THE
ETHOGRAM
and
ANIMAL BEHAVIOR RESEARCH
Supported by a Science Education
Partnership Award from the National
Center for Research Resources,
National Institutes of Health
science curriculum for grades 5-8
Janet Crews
Stan Braude
Carol Stephenson
Terrilyn Clardy
THE
ETHOGRAM
and
ANIMAL BEHAVIOR RESEARCH
Supported by a Science Education
Partnership Award from the National
Center for Research Resources,
National Institutes of Health
science curriculum for grades 5-8
Janet Crews
Stan Braude
Carol Stephenson
Terrilyn Clardy
Authors: Janet Crews, Wydown Middle School, Clayton School District
Stan Braude, Department of Biology, Washington University
Carol Stephenson, Saint Louis Zoo
Terrilyn Clardy, Sumner High School, St. Louis Public Schools
Animal behavior films produced by Rosie Koch, BAO Productions
© Copyright 2002 Washington University in St. Louis. Teachers may copy materials as needed for
classroom use.
This curriculum was developed by A Partnership Linking Formal and Informal Education, funded
by Science Education Partnership Award R25 RR 15603 from the National Center for Research
Resources, National Institutes of Health.
Principal Investigator: Ralph S. Quatrano, Professor of Biology, Washington University
Project Director: Victoria L. May, Director of Science Outreach, Washington University
Evaluator: Jennifer L. Heim, St. Louis Science Center
Washington University Science Outreach
One Brookings Drive, Campus Box 1137, St. Louis, MO 63130
(314) 935-6846, www.so.wustl.edu
2
CONTENTS
SECTION
1
Introduction and Overview of the Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
SECTION
2
The Ethogram: an Introduction to the Study of Animal Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
SECTION
3
Introduction to Scientific Inquiry and Sampling Methods and Data Analysis . . . 25
SECTION
4
Animal Behavior Research Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
SECTION
5
Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Sample of a Student Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Animal Behavior Magazine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3
SECTION
1
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW OF THE
ANIMAL BEHAVIOR CURRICULUM
5
1.1
INTRODUCTION
The study of animal behavior is important for basic
understanding of the world around us, and has practical
applications for conservation, agriculture, and medicine. The
study of animal behavior in the classroom also provides
opportunities for teaching students about the process of
doing science, as well as developing basic skills of
observation, description, and quantification. It helps teachers
address components of all four of the Missouri Show Me
performance standards and includes content standards from
science, social studies and communication arts.
In this unit, students, will create one of the basic descriptive
tools of animal behavior, the ethogram. A complete
ethogram is a dictionary of all of the behaviors that a
particular species performs. Biologists publish ethograms of
their study species so that they can communicate with each
other about the behaviors they investigate. Generating their
own ethograms will give students multiple opportunities to
hone their skills of observation, description and
quantification. Students will make preliminary ethograms in
the classroom and at home. They will then generate an
ethogram of one exotic species at the zoo by viewing a
video of that animal. They will then use their ethograms in
completing a research project at the zoo.
This unit uses the attraction of studying exotic species at the
zoo to teach students about the process of doing scientific
research. They will explore one zoo species in depth and
then write up a research proposal.
While this unit is designed to utilize the resources of the zoo,
it can be completed by using a local park, class study area on
campus, or even using a class pet. Financial resources should
not keep a teacher from using this curriculum.
Teachers have the option of planning one, two, or three zoo
visits. See graph Zoo visit options for Section 4, page 11.
Two visits are ideal for this unit. The preliminary zoo trip,
if taken, gives students an opportunity to make
observations that can help guide development of their
scientific research proposals.
In the second, third (or only) visit to the zoo, students will
take data that will help them test a hypothesis that follows
from a scientific question about their chosen study species
at the zoo. Depending on time available, the class may
spend part of the day visiting the sites of each study.
Students can tell their classmates about their chosen
study animal.
It is the intent of this curriculum that teachers will use
the zoo and other local resources, not just for entertainment
field trips, but for powerful field classes. The power of a
focused learning experience, coupled with intense pre- and
post-field work in the classroom, is what increases student
achievement. It is important for the teacher to wisely
decide how this curriculum can best support existing
district curriculum. Does it help you teach scientific
method? Taxonomy? Explore native species? Or is it best
suited for cross-curricular projects? Can it help you provide
a rationale for a service learning project? The choice is up
to the teacher.
