accurate reading of the core values and beliefs of an institution. CONCLUSIONS With the institution-specific nature of campus culture and the unique place-bound experiences of each president, generalizability of findings to other presidential experiences is problematic. Similarly given the geographical proximity of the institutions and the scope of the study, prolonged engagement at each site was not possible. The research attempts to provide, however, an element of transferability (Creswell, 1998; Lincoln & Guba, 1985). The detailed description inherent in qualitative research enables readers to determine whether the findings can be transferred to similar settings. Transferability assumes that similarly situated participants will have some measurable degree of similarity among their experiences, and therefore tacit assumptions can be made about the experiences of new presidents at other institutions. Institutions of higher education are complex, culture-bearing entities. It follows that the learning experiences of new college presidents are similarly complex. Among the most important objectives for presidents the first year in office is to discover and understand the various layers of Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education 87 Michael J. Siegel organizational culture. Making sense of ambiguous stimuli and attempting to understand unclear meanings in the context of an institutional culture is a large part of the learning behavior of new presidents. The presidents in this study report they must be able to transcend the boundaries that set apart various campus subcultures, and they need to be adroit at bringing together campus groups that often have disparate values and beliefs. Interviews with the presidents suggest that many of them faced a significant paradox during their first year: they felt compelled to propose major agendas and strategic plans for programming during the early part of their tenure, but they felt they needed to be more knowledgeable about the organizational culture and the ethos of how plans and procedures are carried out on campus. Most of the presidents were expected, or felt compelled, to share a vision for the institution, but they indicated it was a particularly difficult task because of all the campus dynamics they had to take into account in order to do so. The extent to which change is needed, desired, or both, has to be considered by presidents when programming and planning and many individuals and constituency groups have to be consulted before culture-changing initiatives are put into motion. It is evident that much of what college and university presidents do is manage culture. In fact, Schein (1992) suggests, it can be argued that “the only thing of real importance that leaders do is to create and manage culture and that the unique talent of leaders is their ability to understand and work with culture” (p. 5). There are no blueprints or templates for understanding culture in institutions of higher education, and in the case of new college presidents, past experiences alone do not prepare them to assume the mantle of leadership and begin the process of learning about their new institution’s culture. The pace of the college and university president is typically hurried and rushed. Ironically, this fast pace both contributes to, as well as limits, cultural understanding and role learning. This is particularly true for new presidents, most of whom feel driven to maintain a busy schedule of speaking engagements, offcampus meetings, public appearances, campus committee meetings, fund-raising appointments, departmental visits, and other responsibilities. 88 An Ethnographic Study of New College Presidential Learning in a Cultural Context There is little time in the presidency for reflection, reading, and thinking extensively about campus culture, yet it is such a vital part of understanding institutional behavior. Presidents are bestowed with an enormous amount of power and influence when they assume their role. With that power and influence, presidents have a responsibility to serve as the key representative of their institution as well as its primary culture-bearer. Culture on college campuses is often hard to make sense of in any discernible pattern because it often rests below the surface of institutional consciousness. The ambition of any new president, according to those in the study, should be to intentionally engage in the discovery, understanding, and utilization of campus culture. How and what new presidents learn during their first year is a function of the success they have in that process. REFERENCES Bensimon, E.M. (1989). Five approaches to think about: Lessons learned from experienced presidents. In E. M. Bensimon, M. Gade, & J. Kauffman (Eds.), On assuming a college or university presidency (pp. 1-12). Washington, DC: American Association for Higher Education. Chaffee, E. E., & Tierney, W. G. (1988). Collegiate cultures. New York: American Council on Education/Macmillan. Neumann, A. (1995). Context, cognition, and culture: A case analysis of collegiate leadership and cultural change. American Educational Research Journal, 32(2), 251-279. Deal, T. E., & Kennedy, A. A. (1982). Corporate cultures: The rites and rituals of corporate life. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Neustadt, R. E. (1960). Presidential power: The politics of leadership. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Fisher, J. L. (1984). Power of the president. New York: American Council on Education/MacMillan. Rhoads, R. A. (1995). Whales tales, dog piles, and beer goggles: An ethnographic case study of fraternity life. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 26(3), 306-323. Fisher, J. L., & Koch, J.V. (1996). Presidential leadership: Making a difference. American Council on Education: Oryx Press. Gilmore, T. N. (1988). Making a leadership change: How organizations and leaders can handle leadership transitions successfully. