J Indian Philos
DOI 10.1007/s10781-012-9164-1
The Role of Fear (Bhaya) in the Nikāyas
and in the Abhidhamma
Giuliano Giustarini
© Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012
Abstract According to Buddhist soteriology, fear is a direct cause of suffering and
one of the main obstacles in the path to liberation. Pāli Suttas and Abhidhamma
present a number of sophisticated strategies to deal with fear and to overcome it.
Nevertheless, in the Nikāyas and in the Abhidhamma there are also consistent
instructions about implementing fear in meditative practices and considering it as a
valuable ally in the pursuit of nibbāna. By means of a lexicographical study of
selected passages and especially of two compounds (bhayūparata and abhayūparata), this paper demonstrates that fear may have the crucial function of stimulating
the meditator: through reiterated admonishments and reflections that evoke a feeling
of dread, the meditator gets weary of unwholesome patterns and is prompted to put
effort in his/her own practice. Evidence proves that this set of instructions is ultimately consistent with the several teachings that emphasize the importance of
counteracting fear and fostering fearlessness, which is described as a quality of
liberation as well as an attitude to be cultivated. In fact, a close analysis of the
dynamics involved in bhaya (fear) and abhaya (fearlessness) as graphically depicted
in the Nikāyas and in the Abhidhamma texts, reveals that stirring fear and letting go
of fear are two essential steps of the same process.
Keywords Buddhist meditation · Abhidhamma · Suttas · Fear ·
Mindfulness of death · Theravāda · Nibbāna · Puggalapaññatti
Abbreviations
A
Abhis
AVS
AVSN
Aṅguttara Nikāya
Abhidhammatthasaṅgaha
Arthaviniścaya Sūtra
Arthaviniścaya Sūtra Nibandhana
G. Giustarini (&)
Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom, Thailand
e-mail: giulianogiustarini@gmail.com
123
G. Giustarini
Cone
CSCD
D
Dhp
Edgerton
Jā
Jā-a
M
Mil
Monier-Williams
Mv
Mv-A
Patism
˙
Parjt
PED
Pet
˙
Pp
Pp-a
Ppsud
PTS
S
Saund
Sd
Skt
Sn
Spk
Th
Vism
A Dictionary of Pāli
Chatta Saṅgayana CD
Dı̄gha Nikāya
Dhammapada
Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Dictionary
Jātaka
Jātaka-atthakathā
˙˙
Majjhima Nikāya
Milindapañha
A Sanskrit-English Dictionary
Mahāvagga (Vinaya Pitaka)
˙
Mahāvagga-atthakathā
˙˙
Patisambhidāmagga
˙
Paramatthajotikā
Pali English Dictionary
Petakopadesa
˙
Puggalapaññatti
Puggalapaññatti-atthakathā
˙˙
Papañcasūdanı̄ (Majjhimanikāya-atthakathā)
˙˙
Pali Text Society
Samyutta Nikāya
˙
Saundarananda
Saddanı̄ti
Sanskrit
Suttanipāta
Sāratthappakāsinı̄ (Samyuttanikāya-atthakathā)
˙
˙˙
Theragāthā
Visuddhimagga
Fear and Restraint
Buddhist texts generally describe fear as a pernicious aspect of the mind, to be
scrutinized and eventually overcome: it is imbued with suffering, causes further
suffering, and acts as an impediment in the path to awakening. On the other hand, in
numerous Pāli passages fear is also described as a fundamental instrument,
especially when referred to the early stages of the practice.
The path to liberation is said to proceed “against the stream” (paṭiloma), opposite
to anuloma, the easy slipping into the realm of saṃsāra. Hence, the individual who
walks the path needs to make an effort, which may be encouraged and elicited. In
other words, the mind of the meditator has to be poked, properly stimulated in order
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The Role of Fear (Bhaya) in the Nikāyas and in the Abhidhamma
to get rid of its deeply rooted habits and to cultivate wholesome factors. Fear
(bhaya) is one undesirable habit; yet, at the same time, it may be used as a goad.1
This seemingly contradictory nature of fear is epitomized by two compounds:
bhayūparata and abhayūparata. Thus, this article begins with an analysis of key
lexicographical and philosophical implications of the two expressions, and to see
how their understanding might clarify the meaning of bhaya in the Tipitaka and in
˙
the exegetical literature.
In the first list of personalities of the Puggalapaññatti, bhayūparata and
abhayūparata occur in pair (eleventh and twelfth types of personalities), just after
the puthujjana-gotrabhū and the bhabbāgamana-abhabbāgamana pairs.2 In his
translation of the Puggalapaññatti, Bimala Charan Law renders abhayūparata as
“one unrestrained through fear”.3 The negative particle a- is seen as referred to
uparata, so that the dyad bhayūparata-abhayūparata would actually describe
restraint (by fear) and lack of restraint (by fear). In the light of the Puggalapaññattiatthakathā and of other exegetical texts, this translation seems to be incorrect. The
˙˙
commentary to this passage, in fact, says that someone who is abhayūparata is also
one who has eliminated poisons (khīṇāsava) and who has completely extirpated fear
(sabbaso samucchinnabhaya).4 Clearly, the commentary relates a- to bhaya, so
defining two methods of restraint: with and without fear.5
This interpretation of bhayūparata and abhayūparata is confirmed by reading the
Vı̄mamsakasutta (M 47), In this discourse the Buddha says about himself “I am
˙
fearlessly abstaining, I am not abstaining by means of fear” (abhayūparato ’ham
asmi, nāham-asmi bhayūparato, M I.488, PTS I.319). Here the negative a- has to be
intended as referred to bhaya (and to the compound as a whole) and not merely to
uparata, otherwise we would have the inconsistent narrative that the Buddha,
though being affected by fear, is not yet restrained. This awkward hypothesis is
indisputably refuted by the concise explanation of the two compounds given by the
Puggalapaññatti itself:
Satta sekhā bhayūparatā ye ca puthujjanā sīlavanto: arahā abhayūparato
Pp, Niddesa I.11–12, PTS 13
1
Important stimuli to undertake the journey to liberation are saṃvega, an uncomfortable stirring factor
that will be briefly discussed later, and nibbidā, the healthy disenchantment towards the lures of saṃsāra;
the ambiguity of these qualities lies in them being to some extent affected by aversion and yet constituting
a fundamental change of perspective.
2
Pp I.1; PTS 2. As we will see later, these two compounds are found in other passages of the Pāli
Tipitaka.
˙
3
Charan Law (1979: 5).
4
Pp-a 12, PTS 184. The commentary also confirms the translation of bhayūparata with ‘abstaining by
means of fear’ (bhayena uparato) (Pp-a 11, PTS 184).
5
Since we are referring to the Charan Law’s translation, it is convenient to translate uparata with
‘restrained’, which is an impeccable choice. Later on, in order to investigate further the implications of
this term, I will occasionally translate it with ‘abstaining’ (cf. PED and Cone s.v.). The two terms are
almost interchangeable and either one may be used according to the syntax or the context.
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G. Giustarini
Those restrained by fear are the seven [kinds of] practitioners, ordinary
persons endowed with virtue; the one who is restrained and fearless is an
arahant.
The translation of this passage by Bimala Charan Law proposes the same
perspective, apparently contradicting the parallel translation of the compounds in
the Mātikā (Charan Law 1979: 19). I assume that his translation of the compounds
in the Niddesa is the correct one, and has the merit to not arouse the following
question: can an arahant (not to mention a Buddha) be unrestrained and affected
by fear?
The Papañcasūdanı̄ glosses the above sentence of M 47 thus:
Abhayūparatoti abhayo hutvā uparato accantūparato satatūparatoti attho. Na
vā bhayena uparatotipi abhayūparato.
Ppsud I.488, PTS II.384
Abhayūparata means ‘fearless and then restrained’, which is tantamount to
saying ‘completely restrained, always restrained’. Or, the meaning of
abhayūparata is ‘he is not restrained by means of fear’.
Here, although the second clause may still be ambiguous, the first one clearly
indicates that the negative/privative a- of abhayūparata is applied to bhaya and not
to uparata. Ñānamoli accordingly translates the passage from the Vı̄mamsakasutta
˙
˙
thus: “I am restrained without fear, not restrained by fear” (Ñānamoli 2001: 417).