Finally, it is also up to the teacher to select the best time of
the year to implement this curriculum. Testers suggest the
spring, as you have had time to work with your students,
and they have matured in their skills. It is also more
appropriate weather for outdoor field classes.
Whatever your situation, this curriculum is yours to adapt
and incorporate to help you better teach and engage your
students. The use of ethograms truly lets the students (and
teacher) feel like real scientists.
7
1.2
CURRICULUM OVERVIEW
SECTION
2
THE ETHOGRAM: AN INTRODUCTION
TO THE STUDY OF ANIMAL BEHAVIOR. . . . 13
2.1
What is Behavior? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
The purpose of this activity is to capture the interest
of the students and excite them about observing and
studying animal behavior. Primate species were
selected because of the human similarities. They
were videotaped in the wild to give the students a
sense of natural behaviors. This lesson also
introduces them to asking questions, with behavior as
the focus.
2.2
Development of Individual Ethograms
at Home. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Students are now given the opportunity to use the
skills developed in class to create ethograms on
animals that they observe outside of class.
8
3
INTRODUCTION TO SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY,
SAMPLING, AND DATA ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.1
Which Sampling Method Works Best? . . . 26
Students will observe animals using two different
sampling methods with prepared data sheets. This
introduces them to the idea that scientists use
different tools for different tasks. It also encourages
them to observe different aspects of behavior.
3.2
Classroom Introduction to Creating
an Ethogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
An ethogram is like a dictionary of the behaviors of a
particular species. Students have an opportunity to
interact with actual animals and observe behavior first
hand. They also will create class ethograms, learn
about the different kinds of ethograms, and discover
ways to define behavior.
2.3
SECTION
Sample Data Analysis: Jim’s Crickets
and Marshall’s Crows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Students participate in a sample analysis exercise to
discuss factors of analysis. They sort through useful
and irrelevant data. They look for patterns that help
them decide whether their data supports the
hypothesis in question.
3.3
How Do We Choose A Scientific
Question to Investigate? Part I . . . . . . . . . . 45
Students evaluate sample questions about behaviors.
They must determine if the questions are scientifically
answerable, and what methods would be required
for testing the hypotheses that follow from these
questions. The lesson reviews writing a testable
research question, and using a scientific method.
Zoo visit options for Section 4
Teachers may choose to make one, two or three visits.
SECTION
4
ANIMAL BEHAVIOR RESEARCH PROJECTS . . . 51
4.2
Choosing a study
species for research
on animal behavior
at the zoo
OPTIONAL ZOO VISIT
(first visit of two or three)
4.3 Organism exploration
at the zoo
4.4
4.1
Introduction: Considerations for Field Classes
at the Zoo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.2
Choosing a Study Species for Research
on Animal Behavior at the Zoo . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
In this lesson, students will choose a zoo animal for their
research project by viewing a video.
Ethogram
Development of the
Zoo Study Subject
4.3
OPTIONAL ZOO VISIT
(second visit of three)
4.5 Field Study Research:
Ethogram
Supplementation
4.6
Students go to the zoo to observe potential species for a
behavioral study. For classes that can visit the zoo twice
(this is preferable), this visit is for preliminary exploration
and practice data gathering.
Library Exploration
Note: Students may make
this visit on their own time.
4.4
4.7
4.8
How do we choose
a Scientific Question?
Research Proposal
Organism Exploration at the Zoo
(Optional first visit of two or three) . . . . . . . . . 57
Ethogram Development of the Zoo
Study Subject . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Students will generate an ethogram of their chosen
study species by viewing a moderate length film of the
species in the zoo. This will prepare them to develop a
research question and hypothesis that they can test
during a zoo visit.
ZOO VISIT
(only or last visit)
4.9 Field Study
Research: Collecting
Behavioral Data
9
4.5
Field Study Research: Ethogram
Supplementation (Optional second visit
of three) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.8
Too often student research projects fail because of
lack of preparation and feedback before the data
collection begins. In this lesson, students will develop
or refine a scientific question about their animal.
