31. Overview of Augustus and
Augustan Literature
The Battle of Actium and the subsequent conquest of
Egypt put the entire Roman world in Octavian’s hands
. . . but how could he maintain one man rule without
making the mistakes of Julius Caesar?
The Rise of Octavian
„
Caesar’s will had adopted 19 year old grandnephew, C. Octavius,
as his son and heir
‰
‰
C. Iulius Caesar Octavianus > historians know him as “Octavian”
Heir to Caesar’s fortune and name
„
Returned from Apollonia (in Macedonia), where he had been
training with Caesar’s army
Cicero initially friendly towards Octavian
„
Built up a faction, challenged Antony
„
‰
‰
‰
3/21/2007
Saw him as a counter to Mark Antony, Caesar’s lieutenant
Differed over avenging Caesar
Ludi Victoriae Caesaris and the astrum Caesaris: “Behold, my
father become a god!”
30. Overview of Augustus and Augustan Literature
30. Overview of Augustus and Augustan
Literature
2
1
Actium and the End of Antony
„
Octavian waits until 31 B.C. to fight
‰
„
He was elected consul that year for the third time; as
consul he had constitutional legitimacy
Naval face-off
‰
‰
Site on the Adriatic coast of Greece
Antony stronger on paper
„
‰
‰
„
„
Their navy demoralized, many surrendered
Antony and Cleopatra fled to Alexandria
‰
‰
„
Commanders divided, angry with Cleopatra
Antony’s larger fleet bottled up in the mouth of bay
Antony and Cleopatra opted for a strategic retreat
Octavian pursued them in 30 B.C.
Their suicides and the annexation of Egypt
Octavian now supreme in the Roman world
‰
‰
At last both the heir and successor of Caesar
But how to avoid Caesar’s fate?
„
Caesar has been assassinated by fellow-senators for
looking and acting like a king
3/21/2007
30. Overview of Augustus and Augustan Literature
3
Octavian Triumphant
„
Consul each year from 31 to 23 B.C.
‰
However, his colleagues were not equal, as demonstrated by his holding all the
fasces (rods and axes that symbolized authority)
„
Triple triumph in 29 B.C.: Illyria, Actium, and Egypt
„
In 28 B.C., he and Agrippa held a new census
‰
‰
‰
„
Coupled with restoration of temples, both “foreseen” in Vergil’s Shield of Aeneas
Lectio senatus (senatorial list) purged opponents from the Senate and “stacked”
it with their own men
Augustus princeps Senatus (first man of the senate)
Super-patron
‰
Wealth of Egypt allowed him to outstrip all aristocrats in munificence and
patronage
„
Commanded all the Roman armies and controlled all the provinces
„
Again, the problem: How to avoid the fate of Iulius Caesar?
‰
3/21/2007
Was still, in actuality, a military dictator with no challengers
30. Overview of Augustus and Augustan Literature
30. Overview of Augustus and Augustan
Literature
4
2
Constitutional Settlement of 27 B.C.
„
“Restored” the republic
Turned provinces and armies over to the Senate and People of Rome
Resigned all extraordinary powers except for the normal authority of the
consulship
‰
‰
„
Senate protested, voted him new honors and powers
Returned about half of the provinces to Augustus as his provincia and granted
him proconsular imperium for ten years
‰
„
„
He could govern them through legates (deputies) and remain at Rome as consul
These provinces contained almost all of the legions
Bestowed new honors upon him meant to elevate him above all others in
the aristocracy
‰
3/21/2007
30. Overview of Augustus and Augustan Literature
5
The Roman Empire Under Augustus
„
„
Augustus’ provinces in darker brown, the Senate’s in tan, Italy in purple
First Provincial Tour, 27-25 B.C.
‰
‰
Reorganized provinces of Gaul and Spain
Removed his dominating presence from Rome, intended perhaps to lessen senatorial
jealousy
30. Overview of Augustus and Augustan
Literature
3
New Name, Old Virtues
„
A new name: Imperator Caesar Augustus
‰
Imperator: originally the title of a victorious general, this name stressed his
military role
„
‰
Caesar: continued to emphasize his connection with Julius Caesar
‰
Augustus: roughly meant “holy one” and perhaps “increaser”
„
„
„
Our word “emperor” comes from this name/title, but there never was a formal
position of emperor in Rome
Modern titles such as Kaiser and Czar (tsar) are derived from this personal name
indicated his favor with the gods and his more than human status
Additional Honors
‰
Clipeus Virtutis: The Senate decreed that a golden shield listing his virtues be put
up in their chamber
„
„
„
„
‰
3/21/2007
justice
mercy
virtus (valor)
pietas (loyalty to family, country, and the gods)
Additional honors included making his house the equivalent of a temple and
decorating it with evergreen bay leaves, indicating that he was the source of
eternal life
30. Overview of Augustus and Augustan Literature
7
Clipeus Virtutis
Left: Marble copy of the clipeus
virtutis from Arles (see Zanker fig. 79,
page 95); above: coins with laurels
(cf. Livia’s laurel sprigs signifying the
prosperity of the imperial house) and
the clipeus virtutis between two
laurels.
3/21/2007
30. Overview of Augustus and Augustan Literature
30. Overview of Augustus and Augustan
Literature
8
4
The Principate
„
Declared princeps Senatus in the 28 B.C. census, Augustus
was soon known simply as princeps
‰
‰
‰
„
First citizen, first in everything!
The English word “prince” is derived from princeps
This title is the root of the word “principate,” which describes the kind
of government Augustus established
Cumulative position: Imperator Caesar Augustus, princeps
‰
‰
‰
“triumphant general, Caesar, the Holy One, the first man of Rome”
Consul in Rome, proconsul in a massive province, commander of
virtually all the armies, wealthiest man, monopolizer of patronage,
bearer of extraordinary honors
A “disguised monarchy”
3/21/2007
30. Overview of Augustus and Augustan Literature
9
A Return to Traditional Values
„
Some important Roman morals
‰
‰
‰
‰
„
Importance of marriage, children, and family
‰
‰
„
The wealthy had been having smaller and smaller families, divorcing
frequently
the problem of legislating morality
Revival of religion
‰
„
romanitas (patriotism)
gravitas (seriousness)
virtus (valour, courage = Greek aretē)
pietas (loyalty to family, country, and the gods)
Rebuilt temples, revived old cults, tried to strengthen “old time religion”
and values
Veneration of Roman heroes
‰
3/21/2007
Figures from Roman myth and legend; leaders and heroes from the
early republic; Caesar; and increasingly, Augustus himself!
30. Overview of Augustus and Augustan Literature
30. Overview of Augustus and Augustan
Literature
10
5
Augustan Literature
„
„
“When the rule of Augustus is established, men of letters, a
class whose habit it had been to attack the dominant
individual or faction, appear to have been fervently on the side
of the government. . . . It does not follow that that the poets
and historians who lent their talent to the glorification of the
new order were merely the paid and compliant apologists of
despotism.” (R. Syme, Roman Revolution, 459)
Many poets and writers patronized by Augustus’ friend
Maecenas
‰
Horace: Golden Age poet
‰
Livy: moralizing historian
„
„
‰
Propagator of traditional values, legendary and historical heroes as
exempla (models of good and bad behavior)
Vergil: author of a nationalistic epic, the Aeneid
„
3/21/2007
note esp. his “Roman odes”
Stressed the role of the Julian family
30. Overview of Augustus and Augustan Literature
30. Overview of Augustus and Augustan
Literature
11
6