˙
Also, in the Theragāthā-atthakathā the compound abhayūparata is cognate with
˙˙
apetabherava, literally “with dread gone away”, which in this case describes Dabba,
a liberated (parinibbuta) monk, thus shedding considerable light upon the actual
function of the a-negative in abhayūparata.6
With reference to the Vı̄mamsakasutta, the Papañcasūdanı̄ distinguishes four
˙
kinds of fear: fear of defilements (kilesabhaya), fear of the cycle of existence
(vaṭṭabhaya), fear of a bad rebirth (duggatibhaya), and fear of blame (upavādabhaya).7 This list is identical to the one found in the Puggalapaññatti-atthakathā, and
˙˙
this is another interesting link between the two texts.8 What emerges from this
classification is a positive use of fear, basically consisting in realizing the harm of
being conditioned by defilements, and moving away from them. The characteristics
of the four fears provide a relevant source of information to the understanding of
6
Apetabheravo ti pañca vīsatiyā bhayānaṃ sabbaso apetattā apagatabheravo abhayūparato (Th-a I. I, 5;
PTS I.45). In the Theragāthā itself apetabharava is associated with parinibbuta, describing the goal
attained by Bhalliya (Th 7, PTS 2). Later on we will examine other textual passages that acknowledge
absolute fearlessness in an arahant, as well as the possible definitions of the seven kinds of practitioners.
7
Cattāri hi bhayāni kilesabhayaṃ vaṭṭabhayaṃ duggatibhayaṃ upavādabhayanti. Puthujjano catūhipi
bhayehi bhāyati. Sekkhā tīhi, tesañhi duggatibhayaṃ pahīnaṃ, iti satta sekkhā bhayūparatā, khīṇāsavo
abhayūparato nāma, tassa hi ekampi bhayaṃ natthi. Kiṃ paravādabhayaṃ natthīti? Natthi. Parānuddayaṃ pana paṭicca, ‘mādisaṃ khīṇāsavaṃ paṭicca sattā mā nassantū’ti upavādaṃ rakkhati.
Mūluppalavāpivihāravāsī yasatthero viya (Ppsud I.488, PTS II.385). For a description of vaṭṭabhaya
alone, cf. the commentary to the Jāgariyasutta (Iti-a II.10, PTS I.174). Later we will examine the
relationship between the four fears and the four practitioners.
8
In the Pp-a the four types of fear are cited in a different order: duggatibhaya, vaṭṭabhaya, kilesabhaya,
and upavādabhaya (Pp-a I.11, PTS 184).
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The Role of Fear (Bhaya) in the Nikāyas and in the Abhidhamma
bhayūparata and abhayūparata, which obviously requires knowledge of the object
of fear and of the object of abstinence. Furthermore, they offer a clear picture of the
correlative patterns the terms are framed in. In the case of bhayūparata, we may
easily assume that the two parts of the compound are related to each other only in a
causative way (fear as a factor of abstinence), but the two terms naturally imply the
presence of objects external to the compound.
Uparata derives from uparamati, which literally means “to desist, to restrain”
(upa + ramati).9 Conversely, ramati means “to enjoy oneself, to delight in”.
Uparamati shares stem and meaning with upāramati (upa + ā + ramati), viramati,
āramati, and paṭīviramati.10
The object of abstinence can be any behaviour that causes harm to oneself or
others, i.e. any unwholesome (akusala) attitude. Abstinence from harmful actions is
often expressed by formulas that use verāmaṇī (viramaṇa, from viramati) and that
are common in the lists of precepts. In the Lakkhanasutta of the Dı̄gha Nikāya, the
Buddha explains three of his own thirty-two marks as a result of abstinence from
violence and of sympathy for all living beings, in a previous life (D 30, D III.206,
PTS III.149). Here restraint from violence is expressed by paṭivirata (who has
abstained, from paṭiviramati), pahāya (abandoning, letting go), and by the two
compounds nihitadaṇḍa (laid down the stick) and nihitasattha (laid down the
sword). Also, here the act of abstaining is associated with being compassionate
(dāyapanna) and concerned about the welfare of all living beings (sabbapāṇabhūtahitānukampin). In a commentary to the Jātakas, the object of abstinence is
selfishness: “‘I abstain’ means ‘I abstain from selfishness’,” uparamāmīti maccharibhāvato uparamāmi, Jātaka-a V.212, PTS V.391 (Ası̄tinipāta).11
9
An anonymous referee correctly pointed out that in Sanskrit uparata may also mean indifferent,
equanimous. As a consequence, this same reviewer suggested that the two compounds bhayūparata and
abhayūparata mean respectively ‘indifferent to fear’ and ‘indifferent to absence of fear’. I disagree with
this interpretation for at least five reasons: (a) in all Pāli Buddhist literature there seems to be no reading
of uparata as ‘equanimous’ or ‘indifferent’, being the term always referred to the exertion of restraint;
(b) all the exegetical works interpret uparata in the two compounds as ‘abstaining’ or ‘restrained’; (c) Pāli
dictionaries give the same interpretation and do not even mention the alternative exegesis above; (d) the
contexts of Sutta and Abhidhamma literature wherein the two compounds are found are explicitly
concerned with the practice of restraint; (e) in all the passages quoted in this article, any attempt to
translate bhayūparata and abhayūparata with ‘indifferent to fear’ and ‘indifferent to absence of fear’
would not make sense whatsoever. For instance, if we apply the referee’s suggestion to the sentence
abhayūparato’ham asmi, nāham-asmi bhayūparato (M I.488, PTS I.319) we would have as a result the
Buddha affirming “I am equanimous to fearlessness, I am not equanimous to fear.” Nevertheless, I think
that the relation between equanimity and restraint is worthy of consideration; but what Pāli Buddhist texts
seem to state very convincingly is that fear in bhayūparata is the instrument to cultivate restraint, not
something to abstain from.
10
The Dhātumāla of the Saddanı̄ti glosses ramati with the term kīḷāyaṃ (playing, amusing oneself) and
lists these correlated terms: Ramati. Viramati. Paṭiviramati. Uparamati. Ārati. Virati. Paṭivirati. Uparati.
Veramaṇi. Viramaṇaṃ. Rati. Ramaṇaṃ. Rato. Ārato virato paṭivirato. Uparato, uparamo. Ārāmo. (Sd
XV.678, PTS II.413).
11
Macchariya is a fetter (saṃyojana) and a defilement (upakkilesa). It is defined in PED as “avarice,
stinginess, selfishness, envy”, and can be of five kinds: about the dwelling (āvāsa-), about the family
(kula-), about possession (lābha-), about appearance (vaṇṇa-), and about the dhamma. In the
Mahānidānasutta (D 15) macchariya is listed in the sequence of conditions deriving from craving
(taṇhā). In his translation of this passage, Walshe renders macchariya as ‘avarice’ (Walshe 1987: 224–
225). The same rendering is given by Ñānamoli in his translation of the Vatthūpamasutta (M 7):
˙
123
G. Giustarini
The Milindapañha presents the following clause to refer to a well-known story,
told in the Vinaya (Vin PTS II.194ff.), of the Buddha taming an enraged elephant:
“And an enraged bull-elephant rushing up (to him) quietens down (uparamati).”
(Mil IV.2.4, PTS 152. Trans.: Horner 1969: 14). By translating uparamati with “to
quieten down”, Horner highlights a facet of calm relaxation in the act of abstaining:
not a mere effort against one’s wishes, but an intentional settling down of tensions
and behaviours that cause trouble and suffering.