Students will generate a hypothesis to answer the
question and choose a sampling method to help
them test the hypothesis. Then they will write a
research proposal that outlines the scientific
framework for their research project.
Students may go to the zoo to observe their chosen
study species and supplement their ethogram on the
species. Students may do this visit on their own,
after school or on weekends. This visit is for continued
exploration, practice data gathering, and familiarization
with the study species at the zoo.
4.6
Library Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.9
After completion of the ethogram, students will be
instructed to further explore their chosen species in
the library and on the web. This exercise will further
familiarize them with their study species and may lead
them to interesting research questions.
4.7
How Do We Choose A Scientific Question
to Investigate? Part II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Research Proposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Field Study Research: Collecting
Behavioral Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Students will visit the zoo to observe their selected
species and collect the data to attempt to answer their
research question.
4.10
Students will apply the tools of developing scientific
questions, hypotheses and tests to their own study
species at the zoo.
Analysis of Results and Write-up of
Research Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Students will synthesize the skills and information
they learned in this unit by writing up a report of their
zoo research project.
4.11
Reflection/Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Students have the opportunity to reflect over their
conclusions and what they have learned during this
project. This could also include students evaluating
their peers’ presentations.
4.12
Further Investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Students or teachers may choose to continue with this
topic in a variety of extension activities.
The following transparency master may be useful in giving
your students an overview of the unit.
10
T H E E T H O G R A M A N D A N I M A L B E H AV I O R
What is animal behavior?
What can we observe?
How do we conduct an independent research project
at the zoo?
Choosing an animal species
How do we study it scientifically?
Developing an ethogram of your chosen species
What is an ethogram?
Practice in developing an ethogram in class
Practice in developing an ethogram at home
What other scientific tools do we need to conduct
behavior research?
Since we can’t observe everything, how do we take
a sample of observations that gives a fair
representation of what the animals are doing?
Learning about your chosen species in the library
Asking your scientific question, proposing a
hypothesis to answer the question, making
predictions to test the hypothesis
Writing a scientific research proposal
Collecting your behavioral proposal
Presenting the results of your research.
What is the difference between a scientific question,
a hypothesis, and a prediction?
How do we use data to test a hypothesis?
How do we choose a scientific question for
an independent project?
11
1.3
S TA N D A R D L I N K S
Missouri Show Me Standards
Performance Standards
1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.8, 2.2,
2.3, 2.7, 3.3, 3.5, 4.6
Knowledge Standards
SC 3, 7; SS 7, CA 4, 6
Framework Standards
Science 5-8; I.A.1-4, I.B.1-2,
VII.A.3, VII.C.1-2
1.4
T I M E E X P E C TAT I O N S
Total time, if unit is done in its entirety, is approximately
19 class periods. It is possible to use many lessons in a
stand-alone capacity.
2.1
2.2
2.3
3.1
3.2
3.3
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11
12
One period
Two periods
Week-long homework assignment
One period
Two periods
Two periods
One period
One period
Week-long homework assignment
Optional
Two-three periods
Two periods
Three periods plus week-long homework
Field trip
Week-long homework
One period
SECTION
2
THE ETHOGRAM
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE
STUDY OF ANIMAL BEHAVIOR
SECTION OVERVIEW
These three lessons are designed to give
students an introduction to creation of an
ethogram and the study of animal behavior.
The lessons use inquiry methods to help
students discover the need for ethograms
and other scientific research tools. The
"Animal Whys” magazine explains why
scientists study animal behavior, and
activities introduce the basic methods
for study.
13
2.1
W H AT I S B E H AV I O R ?
Lesson Overview
The purpose of this activity is to capture the interest of
the students and excite them about observing and
studying animal behavior. Primate species were
selected because of their human similarities. They
were videotaped in the wild to give the students a
sense of natural behaviors. This lesson also introduces
students to asking questions, with behavior as the focus.
Student Objectives
After completing this activity, students will be able to:
1 compare the behavior of two primate species from
observational data they collect.
2 generate questions about a species, its behavior,
and observations of its behavior based on data
they collect.