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Kerr, C., & Gade, M. L. (1986). The many lives of academic presidents: Time, place, and character. Washington, DC: Association of Governing Boards of Universities and Colleges. Lincoln, Y. S. & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Louis, M. R. (1980). 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Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Bensimon, E.M. (1990). Viewing the presidency: Perceptual congruence between presidents and leaders on their campuses. Leadership Quarterly, 1(2),71-90. Bensimon, E. M. (1993). New presidents’ initial actions: Transactional and transformational leadership. Journal for Higher Education Management, 8(2), 5-17. Morgan, G. (2006). Images of organization (3rd Schein, E. H. (1991). What is culture? In P. J. Frost, L. F. Moore, M. R. Louis, C. C. Lundberg, & J. Martin (Eds.), Reframing organizational culture. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Schein, E. H. (1992). Organizational culture and leadership. (2nd edition). San Francisco: JosseyBass. Weick, K. E. (1995). Sensemaking in organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Whitt, E. J. (1993). Making the familiar strange: Discovering culture. In G. D. Kuh (Ed.), Cultural perspectives in students affairs (pp. 81-94). Washington, DC: American College Personnel Association. Lundberg, C. C. (1990). Working with culture. Journal of Organization Change Management, 1(2), 38-47. Martin, J. (1992). Cultures in organizations: Three perspectives. New York: Oxford University Press. Martin, J. (2006). Organizational culture: Mapping the terrain. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. McLaughlin, J. B., & Riesman, D.(1990). Choosing a college president. Princeton, NJ: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education 89 Michael J. Siegel 90 Spring 2011 (Volume 7 Issue 1) JOINT CONFERENCE May 23th, 24th and 25th 2012 in Nashville, TN at the Holiday Inn Vanderbilt Academic Business World International Conference (ABWIC.org) International Conference on Learning and Administration in Higher Education (ICLAHE.org) The aim of Academic Business World is to promote inclusiveness in research by offering a forum for the discussion of research in early stages as well as research that may differ from ‘traditional’ paradigms. We wish our conferences to have a reputation for providing a peer-reviewed venue that is open to the full range of researchers in business as well as reference disciplines within the social sciences. All too often learning takes a back seat to discipline related research. The International Conference on Learning and Administration in Higher Education seeks to focus exclusively on all aspects of learning and administration in higher education. We wish to bring together, a wide variety of individuals from all countries and all disciplines, for the purpose of exchanging experiences, ideas, and research findings in the processes involved in learning and administration in the academic environment of higher education. Business Disciplines We encourage the submission of manuscripts, presentation outlines, and abstracts pertaining to any business or related discipline topic. We believe that all disciplines are interrelated and that looking at our disciplines and how they relate to each other is preferable to focusing only on our individual ‘silos of knowledge’. The ideal presentation would cross discipline. borders so as to be more relevant than a topic only of interest to a small subset of a single discipline. Of course, single domain topics are needed as well. Conferences Academic Business World (ABW) sponsors an annual international conference for the exchange of research ideas and practices within the traditional business disciplines. The aim of each Academic Business World conference is to provide a forum for the discussion of research within business and reference disciplines in the social sciences. A secondary but important objective of the conference is to encourage the cross pollination of disciplines by bringing together professors, from multiple countries and disciplines, for social and intellectual interaction. Prior to this year, the Academic Business World International Conference included a significant track in Learning and Administration. Because of increased interest in that Track, we have promoted Learning and Administration to a Conference in its own right. For the full call for papers and more information go to http://ABWIC.org and http://ICLAHE.org We encourage the submission of manuscripts, presentation outlines, and abstracts in either of the following areas: Learning We encourage the submission of manuscripts pertaining to pedagogical topics. We believe that much of the learning process is not discipline specific and that we can all benefit from looking at research and practices outside our own discipline. The ideal submission would take a general focus on learning rather than a discipline-specific perspective. For example, instead of focusing on “Motivating Students in Group Projects in Marketing Management”, you might broaden the perspective to “Motivating Students in Group Projects in Upper Division Courses” or simply “Motivating Students in Group Projects” The objective here is to share your work with the larger audience. Academic Administration We encourage the submission of manuscripts pertaining to the administration of academic units in colleges and universities. We believe that many of the challenges facing academic departments are not discipline specific and that learning how different departments address these challenges will be beneficial. The ideal paper would provide information that many administrators would find useful, regardless of their own disciplines Conferences Prior to this year, Learning and Administration was a primary track of the annual Academic Business World International Conference. Because of increased interest, we have promoted Learning and Administration from a Track to Conference in its own right. For the full call for papers and more information go to http:// ICLAHE.org and http://ABWIC.org.