In the Mahāvagga of the Vinaya Pitaka there is the probably unique occurrence
˙
of the term abhayūvara: abhayūvarā ime samaṇā sakyaputtā | na yime labbhā kiñci
kātuṃ (Mv I.42). The Pali English Dictionary suggests the possibility that
abhayūvara may stand for abhayavara (PED s.v. bhaya), but this seems to be a
weak hypothesis if compared to the more convincing one proposed by Morris: “In
the Vinaya Texts I. p. 197 abhayūvara is translated ‘secure from anything.’ There is
no such word as uvara; but uvara might possibly represent uvara = udvara from
vri + ud. This, however, would not satisfy the requirements of the sense of the
˙
word. In Jaina Prākrit uvarao is equivalent to Pāli uparato, and I think that
abhayūvara = abhayūparata, a term which we actually find in the Puggala I. 12,
p. 13. ‘Satta sekhā bhayūparatā ye ca puthujjanā sı̄lavanto: arahā abhayūparato’”.12
Morris’ intuition is supported by the commentary to this same passage occurring
in the Mahāvagga. The commentary, in fact, interprets abhayūvara using a formula
that resembles one found in the Puggalapaññatti-atthakathā to comment upon
˙˙
abhayūpara: ete pana laddhābhayatta na bhayūvarati abhayūvarāti (Mv-a I.92, PTS
V.997) “abhayūvara means that those who abstain by means of fear are said
bhayūvara, [but] those who have reached fearlessness do not abstain by means of
fear (and not ‘do not abstain because of fear’).”13 Further evidence is given by the
sub-commentary to the Vı̄mamsakasutta, wherein the appellation abhayūparata is
˙
referred to the Buddha himself, thus confirming that it indicates fearlessness, rather
than lack of restraint.14
Fear and Danger
The analysis of the two compounds raises some questions about the purpose of
restraint and the role of fear in it. In the Buddhist Nikāyas, restraint is applied to the
Footnote 11 continued
“…avarice is an imperfection that defiles the mind” (macchariyaṃ cittassa upakkileso; M I.70 ff. PTS
I.36–37, translated by Ñānamoli Bhikkhu and revised by Bodhi Bhikkhu, Ñānamoli 2001, pp. 118–119).
˙
He thus glosses the term:˙ “avarice (macchariya) is unwillingness to share one’s
own possessions with
others” (ibidem, p. 1179, n. 87).
12
Morris (1887: 102). In Prakrit literature, it can be referred to sense-pleasures (co-working with
attention, appamāda): “appamatto kāmehiṃ, uvārao pāva-kāmmehiṃ, vīre āya-gutte, je” (Ayaranga
I.13.26). Or, it can be abstinence from violence (uvāraya daṇḍena, Ayaranga I.17.22).
13
The commentary to the Puggalapaññatti reads: So hi sabbaso samucchinnabhayo, tasmā abhayūparato
ti vuccato (he has completely eradicated fear, therefore he is called abhayūparato); Pp-a I.12, PTS 184. In
the Mahāvagga of the Vinaya Pitaka (first Khandhaka), abhayūvara is also the name of the eight
bhānavāra (portion for recitation). ˙See Malalasekera (1974: I.136).
14
Evaṃ jānanto ca abhayūparato tathāgato sabbadhi vītarāgattā (M-tikā II.280, CSCD ed.).
˙
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The Role of Fear (Bhaya) in the Nikāyas and in the Abhidhamma
object of experience, to behaviour, and, most importantly, to the defilements that
affect experience and behaviour.15 On the one hand bhaya and cognate terms play a
role in this process, and, on the other hand, abhaya represents a salutary attitude to
be reached, cultivated, and refined.
Pāli exegetical literature offers some lucid explanation of how bhaya can be a
wholesome factor. In the Patisambhidamagga, for instance, the word bhaya
˙
indicates not just fear as a reaction, but fear as a wise response to the presence of a
danger (Patism I.1.8, PTS I.59).16 In another passage of the same text (Patism II.
˙
˙
I.39, PTS II.63), bhaya results from paying attention (manasikaronto) to the
threefold characteristic of phenomena, i.e. impermanence (anicca), suffering
(dukkha) and no self (anattā). In this light, fear seems to be a skilful response to
reality, and a necessary step in the contemplative path. This passage also equates
three qualities: intuitive understanding of the appearance of fear (bhayatupaṭṭhāne
paññā), knowledge of the danger (ādīnave ñāṇa), and disenchantment (nibbidā).
In the Abhidhammatthasaṅgaha (Abhis I.63–64) intuitive knowledge of danger is
represented by two elements (bhayañāṇa and ādīnavañāṇa) in a sequence of eight,
nine, or ten insights (vipassanāñāṇa); it brings about detachment (nibbidā) and
eventually culminates in equanimity (upekkhā). If we assume that bhayañāṇa and
ādīnavañāṇa have a function similar to the one that bhayūparata has in the
Puggalapaññatti, likewise in the Abhidhammatthasaṅgaha upekkhā might express
the same condition represented by abhayūparata, thus indicating a progressive
refinement of attitude. By the same token, nibbidā would be an intermediate stage, i.
e. the ‘movement’ from a conditioned to an unconditioned and spontaneous
restraint. I propose this just as a suggestive hypothesis, the validity of which needs
to be carefully corroborated. Probably, further data may be drawn from a
comparison between the application of meditative technique in Abhidhamma
literature and the use of the compound samudayavayadhammānupassin in the
Mahāsatipatthānasutta (D 22 and M10) and in related texts.
˙˙
In the Sutta Pitaka, the perception of fear is one of the first steps in the standard
˙
illustration of the gradual training (anupubbakāraṇā), wherein it consists in “seeing
danger (bhayadassāvī or bhayadassivā) in the slightest fault” and it is intimately
related to “the restraint of the code of discipline” (pātimokkha-saṃvara).17 The
importance of seeing danger in harmful factors is stressed in two consecutive
15
Cf. Giustarini (2005, 65: 153–178).
In many perspectives, bhaya and ādīnava can be seen as two synonyms. Ādīnava is often referred to
sense-pleasures, and its recognizance, epitomized by the formula “ahaṃ kāmesu ādīnavaṃ disvā ”, leads
to renunciation (nekkhamma). See A IX.41, PTS IV.440. Different uses of ādīnava will be examined later.
The reading of bhaya as a cause of fear, i.e. danger, is found in Pāli grammars like the Padarūpasiddhi:
yasmā vā bhayahetuto bhayaṃ bhavati (308). In Sanskrit, it is pointed out by the commentator
Bhānujı̄dı̄ksita (he quotes Haima): bhayaṁ bhītau bhayaṁkāre | […] commenting upon Amarakośa
˙
1.7.21ab (Dādhimata,
S. (ed.) (1995). Amarakośa of Amarasiṁha. Delhi: Chaukhamba).
16
17
See e.g. the Samaññaphalasutta (D 2, I.193, PTS I.63) or the Ganakamogallanasutta (M 107, M III.75,
˙ are found in the Bhaddālisutta
PTS II.266). Other exhaustive accounts of the anupubbakāraṇā
(M 65, M II.134–147, PTS I.437–447) and in the Dantabhūmisutta (M 125, M III.213–222, PTS III.128–
137). Bhaya is translated either as ‘fear’ or as ‘danger’, and in this case the latter sounds more convincing.
The acceptation of the two terms will be discussed further.
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G. Giustarini
stanzas of the Dhammapada:
Appamādarato bhikkhu pamāde bhayadassivā |
saññojanaṃ aṇuṃthūlaṃ ḍahaṃ aggī va gacchati || 31
Appamādarato bhikkhu pamāde bhayadassivā |
abhabbo parihānāya nibbānass’eva santike || 32
Dhp 31–32, PTS 918
A bhikkhu that delights in carefulness, who sees dangers in carelessness, goes
about like a fire consuming his fetter, small or large.
A bhikkhu that delights in carefulness, who sees dangers in carelessness,
cannot fall away but is indeed near to nibbāna.
Norman (1997: 5)19
Another stanza of the Dhammapada identifies the incorrect perceiving of bhaya
as wrong view:
Abhaye bhayadassino bhaye cābhayadassino |
micchādiṭṭhisamādānā sattā gacchanti duggatiṃ ||
Dhp 317, PTS 8920
Seeing danger when there is no danger, and not seeing danger when there is
danger, because of taking up wrong views, beings go to a bad state of rebirth.