14
Timeline
1 class period
Group size
Whole class observation and teacher led discussion
Materials
— TV with DVD player, or computer with CD-ROM or
DVD and overhead projector
— “The Wild Ones: Vervet Monkeys and Olive
Baboons” — CD-Rom or DVD video, included with
curriculum
— Dry erase or chalk board
— Copies of Animal Behavior Self-Assessment for
each student, or an overhead transparency
2.1
W H AT I S B E H AV I O R ?
Procedure
1
2
3
4
5
Give out the Animal Behavior Self Assessment. Ask
the students to answer the questions as best they can.
This will allow you to see what they already know, and
for the students to think about the question before you
ask them.
Ask the students, What is behavior? Ask them to
generate examples of behavior they have observed. List
on board or chart.
Tell them they will observe two species of primates:
olive baboons and vervet monkeys. Ask them to write
down all behaviors they observe in the video. You can
offer the challenge: Who can find the greatest number
of different behaviors?
After 10 minutes (or shorter intervals), pause the
video and ask students to share observations. Create
a class list. Write down questions they have, as well as
problems they are having. This allows you to address
concerns, as well as model appropriate answers for
students. Refrain from telling them they are right or
wrong about their behavioral names or interpretations.
Simply facilitate the discussion.
6
Tell the students they will look at a second species.
Ask them to focus on similarities and differences.
Show the second primate video, the vervet baboons.
7
Again, collect class data.
8
Ask the students if they see any categories of
behavior arising (e.g. feeding, play, conflict, sleeping,
locomotion). List possibilities.
9
Ask the students if they observed similar behaviors in
both species. List those. Similarities and differences
can be organized in a Venn diagram.
10
Ask “Why are the monkeys doing the things they are
doing?” “Do we know why?”
11
Ask what the students want to know about behavior.
Create a master list of questions about the species,
about behavior, about observing behavior based on
their experiences in this activity.
12
Now ask, How would we go about answering any of
these questions using the tools of science? Facilitate
a group discussion. Your students may or may not be
able to infer a way to measure behavior.
Continue with the video. Stop at the end of the baboon
section. Discuss behaviors, questions, observational
problems.
15
2.1
W H AT I S B E H AV I O R ?
Teacher Tips
•
•
There is no sound on the video to keep the students
focused on the behavior. Soundtracks often influence
how we interpret behavior. (Think movie music!) Show
some samples from other videos with and without the
sound to see how it influences our interpretation.
The teacher should stop and model the thinking
process after the first 2-3 minutes of the video the first
time around. Model what behaviors you notice and
how you would record them.
•
Remember to honor ALL answers AS GIVEN, no
matter how wrong they are. Let the students find out
they are wrong as the unit develops.
•
If you are working with younger students, stop more
often — every 2-3 minutes and let them record.
•
To increase participation, you may want to stop after
2-3 minutes and let students collaborate on a group
list of behaviors. Continue to repeat this process.
16
•
Discuss how real scientists must develop the skill of
patience, as observation can become tedious work!
•
Keep a class question list to refer to during the unit.
•
For special needs children, you may print a list of
behaviors and have students check off those that
they see.
•
Some teachers have preferred to use Penguin
Odyssey or films from the Trials of Life series for this
introductory exercise. While the diversity of species
may be more attractive to students, the dialogue can
be very distracting and can stifle independent
thinking. Therefore, be sure to turn off the sound if
you use a commercially available film.
•
You may also ask the students to work in small groups
of 3-4 for this lesson.
ACTIVITY
2.1
name
ANIMAL BEHAVIOR SELF-ASSESSMENT
Scientists study behaviors of animals in order to better understand how our world works. In this
project, you will be asked to study the behavior of a number of different animals.
Describe how you would gather information on an animal’s behavior, and how you would record that
information so that it will be useful in answering scientific questions.
17
2.2
C L A S S R O O M I N T R O D U C T I O N T O C R E AT I N G
AN ETHOGRAM
Pre-Class Preparation
Assign for homework or read together: “What is Animal
Behavior” and “Why do Scientists Study Animal
Behavior?” in the Animal Whys magazine.
Timeline
1-2 class periods
Materials
Overview
— At least two types of common classroom/school
yard animals: crickets, isopods, fish, worms,
hissing cockroaches, mice, etc. (1-2 organisms
for every 2-4 students)
— Hand lenses
— Containers for organisms (petri dishes, bug boxes,
margarine tubs, paper box lids, deep trays,
aquaria)
— Animal Whys magazine for each student
Students have an opportunity to interact with actual
animals and observe behavior first hand. They also will
create class ethograms, learn about the different kinds
of ethograms, and discover ways to define behavior.
Student Objectives
After completing this activity, students will be able to:
Procedure
1 correctly develop an ethogram from observational
data.
2 explain the ways in which the ethogram is a basic
tool of animal behavior studies.
3 describe and categorize behaviors they observe.
1
Ask the students, “What is behavior?” Ask them to
generate examples of behavior they have observed.
List on board or chart.
2
Read and discuss articles “What is Animal Behavior”
and “Why do Scientists Study Animal Behavior?” in
the Animal Whys magazine.
3
Distribute animal cages or aquaria, and ask students
to log behaviors of the animals for 10 minutes.
4
Stop the observation; ask students to switch animals
with a group that has a different organism. Ask
them to log behaviors of the second organism while
focusing on similarities and differences between the
organisms.
5
Again, collect class data.
Key Terms
ethogram – a list of behaviors performed by an animal
species, along with precise definitions and detailed
descriptions of each behavior.
data – information collected during an observable
event
anthropomorphism – attributing human characteristics
to a non-human object or organism.
Group Size
Small groups and then full class
18
2.2
C L A S S R O O M I N T R O D U C T I O N T O C R E AT I N G A N E T H O G R A M
6
Ask the students if they see any categories of behavior
arising (e.g. feeding, play, conflict, sleeping, locomotion).
List possibilities.
16
Ask the students to group the behaviors into categories.
Ask them to define the category names they select.
Do any behaviors need to be combined or renamed?
7
Ask the students if they observed similar behaviors in
both species. List those.
17
Share this data.
18
8
Ask “Why are the animals doing the things they
are doing?”
Help the students to turn these categories into a tallying
sheet. Introduce the word ethogram. Refer to “What is
an Ethogram” and “Categories of Animal Behavior” in
the Animal Whys magazine.
9
Introduce the word anthropomorphism. Discuss the
perils of inferring emotions, preferences, etc. (Can you
really tell that this is why they are doing this? Is
that something you can measure?) Compare this to
unidentified variables in an experiment.
19
Discuss the importance of defining the behaviors.
Others must be able to specifically recognize what
behaviors you are talking about (this is similar to being
able to understand the procedures in a reliable
experiment). In their groups or as a class, ask students
to write definitions for each category and each distinct
behavior.
20
Ask the students to explain how ethograms are useful
to scientists.
21
Once finished, give the students 10 minutes to pool
their information (tally the number of times each
behavior is observed) and add this information to their
ethograms.
22
Have students test the validity of their ethograms.
Have them exchange and try using the descriptions in
each other’s ethograms and see if they recognize the
specific behaviors.
23
Share and discuss findings/problems. Ask them if this
is enough data to draw solid conclusions. Explain that
ethograms are the basic tool of animal behavior.
10
11
Ask the students “What do you want to know about
these animals?” Create a master list of questions about
the species, about behavior, about observing behavior
based on their experiences in this activity.
Now ask, “How would we go about answering any of
these questions using the tools of science?” Facilitate a
group discussion. Your students may or may not be
able to infer a way to measure behavior. List questions
or ask students to do so.
Suggested Stopping Point — Day 2 Start
12
Allow students to collect cages or aquaria of one
species they observed the day before.
13
Ask students to revisit the behavior logs from the
previous day. Ask them if they observed the behavior or
inferred what they thought was happening. Remind the
students about anthropomorphism.
14
Give the students time to adjust/change their behavior
labels based on this information.
15
Continue collecting behaviors, discussing and adding
to everyone’s list.
Homework: Read the Behavioral Research at the
Saint Louis Zoo section in Animal Whys. What
question did the zoo researchers have to answer
in each study? This leads to the next section.