Norman (1997: 46)
Textual evidence indicates that bhaya can be a precious instrument, especially
when it is intended as a limpid acknowledgement of the insidiousness of saṃsāra. In
this regard, the Nikāyas present a large use of allegories meant to inspire fear and,
consequently, a sense of urgency and detachment. A vivid example of how
perception of danger fosters the process of liberation is found in the Āsı̄visopamasutta of the Salāyatanasamyutta (S IV.238, PTS IV.172–175). This text is
˙
˙
entirely structured on a sequence of similes. In the first one there are four extremely
venomous vipers and “a man that wants to live, does not want to die, wishing
happiness and averse to suffering”. The four vipers correspond to the four great
elements (earth, water, wind, and fire) which all phenomena are made of. The
problem is that without a continuous care, vipers can become angry and bite. This
means that the entire world, being made of the four elements, is absolutely
18
These two stanzas correspond to the stanzas 112 and 115 of the Udānavarga: apramādarato bhikṣu
pramāde bhayadarśakaḥ | saṃyojanaṃ anusṭhūlaṃ dahann agnir iva gacchati || (4.29–112);
apramādarato bhikṣu pramāde bhayadarśakaḥ | abhavyaḥ parihāṇāya nirvāṇasyaiva so’ntike ||
(4.32–115). The first line of these two stanzas is repeated in all the stanzas of the same text, from 110
to 115.
19
In the endnote, Norman says: “In these verses bhayadassivā means ‘seeing something to be afraid of’,
i.e. ‘seeing danger’.” Norman (1997: 69, n. 31–32). The meaning of the whole expression, especially in
the light of the corresponding strophe of the Udānavarga, suggests to exclude the PED’s hypothesis that
dassivā could stand for dassī vā (PED, sv dassin).
20
The Udānavarga reports the same stanza: abhaye bhayadarśīno bhaye cābhayadarśinaḥ | mithyadṛṣṭisamādānāt satvā gacchanti durgatiṃ || (16.4–334).
123
The Role of Fear (Bhaya) in the Nikāyas and in the Abhidhamma
unreliable and intrinsically dangerous. The sutta continues narrating the reaction of
this man to the sight of the vipers: frightened (bhīta), he runs away, but comes to
know that he is chased by five murderers (vadhaka), corresponding to the five
aggregates affected by attachment (form, feeling, perception, coefficients or mental
formations, and consciousness). At this point an interesting figure appears in the
story: the intimate companion, who reveals to be the sixth murderer. The
commentary describes him as “an intimate companion from his youth, one who used
to drink and eat with him”.21 This insidious murderer is a simile for the compound
nandī-rāga, which Bhikkhu Bodhi translates as “delight and lust” (Bodhi 2000:
1238). The man of the example flees from these dangers and finds an empty village
(the six internal sense-bases, ultimately empty), but the village is threatened by
dacoits (the six external sense-bases). Then he comes across “a great expanse of
water”, which symbolizes the four floods (sensuality, existence, views, and
ignorance). Here the near shore, dangerous (sāsaṅka) and fearful (sappaṭibhaya), is
an allegory of the sense of identity (sakkāya), while the other shore, a safe refuge
(khema), represents nibbāna, and can be reached by using a raft, i.e. the eightfold
path.22
This teaching uses the perception of danger and the consequent fear in order to
show a way out and to provoke a movement from defilements to liberation. The use
of the metaphors serves to draw attention to the dangers, especially the danger of
nandī-rāga that, just like a seeming close friend, is difficult to recognize.23
The simile of the murderer is used in the practice of mindfulness of death
(maraṇasati). In the chapter of the Visuddhimagga devoted to maraṇasati, the
21
…dahara-kālato paṭṭhāya ekato khāditvā ca pivitvā ca sambhand’atthacaraṃ… (Spk 238, PTS III.10).
CSCD has “…daharakālato paṭṭhāya ekato khāditvā ca pivitvā ca santhavaṃ antaracaraṃ…” See
Bhikkhu Bodhi (2000, vol. II, p. 1423, n. 175). Both in the Sutta and in the commentary, the PTS edition
reads atthacara, while the CSCD edition has antaracara. According to the PED, which refers to the same
passage here examined, antaracara means “one who goes in between or inside, i.e. a robber”. Atthacara
can be translated as “doing good, busy in the interest of others, obliging” (PED), “who is helpful, who
does good, brings benefit; who serves”. The commentary supports Bhikkhu Bodhi in translating the term
as “intimate companion” (Bhikkhu Bodhi, relying on the Burmese edition, translates antaracara). His
translation is quite plausible in the light of the simile itself, which represents delight and lust, i.e. a
seeming friend that actually is a serious peril. In the commentary, the adjective sambandha (related) in
PTS edition and the corresponding santhava (intimate, acquainted) of CSCD confirm Bhikkhu Bodhi’s
choice. Moreover, in Sanskrit antara may have the same acceptation found in this passage, thus meaning
“near, proximate, related, intimate” (Monier-Williams, s.v.). The Sanskrit arthacara means “helpful,
rendering service” (Edgerton, s.v.). In the PTS edition of the Sāratthappakāsinı̄, Woodward definitely
excludes that the term may be translated as ‘robber’, and mentions the occurrence of abbhantaracara
(trusted, personal, intimate companion; see also Skt abhyantaraka in Monier-Williams s.v.). A further
explanation from the sub-commentary is fashioned in a quite suggestive way: “antaracaroti antaraṃ caro
sukhasattu vissāsaghāt ī ” (CSCD); “antaracara means intimate companion, pleasant enemy, trusted
killer.” Sukhasattu is a compound that I have not been able to find elsewhere, being possibly a neologism
of later Pāli literature.
22
In the Saundarananda of Aśvaghosa, the Buddha thus commends Nanda: “Fear of the worthless
samsāra is a praiseworthy intent of ˙yours” (anarhasaṃsārabhayaṃ mānārhaṃ te cikīrṣitam, Saund
˙
12.26).
23
The danger represented by indulging in sense pleasures is also indicated by the word antarayika
(dangerous, obstructing). Cf. Alagaddūpamasutta, M 22, PTS I.130 ff.
123
G. Giustarini
appearance of a murderer is the first stratagem in a list of eight approaches to the
notion of death.24 It describes a murderer in the act of killing, with a sword already
suspended on the neck of his victim. Such an appearance seems to be sudden,
unpredicted, but death has been present since the moment of birth.
Fearlessness
The notion of death can be a precious instrument not only to understand the function
of the compound bhayūparata in the path to liberation, but also to define the actual
meaning of abhaya in the same context. In the Abhayasutta of the Aṅguttara
Nikāya, the specific relationship one has with death distinguishes the bhayūparata
from the abhayūparata type. Here two characters are examined, the one affected by
fear, literally shaken by the terror of death, and the one unaffected by the idea of
death:
Atthi brāhmaṇa maraṇadhammo samāno bhāyati santāsaṃ āpajjati maraṇassa. Atthi pana brāhmaṇa maraṇadhammo samāṇo na bhāyati na santāsaṃ
āpajjati maranassa.
A IV.184, PTS II.173
There is, o Brahmin, one who, having the nature of death, is scared, and
undergoes terror of death. There is also, o Brahmin, one who, having the
nature of death, is not scared, and does not undergo terror of death.
The sutta indicates attachment to the body as a major source of fear. On the
contrary, one who is not attached to the body, who is devoted to the Dhamma, even
if affected by a serious disease, is not afraid of death. Clearly, here abhaya has to be
translated as fearlessness rather than safety, since the teaching does not depict a
condition of safety from the threat of death, but the quality of fearlessness even in
the midst of adverse conditions.
In the second Anāthapindikasutta of the Sotāpattisamyutta (S V.55.27; PTS
˙˙
˙
V.385 ff.), fear of death is explained as deriving from lack of confidence (appasāda)
in the three gems (Buddha, Dhamma and Saṅgha) and from bad conduct (dussīlya).