19
2.2
C L A S S R O O M I N T R O D U C T I O N T O C R E AT I N G A N E T H O G R A M
Teacher Tips
Worms
Which animals work best? Well, that is up to
you, but here is a list of pros and cons for
each animal…
Crickets
• Cheap and easy to buy
• Perform a variety of behaviors
(mating, fighting, laying eggs, singing)
• Release when finished with them
• Hard to tell apart
• Students less motivated to like them
Isopods
(roly poly)
• Easy to find — free
• Students usually less “creeped out”
• Easy to mark them
• You have to go find them yourself
• Smaller range of behaviors
Fish
•
•
•
•
Cheap and easy to buy
No handling necessary
Usually easy to tell apart
Often found in classrooms
• Set up and maintenance required
• Harder to set up individual stations
20
• Cheap and easy to buy
• Have to stay moist
• Smaller range of behaviors
Hissing
• Easy to observe (large)
Cockroaches • Larger range of behaviors
• Easy to tell male from female
• Harder to find/buy
• Sometimes less active
Rodents
•
•
•
•
Often in classroom
Furry and familiar
Easy to tell apart
Wide range of easily identifiable behaviors
• Mice and gerbils are social, but hamsters
are solitary
• Males and females often need to be
separated
• All are more active at night
• Regular cleaning is required
• More care is required
** Select a species that you have or will study anyway, or
that you have access to in your classroom or school.
Just consider the pros/cons of each species.
2.3
DEVELOPMENT OF INDIVIDUAL
E T H O G R A M S AT H O M E
Overview
Students are now given the opportunity to use the
skills developed in class to independently create
ethograms on animals that they observe outside of
class.
Procedure
1
Ask students what study species they can observe
outside of the classroom. You may require them to
sign up for their study species to promote thinking
about the project ahead of time. Have them read
pages 5 and 6 in the Animal Whys magazine.
2
Hand out the Homework Assignment: Ethogram
Development.
3
Discuss pages 5-6 in Animal Whys. The sample
ethograms are models and can help extend students’
thinking. Let students know the Dog Ethogram in the
magazine is a very basic version. Ethograms often
have much more detail.
4
Students will hand in their work after one weekend or
one week.
5
After the assignment is turned in, you may give
feedback on descriptive definitions and ask students
to elaborate on their work.
6
Discuss ways of quantifying different behaviors.
7
Discuss questions that students now have about their
study species after observing them.
Student Objectives
After completing this activity, students will be able to
observe, describe and categorize behaviors of animals
they choose and use this information to independently
develop an ethogram.
Timeline
Homework can be done over a weekend or over a one
week period. Students can work on section 3 materials
in class while working on this assignment at home.
Materials
— Student notebooks, binoculars, watches
— Ethogram Development worksheet
— Optional – Sample Flow Chart
21
2.3
D E V E L O P M E N T O F I N D I V I D U A L E T H O G R A M S AT H O M E
Teacher Tips
•
You may want to break this assignment down into multiple days. (i.e., assign 1-3 first, come back
and discuss — then assign 4-5, etc.) Use your students as a guide for this decision.
•
You may want to use the chart from 4.3 as a tool for kids who need help framing their assignment.
It gives categories to start with when observing.
•
Help students focus on the process — not the product. It is more important that they notice that each
animal has unique behaviors. They don’t need to identify them ALL.
22
ACTIVITY
2.3
name
HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT: ETHOGRAM DEVELOPMENT
1
2
3
In class we have discussed the variety of questions
about animal behavior that we can scientifically
investigate. Your homework assignment is to develop
an ethogram for a species that you can readily observe
at home. Now you must choose a study species to work
on outside of class.This could be a pet (dog, cat,
goldfish, etc), a household pest (ant, cockroach,
mouse, etc.), or neighborhood wildlife (cardinal, crow,
gray squirrel, bumblebee, etc.). While pets have the
advantage of being readily available for observation, you
are likely to be limited to only being able to observe one,
or few, individuals of the species. On the other hand,
although you may have to spend more effort finding
local wildlife to observe, you should be able to obtain
observations of multiple individuals, including both
sexes and even different ages.
4
Carefully describe what you mean by each named
behavior. Your description must be complete and precise
enough that any other person reading your ethogram will
be able to picture the behavior you are describing and
distinguish it from any other behavior.
5
Organize your behaviors into functional categories so
that behaviors which achieve a common function will
be grouped together (e.g., holding food, biting,
chewing, and looking for food can all be grouped
together as foraging). Functional categories may
include: foraging behaviors, resting behaviors, play
behaviors, predator avoidance, reproductive behaviors,
care of young. Note that these are each vast categories
that include many different behaviors! Refer to Animal
Observe your species for five to ten minute blocks of
time spread out over the course of the days you have
to work. Try to make your observations at different
times of day and, if possible, on different individuals
of the species. Remember, you will NOT see a full
range of behaviors for the organism you are observing
in this in this limited observation.
6
Supplement entries by noting whether behaviors are
common or rare and perhaps begin to quantify the
frequency with which you see each behavior.
7
Supplement entries by creating a flow chart of
different behaviors and which ones are linked. (See
sample chart on page 24.)
Name and list all of the behaviors you observe. Be as
specific as possible. For example, a rabbit eating
lettuce isn’t just eating. First she bites off the leaf at
the base using her incisors, next she may strip out the
rib or vein. Finally, she chews the leaf with her molars,
perhaps while holding the leaf in her front paws.
Your final ethogram should include 1) a list of 15 – 20
different named behaviors. 2) These should be organized into
functional categories. 3) Each behavior should be described
in detail so that the reader can picture the behavior in his/her
mind. 4) Any additional information on the context (where or
when the behavior occurs) or frequency (e.g., 5 times in an
hour, or every minute) of the behaviors should be included.
Whys and the domestic dog ethogram if necessary.
23
ACTIVITY
2.3
name
A BEHAVIORAL FLOW CHART
The arrows flowing from a particular behavior represent all the behaviors that follow it.
You can make some arrows darker to represent more frequent sequences.
Sleeping
Walking
Grooming
Feeding
Playing
24
SECTION
3
INTRODUCTION TO
SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY, SAMPLING,
AND DATA ANALYSIS
SECTION OVERVIEW
These lessons are designed to give students
an introduction to scientific inquiry,
including data collection and data analysis.
The activities give students an opportunity
to compare sampling methods, interpret
data, and identify the questions for which
they are appropriate.
25
3.1
WHICH SAMPLING METHOD WORKS BEST?
Lesson Overview
Students will observe animals using two different
sampling methods with prepared data sheets. This
introduces them to the idea that scientists use different
tools for different tasks. It also encourages them to
observe a variety of aspects of behavior.
Student Objectives
After completing this activity, students will be able to:
1 describe two sampling methods used in animal
behavior research.
2 choose the most appropriate sampling method to
answer a given research question.
3 explain the difference between behavior states
and behavior events.
4 plan, use and analyze a time budget.
5 use prepared sheets to collect behavioral data.
Key Terms
all occurrences sampling – recording each time a
behavior is performed, either on a focal animal or
among all animals present.
events – behaviors that last for a very brief time. It is
occurs, and who each behavior involves (e.g. bite,
vocalize, approach).
focal animal sampling – collecting data focusing on
one, individual animal at a time, noting every behavior
that animal performs, and then pooling the data for a
number of different animals. Video is a useful tool for this
type of sampling. Working in teams is also useful.
interval – one segment of time designated by the
researcher for making observations.
26
quadrant – one part of an area marked off in fourths,
or four quadrants.
scan sampling – collecting data at specified time
intervals, and noting what each animal is currently
doing or where they are located. Still photos may be
useful in doing this sampling.
states – behaviors that last for some period of time.
They have a clear beginning and end, and some period
of time lapses in between (e.g. rest, play, feed).
tally – record data by making hash marks; indicates
numbers or counts.
time budget – a record of how an organism spends
its time.
Timeline
1 class period
Group size
Whole class discussion and analysis; some time spent
in small groups
Materials
— Dry erase or chalk board
— 1 classroom rodent (mouse, hamster, gerbil, etc.)
in a cage
— Empty aquarium with bedding and rodent supplies.