Conversely, confidence in the three gems, associated with virtues leading to
concentration, dissolves any fear of death. In this sutta fear is expressed by three
terms: bhaya, chambhitatta and uttāsa. Chambhitatta derives from the verb
chambheti, which means “to be firm or rigid, fig. to be stiff with fear, paralysed”,25
and its use in the Anāthapindikasutta indicates that fear can be a form of suffering
˙˙
resulting from a noxious attitude. On the other hand, fearlessness is seen as a
condition fostered by confidence in positive qualities, and it is inextricably
24
“Death has to be recollected through eight ways: (1) the appearance of a murderer (vadhakapaccūpaṭṭhāna); (2) the loss of any gaining (sampattivipatti); (3) comparison (upasaṃharaṇa); (4) sharing
the body with many (kāyabahusādhāraṇa); (5) fragility of life (āyudubbala); (6) absence of determination
[of the moment] (animitta); (7) limitedness of the stretch [of time] (addhānapariccheda); (8) shortness of
the moment (khaṇaparitta)” Vism VIII.1, PTS 230.
25
PED, s.v. The adjective chambin means “immovable terrified, paralysed by fear” (PED). In J I.135
chambita = bhaya (ibid).
123
The Role of Fear (Bhaya) in the Nikāyas and in the Abhidhamma
connected to concentration skills, here considered as a form of protection from fear
of death. Furthermore, reaching this condition of fearlessness is said to correspond
to the stream-entry condition (sotāpatti). This noteworthy connotation of fearlessness seems to be related to the paralysing action of fear stressed here: the
practitioner has to get rid of his shackles, and to this purpose, he needs to take a leap
into the triple refuge and into the practice itself.
The other term mentioned here with bhaya and chambhitatta is uttāsa. Usually
uttāsa does not have the negative characteristics of chambhitatta. On the contrary, it
may play the wholesome role of fear as a movement back from defilements,
especially when listed with terms like ubbega (urgency) and arati (detachment,
same stem of uparamati). Undoubtedly, in the Anāthapindikasutta uttāsa has to be
˙˙
seen as an obstacle on the path to liberation, but its precious function in orienting
the mind through the path itself is reiterated in several texts.26
Fear of death (maraṇa-bhaya) as illustrated in the Anāthapindikasutta should be
˙˙
observed by taking into account the practice of mindfulness of death (maraṇa-sati)
systematically taught in many Suttas as well as in the chapter of the Visuddhimagga
mentioned above.27 Indeed, the Anussatikammatthānaniddesa of the Visu˙˙
ddhimagga bases its articulated description of maraṇasati on some stanzas
(quoted from Suttas and Jātakas) that describe bhaya as a key factor. These stanzas
instigate fear by using short graphic metaphors on the frailty of life and the
inevitability of death. The verses that Buddhaghosa quotes from the Suttanipāta are
particularly efficacious in this sense:
Phalānam iva pakkānaṃ; pāto papatato bhayam, |
evaṃ jātānaṃ maccānaṃ niccaṃ maraṇato bhayaṃ. ||
Yathā pi kumbhakārassa kataṃ mattikabhājanaṃ, |
khuddakañ ca mahantañ ca yaṃ pakkaṃ yañ ca āmakaṃ, |
26
The positive function of uttāsa blended with ubbega and arati is well represented in the
Patisambhidamagga: Katamā nibbhedikapaññā? Idh-ekacco sabbasaṅkhāresu ubbegabahulo hoti uttāsa˙
bahulo,
ukkaṇṭhanabahulo hoti aratibahulo anabhiratibahulo, bahimukho na ramati sabbasaṅkhāresu;
anibbiddhapubbaṃ appadālitapubbaṃ lobhakkhandhaṃ nibbijjhati padāletīti nibbedhikapaññā, anibbiddhapubbaṃ appadālitapubbaṃ mohakkhandhaṃ nibbijjhati padāletīti nibbedhikapaññā,
anibbedhapubbaṃ appadālitapubbaṃ kodhaṃ … pe … upanāhaṃ makkhaṃ paḷāsaṃ issaṃ macchariyaṃ
māyaṃ sāṭheyyaṃ thambhaṃ sārambhaṃ mānaṃ atimānaṃ madaṃ pamādaṃ sabbe kilese duccarite
sabbe abhisaṅkhāre … pe … sabbe bhavagāmikamme nibbijjhati padāletīti nibbhedikapaññā (Patism II.
˙ Here
xxi.20, PTS II.201-202). Ñānamoli translates this passage thus: “What is penetrative understanding?
someone has much sense ˙of urgency about all formations, much fear, much dissatisfaction, much
boredom, much disenchantment, has no enjoyment externally in any formations; he penetrates, explodes
the mass of greed never penetrated, never exploded before, thus it is penetrative understanding. He
penetrates, explodes the mass of hate… mass of delusion… mass of anger… enmity… contempt…
domineering… envy… avarice… deceit… fraud… obduracy… presumption… pride (conceit)…
haughtiness… vanity… negligence… all defilements… all misconduct… all action-formations… He
penetrates, explodes all action that leads to being never penetrated and exploded before, thus it is
penetrative understanding” Ñānamoli (1982: 374).
˙
27
For example, two consecutive suttas of the Aṅguttara Nikāya are focused on the practice of
contemplation of death: the Pathamamaranasatisutta (A VI.2.9, PTS III.303–306) and the Dutiyamar˙
˙
anasatisutta (A VI.2.10, PTS III.306–308).
˙
123
G. Giustarini
sabbaṃ bhedanapariyantaṃ evaṃ maccāna jīvitaṃ. ||
Vism VIII.14, PTS 23128
As there is fear, when fruits are ripe,
that in the morning they will fall,
so mortals are in constant fear,
when they are born, that they will die.
And as the fate of pots and clay
once fashioned by the potter’s hand,
or small or big or baked or raw,
condemns them to be broken up,
so mortals’ life leads but to death.
Ñānamoli (1991: 227)
˙
In the complex practice of maraṇasati, fear of death is not exorcized but
channelled into a meditative attitude deeply permeated with a sense of urgency.
Mindfulness (sati) counteracts the corrosive quality of fear in the same way that
confidence does in the Anāthapindikasutta.
˙˙
Urgency (saṃvega, ubbega) is important in inspiring a conversion from
indulgence in defilements to endeavour in the path, and this function is important
not only at the beginning of the path or before, but whenever defilements prevail.
This is clearly showed in numberless suttas, e.g. in the Samathasutta of the
Aṅguttara Nikāya, which describes situations of inadequate tranquillity or insight,
or both. In this teaching the Buddha exhorts to face these situations by means of
further desire (chanda) and effort (vāyāma, ussāha), just as “one’s turban or head
were ablaze” (A X.54, PTS V.98–102).29 In the famous simile of the mountain
(Pabbatūpamasutta, Kosalasamyutta) devotion to the Dhamma is the only reason˙
able response to the ineluctability of aging and death and to the power of craving
(S I.136, PTS I.100–102).
The relation between perception of danger and urgency is obvious, and the way
bhaya and ādīnava are described in the texts highlights the crucial role of dispassion
28
These stanzas occur in the Sallasutta of the Suttanipāta (Sn 576–577, PTS 113; CSCD vv. 581–582), in
the Dasarathajātaka (Jā XI.85, PTS 127; CSCD I.11.88, only the first stanza), in the Mūgapakkhajātaka
(Jā XXII.117, PTS VI.28; CSCD II.22.119; only the first stanza), in the Petakopadesa (Pet I.8, PTS 7;
˙
only the second stanza), and in the Jārasuttaniddesa of the Mahāniddesa (MNidd
VI.39,˙ PTS I.121),
wherein the notion of limitedness of life is thoroughly examined, and in various commentaries. The two
stanzas have also an interesting parallel in the first chapter (Anityavarga) of the Sanskrit Udānavarga:
yathā phalānām pakvānām nityam patanato bhayam | evam jātasya martyasya nityam maraṇato bhayam ||
yathā api kumbha kāreṇa mṛttikā bhājanam kṛtam | sarvam bhedana paryantam evam martyasya jīvitam ||
Udānavarga 11–12, ed. by Bernhard, F. (1965). Goettingen: Vandenhoek & Ruprecht. In the Udānavarga
the second strophe is echoed in the next one (yathā api tantre vitate yad yad uktam samupyate | alpam
bhavati vātavyam evam martyasya jīvitam || 13), which has this Pāli equivalent: yathāpi tante vitate, yaṃ
yaṃ dev’ūpavīyati | appakaṃ hoti vetabbaṃ, evaṃ maccāna jīvitaṃ || found in the Mūgapakkhajātaka (Jā
XXII.105, PTS VI.26; CSCD II.22.106) and in the commentary to the Alambusājātaka (Jā-a VI.106, PTS
VI.26).
29
A similar metaphor is found in the Sanskrit Saundarananda (14.28 ff.), wherein indulging in sleep
(nidra) in this mortal life is compared to sleeping in a burning house; here fear (bhaya) is one of the three
remedies (with bliss and sorrow) employed in meditation to counteract sloth and torpor, and hence to
develop wakefulness (jāgariyā).
123
The Role of Fear (Bhaya) in the Nikāyas and in the Abhidhamma
in the process of liberating knowledge. In this perspective, bhaya and ādīnava seem
to play a preliminary role in the process of enquiry. In the Cūlası̄hanādasutta (M 11),
˙
ādīnava is one of the fundamental features of two wrong views, namely the view of
being (bhavadiṭṭhi) and the view of not being (vibhavadiṭṭhi). In fact, in this text the
Buddha invites to contemplate the intrinsic characteristics of the view of being and
view of not being: origin (samudaya), vanishing (aṭṭhangama), gratification
(addāsa), danger (ādīnava) and escape (nissaraṇa).30 These aspects constitute
together the fundamental knot of suffering that has to be deeply comprehended and
resolved. Seekers (samaṇa) or religious (brāhmaṇa) who understand them as they
really are reach freedom from the two views, which corresponds to freedom from
defilements, from birth, aging and death, and ultimately from suffering.31 The
commentary to this passage states that ādīnava consists in the oppression produced
by the act of grasping views.32 Interestingly, in the Mahādukkhakkhandhasutta
(M 13) gratification (addāsa), danger (ādīnava) and escape (nissaraṇa) make up
together the threefold nature of sense-pleasure (kāma), of form (rūpa), and of
feeling (vedanā).33
What merges is that the Nikāyas, as well as Pāli exegetical literature, present
various ways of conveying a positive aspect of fear, ways that strike a balance
between paralysing fear and lack of motivation. A lucid perception of the danger
represented by being under the sway of defilements is a fertile ground for a wise
response, namely the purification of the mind from its very defilements.
The sense of urgency (saṃvega or ubbega), being both a result of applying
attention to the intrinsic suffering of the conditioned realm, and a dramatic switch of
pursuit, is a cornerstone in the cultivation of wisdom: in the factor of urgency lies
the difference between wholesome and unwholesome fear.
As we have seen before, although bhaya is conveniently translated with fear, it
often implies the perception of a danger, to the extent that in several cases it may
correctly be translated as danger. Taking cognizance of a danger does not
necessarily involve fear, and when it does, the notion of fear can suggest either a
suitable response to the situation or, on the contrary, improper reactions like
aggressive attitude, lying, cheating, emotional or even physical paralysis, etc. We
have found this condition vividly described by the term chambitatta. The two types
of fear are not necessarily mutually exclusive. Impeding fear can be present in the
perception of a danger as meant here, i.e. as a factor of virtuous restraint, but it is not
its prevailing quality. In a way, the compound bhayūparata seems to suggest that
fear of the dangers of saṃsāra, despite its negative aspects, can be effectively used
30
M I. 142, PTS I.65. According to the commentary, escape (nissaraṇa) from these views is nibbāna
(Ppsud I.142, PTS II.10).
31
Ye ca kho keci, bhikkhave, samaṇā vā brāhmaṇā vā imāsaṃ dvinnaṃ diṭṭhīnaṃ samudayañca
atthaṅgamañca assādañca ādīnavañca nissaraṇañca yathābhūtaṃ pajānanti, ‘te vītarāgā te vītadosā te
vītamohā te vītataṇhā te anupādānā te viddasuno te ananuruddhaappaṭiviruddhā te nippapañcārāmā
nippapañcaratino; te parimuccanti jātiyā jarāya maraṇena sokehi paridevehi dukkhehi domanassehi
upāyāsehi; parimuccanti dukkhasmā’ti vadāmi. (M I.142, PTS I.65).
32
Ādīnavanti diṭṭhiggahaṇamūlakaṃ upaddavaṃ. (Ppsud I.142, PTS II.10).
33
M I.163–174, PTS I.84–90. Cf. Pathamapubbesambodhasutta and Dutiyapubbesambodhasutta
˙ PTS I.59 and Vism XXI.34, PTS 646.
(S IV.13–14, PTS IV.6–8). Cf. Patism I.1.8,
˙
123
G. Giustarini
to reduce attachment to saṃsāra itself and to foster a wholesome abstinence. But the
great emphasis laid on fearlessness indicates that a further step is required, i.e.
abstinence without fear, a perspective that denotes a refined level of detachment
from defilements. In fact, although fear may be associated with the perception of
danger, it also involves an element of disturbance, i.e. a form of suffering that must
be extinguished by the practitioner.
Bestowing abhaya
Since bhaya may mean danger, in some cases abhaya means safety, protection from
any danger. In the Samuddakasutta of the Sakkasamyutta, for instance, some seers
˙
(isi), having predicted a war between devas and asuras, approach Sambara, lord of
the asuras, and ask him for a guarantee of safety: “Isayo Sambaraṃ pattā | yācanti
abhayadakkhiṇaṃ” (S I.256, PTS I.227). The commentary to this stanza says that
abhayadakkhiṇa is a synonym of abhayadāna. Indeed both terms, which are not
common in the Nikāyas, can be translated as “gift of safety”. They are found in a
primary Sanskrit Buddhist text, the Arthaviniścaya Sūtra, wherein it is stated that
the characteristic of having round shoulders, one of the physical marks of the
Buddha, is due to his action, performed in past lives, of giving safety (abhayadāna)
and consolation (aśvāsa) to others (AVS 57).34 In the commentary (nibandhana) of
the Arthaviniścaya Sūtra, written by Viryaśridatta in the VIII CE, abhayadāna is
interpreted as “refraining from killing any living beings.”35
Besides stressing the importance of abhaya, the use of abhayadakkhiṇa and
abhayadāna would signify that abhaya is not just a lofty stage before which bhaya is
indispensable, but, on the contrary, it would be a healing factor for all beings. In this
sense, the quality of fearlessness would be a consequence of being in a condition of
safety. The gift (dāna, dakkhiṇa) would be the shelter bestowed by the three gems and
by virtues leading to calm concentration, as we have found explicitly asserted in the
Anāthapindikasutta. Nevertheless, the meanings of bhaya as danger and abhaya as
˙˙
safety, if applied to abhayūparata, would suggest translations like ‘safe and
restrained’, but it seems more reasonable to detect in the pairing of the two compounds
a significant distinction between fear and fearlessness. This is confirmed not only by
the contexts the compounds are used in, but also by the frequent occurrences of bhaya
and abhaya as two opposite responses to specific incidents. For instance, in the case of
the Anāthapindikasutta seen before, bhaya is a biased reaction to the notion of
˙˙
imminent death. It is not ‘danger’ or ‘awareness of danger’, but a state of mind
associated with suffering. The difference is quite remarkable, if we consider that it
basically corresponds to the contraposition between the use of fear in promoting
wholesome restraint (when bhaya is a synonym of ādīnava) and its role in the
production of suffering. The same sutta associates abhaya with confidence and place
34
Samtani translates abhaya with ‘fearlessness’ (Samtani 2002: 39), but in the light of the more detailed
accounts found in the Pāli passages examined before, and of the commentary to the AVS itself, I retain
‘safety’ more appropriate when translating the compound abhayadāna.
35
Abhayadānaṃ prāṇatipātādviratiḥ (AVSN 294). Cf. Samtani (2002: 213).
123
The Role of Fear (Bhaya) in the Nikāyas and in the Abhidhamma
it at a very high level of the practice, the stream-entry condition. Although in this case
abhaya is a form of safety, at the same time it is not safety from the event feared before
(that is death), but it is an attitude of fearlessness in facing its inevitability, just like in
the Abhayasutta of the Aṅguttara Nikāya seen above.
Fearlessness-confidence includes recognition of obstacles (or dangers) and an
escape from them, but does not involve that kind of disturbance which is inherent in
bhaya, even in its healing function. Somehow, the path of liberation seems to imply
a ripening from bhaya to abhaya, or a transformation of bhaya as a precious and yet
intoxicated response to perils, into abhaya (fearlessness) as a fundamental feature of
a wise and unaffected discrimination between wholesome and unwholesome
qualities. A practitioner endowed with this very discrimination and abstaining from
any unwholesome kamma is what is concisely and efficiently expressed by the
compound abhayūparita.
Fearlessness and Ultimate Freedom
Fearlessness can be a specific mark of liberation, and it is indeed one of the qualities
that characterize a Buddha. In the Mahāsihanādasutta, the Buddha describes his own
fearlessness (abhaya) as the lion’s roar (sihānāda) and represents it through four
kinds of intrepidity or confidence (vesārajja):
I see no ground on which any recluse or brahmin or god or Māra or Brahmā or
anyone else at all in the world could, in accordance with the Dhamma, accuse
thus: ‘While you claim full enlightenment, you are not fully enlightened in
regard to certain things.’ And seeing no ground for that, I abide in safety
(khema), fearlessness (abhaya) and intrepidity (vesārajja).
I see no ground on which any recluse…or anyone at all could accuse me thus:
‘While you claim to have destroyed the taints (āsava), these taints are
undestroyed by you.’ And seeing no ground for that, I abide in safety,
fearlessness, and intrepidity.
I see no ground on which any recluse…or anyone at all could accuse me thus:
‘Those things called obstructions by you are not able to obstruct one who
engages in them.’ And seeing no ground for that, I abide in safety,
fearlessness, and intrepidity.
I see no ground on which any recluse…or anyone at all could accuse me thus:
‘When you teach the Dhamma to someone, it does not lead him when he
practises it to the complete destruction of suffering.’ And seeing no ground for
that, I abide in safety, fearlessness, and intrepidity.
A Tathāgata has these four kinds of intrepidity, possessing which he claims the
herd-leader’s place, roars his lion’s roar in the assemblies, and sets rolling the
Wheel of Brahmā.
M I.150, PTS I.71–72 (Trans. Ñānamoli 2001: 167–168)36
˙
36
Cf. Vesārajjasutta (A IV.8; PTS II.8). The scheme of the four vesārajjas that justify the lion’s roar
occurs also in a later Pāli Buddhist text written in Thailand around the sixteenth century, the
Buddhapādamaṅgala. Here the sequence describes one of the figures represented on the Buddha’s feet, i.e.
123
G. Giustarini
In the Anāthapindikasutta, as we have seen before, the absence of fear in facing
˙˙
the imminent death is equalled by Ānanda to the condition of stream-entry
(sotāpatti). Another designation for fearlessness, the compound akutobhaya, is
pertinent to the ultimate end of suffering. Akutobhaya literally means “having
nothing to fear from anywhere” (Cone, PED).37 In a stanza of the Selasutta, a
discourse found identical in the Majjhima Nikāya and in the Suttanipāta, the
Buddha, speaking to the brahmin Sela, uses this compound to describe himself:
Brahmabhūto atitulo Mārasenappamaddano |
sabbāmitte vasīkatvā modāmi akutobhayo ||
Sn III.7.561, PTS 110; M 92, M V.39638
I am the holy one beyond compare
who has crushed all Māra’s teeming hordes;
having defeated all my enemies,
I rejoice free from fear (akutobhaya).
Ñānamoli (2001: 760)39
˙
This poignant gāthā equals the absence of fear to the absence of dangers obtained
by subduing enemies (amitta). The commentary says that the enemies are all the
obstacles, namely defilements, aggregates, accumulations, death and Māra (Parjt
II.561, PTS II.455). This is a brief definition of saṃsāra, which is the real enemy to
defeat. It is definitely noteworthy that the instructions given to practitioners
recommend fleeing saṃsāra, while an arahant (or, like in this case, the Buddha
himself) is described as someone who has subdued saṃsāra. In this very difference,
we may identify the reason of the contraposition between bhayūparata and
abhayūparata: they are both proper approaches to saṃsāra, but the ultimate action
is not escape (moved by fear), but a courageous confrontation by which saṃsāra is
overcome and not feared any more. The element of joy conveyed by the examined
stanza (modāmi akutobhayo) is another remarkable difference between bhayūparata
Footnote 36 continued
the sihārājā, the king of lions. Ed. Cicuzza C. (2001). A Mirror Reflecting the Entire World. Bangkok and
Lumbini, pp. 71–74; trans. 168–169. The analogy of the lion’s roar is often used in Mahāyāna texts too, e.
g. the Vimalakı̄rtinirdeśa: mā siṃhanādasaṃprasthitān sṛgālanade niyojaya; “do not compare the lion’s
roar with the jackal’s wail” (Vimalakı̄rtinirdeśa III.22; 2006: 27). An early Buddhist Sanskrit source is the
Arthaviniścaya Sūtra (50–51) and its commentary Arthaviniścaya-nibandhana (XXIII.271ff), where the
lion’s roar symbolizes fearlessness and consists mostly in “absence of hesitation in assemblies” (Samtani
2002: 197). For further analysis of the metaphor of the lion’s roar see Anālayo (2009: 3–24), and Manné
(1996: 7–36).
37
Akutobhaya is also a widespread compound in Mahāyāna texts. In Prajñāpāramitā literature, it is
depicted as a quality of a dharmabhāṇaka [e.g. Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā I.50, ed. P.L. Vaidya,
Darbhanga (1960). The Mithila Institute. Buddhist Sanskrit Texts, 4]. The verse 97 of the
Ratnagotravibhāga relates akutobhaya to perfect omnisciense (sarvābhijñatā) [text edited by
E.H. Johnston, in: H.S. Prasad (1991). The Uttaratantra of Maitreya. Delhi].
38
The PTS edition of the Majjhima Nikāya does not contain this Sutta and refers to the identical version
in Sn.
39
In his translation of this stanza, Norman renders the compound akutobhaya more literally: “having
become Brahmā, unequalled crusher of Māra’s armies, having subdued all enemies, I rejoice, having no
fear from any quarter” (Norman 1992: 65). See also: Th 831, PTS 79.
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The Role of Fear (Bhaya) in the Nikāyas and in the Abhidhamma
and abhayūparata conditions. The same perspective is evident in the Parosahassasutta of the Vangı̄satherasamyutta, in which the term akutobhaya indicates a
˙
˙
characteristic of ultimate freedom (nibbāna):
Parosahassaṃ bhikkhūnaṃ |
sugataṃ pariyūpāsati |
desentaṃ virajaṃ dhammaṃ |
nibbānaṃ akutobhayaṃ ||
S I.216, PTS I.192
Over a thousand bhikkhus here
attend upon the Fortunate One
as he teaches the dust-free Dhamma,
Nibbāna inaccessible to fear (akutobhaya).
Bodhi (2000: 289)40
Similarly, in the Lokasutta of the Aṅguttara Nikāya, we read:
Sa ve sabbābhibhū dhīro sabbaganthapamocano |
puṭṭhassa paramā santi nibbānaṃ akutobhayaṃ ||
A IV.23, PTS II.24
He is the all-victorious sage:
’tis he who loosens every bond:
by him is reached the perfect peace (nibbāna)
that is void of fear (akutobhaya).
Woodward (1982: 26)
The concept expressed by the compound akutobhaya is found extended in form of
locution in five consecutive stanzas of the Dhammapada, each one concluding as
follows: “for one who is liberated (vippamutta) from [attachment (piya), affection
(pema), delight (rati), sense-pleasure (kāma), craving (taṇhā)] there is neither sorrow
nor danger from anywhere (n’atthi soko kuto bhayaṃ)” (Dhp 212–216, PTS 60–61).41
Here bhaya is clearly equaled to the danger represented by the five negative qualities.
Another adjective for fearless is acchambhin (or achambhin). We have already
briefly examined the term chambhin, which highlights the paralysing action of fear.
Remarkably, in the famous Discourse of the rhinoceros horn (or “of the rhinoceros”)42
acchambhin can indicate a high level of inner freedom characterized by lack of
40
In an endnote, Bhikkhu Bodhi also explains that in this case the compound can be either an apposition
to nibbāna or an epithet of the Buddha, as it usually is, and the choice for the first is based on the
commentary (Bodhi 2000: 463–464, n. 518).
41
In the Udānavarga the corresponding verses are scattered in the Kāmavarga (47, kāma; 48, rati), in the
Trsnāvarga (76, tṛṣṇā), and in the Priyavarga (122, priya).
˙
˙
˙
42
Thanissaro prefers to translate ‘rhinoceros’ rather than ‘rhinoceros horn’ and provides a detailed
explanation for it [“Khaggavisana Sutta: A Rhinoceros” (Snp 1.3), translated from the Pali by Thanissaro
Bhikkhu. Access to Insight, 11 July 2010, http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/kn/snp/snp.1.03.
than.html]. Cf. Norman, K.R. (2001). ‘Solitary as a rhinoceros horn’, in Collected Papers, Vol. VII.
Oxford: Pali Text Society, pp. 33–41. Also in Buddhist Studies Review (1996) 13, 2: 133–142.
123
G. Giustarini
hostility:
Cātuddiso appaṭigho ca hoti, santussamāno itarītarena |
parissayānaṃ sahitā achambhī, eko care khaggavisāṇakappo ||
Sn 42, PTS 7
One is a man of the four quarters and not hostile, being pleased with whatever
comes one’s way. A fearless bearer of dangers, one should wander solitary as a
rhinoceros horn.
Norman (1992: 5)
The commentary to this stanza (Parjt II.42, PTS II.88) explains acchambin as the
capacity of facing risks that is associated with amity (mettā) and absence of aversion
(apaṭigha). Perhaps, it is not groundless to conjecture that the commentary
conceives of this combination as an interrelationship where the cultivation of each
element nourishes the others. Given this mutual influence, causality is not
necessarily bound to a rigid linear order.
Another passage that offers some clues on fear and its ending is in the
Bhayabheravasutta (M 4). Here the Buddha recalls his experience in the forest
before his final awakening, indicating fear and terror (bhaya-bherava) experienced
on such occasion as an obstacle to concentration. This problem is solved by facing
fear without changing the posture of the body:
Tatra ca me brāhmaṇa viharato mago vā āgacchati moro vā kaṭṭhaṃ pāteti
vāto vā paṇṇasataṃ ereti; tassa mayhaṃ evaṃ hoti: etaṃ nūna taṃ
bhayabheravaṃ āgacchatīti. Tassa mayhaṃ brāhmaṇa etad ahosi: kin nu
kho ahaṃ aññadatthu bhayapaṭikaṅkhī viharāmi; yannūnāhaṃ yathābhūtaṃ
yathābhūtassa me taṃ bhayabheravaṃ āgacchati tathābhūtaṃ tathābhūto va
taṃ bhayabheravaṃ paṭivineyyan ti. Tassa mayhaṃ brāhmaṇa caṅkamantassa
taṃ bhayabheravaṃ āgacchati. So kho ahaṃ brāhmaṇa n’eva tāva tiṭṭhāmi na
nisīdāmi na nipajjāmi yāva caṅkamanto va taṃ bhayabheravaṃ paṭivinemi.
Tassa mayhaṃ brāhmaṇa ṭhitassa taṃ bhayabheravaṃ āgacchati. So kho
ahaṃ brāhmaṇa n’eva tāva caṅkamāni na nisīdāmi na nipajjāmi yāva ṭhito va
taṃ bhayabheravaṃ paṭivinemi. Tassa mayhaṃ brāhmaṇa nisinnassa taṃ
bhayabheravaṃ āgacchati. So kho ahaṃ brāhmaṇa n’eva tāva nipajjāmi na
tiṭṭhāmi na caṅkamāni yāva nisinno va taṃ bhayabheravaṃ paṭivinemi. Tassa
mayhaṃ brāhmaṇa nipannassa taṃ bhayabheravaṃ āgacchati. So kho ahaṃ
brāhmaṇa n’eva tāva nisīdāmi na tiṭṭhāmi na caṅkamāni yāva nipanno va taṃ
bhayabheravaṃ paṭivinemi.
M I.49, PTS I.20–21
And when I was abiding there, a deer would approach, or a peacock would
break a stick, or the wind would move a heap of leaves; then I would think:
what if, with that, fear and dread would come? O Brahmin, this came to me:
why should I necessarily live expecting fear? What if I, when fear comes, stay
as I am and thus eradicate fear? And when I was walking, o Brahmin, fear and
dread arrived. Then, o Brahmin, I did not stand, I did not sit, I did not lie
down, and so walking I dispelled fear and dread. And when I was standing, o
123
The Role of Fear (Bhaya) in the Nikāyas and in the Abhidhamma
Brahmin, fear and dread arrived. Then, o Brahmin, I did not walk, I did not sit, I
did not lie down, and so standing I dispelled fear and dread. And when I was
sitting, o Brahmin, fear and dread arrived. Then, o Brahmin, I did not lie down, I
did not stand, I did not walk, and so sitting I dispelled fear and dread. And when I
was lying down, o Brahmin, fear and dread arrived. Then, o Brahmin, I did not
sit, I did not stand, I did not walk, and so lying down I dispelled fear and dread.
An absence of physical movement promotes a state of equanimity which in turns
allows the overcoming of fear. Physical stillness and stability seem to be able to
inspire mental stillness and stability, which are helpful remedies in counteracting
and eventually eradicating fear.43
Conclusion
All the examples and considerations highlight two distinct and yet converging uses
of the term bhaya, as bhayūparata and abhayūparata compounds delineate:
(1)
(2)
bhaya may be synonym of danger and therefore ‘apperception of danger’, thus
fostering restraint and working to make an end to suffering; in this role, bhaya
also means fear as a disturbing and yet wholesome emotion that helps to ward
off the power of defilements; it can be either fear of defilements themselves or
fear of death, and in both cases its distinctive feature is a sense of urgency;
bhaya may mean fear as an impediment, i.e. a cause of suffering and a form of
suffering itself; in this sense, it is a fetter that must be overcome in order to
reach a state of fearlessness and the condition of abhayūparata.
In the first acceptation, there is cognition of the snares of saṃsāra and of the
ineluctability of death. This cognition is crucial in motivating meditative practice.
Rather than being a merely intellectual event, it is upsetting at various degrees. The
side effects of this disturbance are mitigated by wholesome factors like mindfulness,
and thus directed to the liberating process.
Abhayūparata, on the other hand, takes into account the hindering facets of fear
and describes a higher level of restraint, characterized by safety from the perils of
saṃsāra and by unencumbered fearlessness. That is to say: as the path proceeds,
bhaya stops supporting restraint and becomes an obstacle; conversely, abhaya leads
to (and is a characteristic of) the goal.
Therefore, both the instructions of the Nikāyas and the classifications found in
the Abhidhamma define approaches to fear opportunely adapted to the specific
applications examined above. Being the afflicted mind bound to a world of
reactions, Buddhist teachings prod the meditator by stirring fear, i.e. by displaying
the unpleasant consequences of a life wasted within the realm of defilements; yet
this stimulus is meant to become obsolete once the mind is able to recognize the
same obstructing nature in fear itself.
43
Interesting parallels between physical and mental qualities may also be found in Abhidhamma
literature (e.g. Dhs 40 ff., PTS 14 ff.).
123
G. Giustarini
Nāhaṃ bhayassa bhāyāmi, satthā no amatassa kovido |
yattha bhayaṃ nāvatiṭṭhati tena maggena vajanti bhikkhavo’ti ||
Th 21 (PTS 4)
I am not afraid of danger, having our master acquaintance with the deathless;
monks proceed through that path where no fear persists.44
Acknowledgments I wish to express my gratitude to the Mahidol University for making this work
possible by supporting and encouraging my research, and to Mattia Salvini for his precious suggestions.
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