Tape the bottom edge of the cage and label each
corner with letters A–D, creating quadrants.
— Stopwatch
— All Occurrences Sampling data sheet
— Scan Sampling data sheet: Habitat use
— Scan Sampling data sheet: Marked individuals
— Focal Sampling data sheet
— Looking for Patterns handout (optional)
— Which Sampling Method Works Best? worksheet
3.1
WHICH SAMPLING METHOD WORKS BEST?
Procedure
10
Have students look over their data and see if they can
infer anything about rodents from the data they
collected. What is missing? Can any clear
understanding or answer come from these two
samplings of data? Does it need to be compared to
something else?
1
Ask students how we could find out how middle
school students spend their time. Write possible
answers on the board.
2
Ask students what a time budget might be. Write
possible answers on the board.
11
Point out the different questions on the worksheets.
How is each type of sampling suited to each question?
Ask them what a time budget for a middle school student
might look like. As a class, design one on the board.
12
Explain that all animals are engaging in some type of
behavior all the time –- even if it doesn’t look like it
and only one kind of behavior at a time.
13
Scientists use two terms to separate types of
behaviors — states and events. Write these terms and
definitions on the board or overhead.
14
Have students look at the two different Scan Sampling
data sheets. Are the behaviors listed mostly states or
events? (These are mostly events. Eating and
grooming can be states — depending on length of
time) What if the rodent was sleeping? Would this
type of sampling method be helpful? (not for only
5 minutes — but it would for longer periods of time)
15
Now look at the All Occurrences Sampling data sheet.
Are you recording states or events? (This should be
mostly states – it is likely that an event could be lost if
it is between recording times. Ask students if this was
observed by anyone.)
16
How do scientists decide which type of ethogram
to use? (It is determined by the question they seek
to answer.)
17
Hand out Which Sampling Method Works Best? or
write the questions on the board. As a group, discuss
which sampling methods would provide the most
useful information in answering the questions, or
assign the worksheet as homework.
18
Have students summarize their understanding of
each sampling type in their science journals.
3
4
Hand out the All Occurrences Sampling data sheet.
Discuss how to tally. What does all occurrences mean?
What does tally mean? What is a focal behavior? Refer
to key terms. Why are the behaviors defined? Discuss
any unclear parts.
5
Position the students in a circle with the rodent cage in
the center on a desk. Start the time and have students
tally all occurrences of behavior for 5-7 minutes.
6
Have students total the tallies. To find the percentage,
divide the total of each behavior by the total of all
occurrences, then multiply by 100 (e.g., 5 sniffs of food
divided by 52 total behavior occurrences multiplied by
100 = 9.6% of the time spent sniffing food). Discuss
problems or questions. Many students find this part difficult.
7
8
9
Hand out the two Scan Sampling data sheets. Discuss
how to tally on these sheet. What does scan mean?
What is a quadrant? What are intervals? What area is
A? B? C? D? Refer to key terms.
Again, group the students in a circle. Place the quadrant
labeled cage into the center of the circle. Move the
rodent into the new cage. Begin the time as soon as it is
inside. Speak or ring a bell every 20 seconds to remind
students to tally data. Students can work in cooperative
groups with a timekeeper, an observer who calls out the
observations, a recorder who writes, and one who takes
care of the materials and sets up the quadrants.
Ask students to total tallies and find percentages.
Discuss problems.
27
3.1
WHICH SAMPLING METHOD WORKS BEST?
Teacher Tips
SAMPLING
METHOD
DEFINITION
C O N S I D E R AT I O N S
All Occurrences
Sampling
Recording each time a
behavior is performed, either
on a focal animal or among
all animals present.
Especially useful for studying rare or infrequent
behaviors. Also useful if you are interested in
whether a behavior occurs more in one setting, by
one sex, by one age class, etc. Time budgets cannot
be derived from this type of data. Not useful if
you are interested in the amount of time spent in a
given state; more useful in studying behavioral events.
Focal Animal
Sampling
Collecting data focusing
on one individual animal
at a time, noting every
behavior that animal
performs, and then pooling
the data for a number of
different animals.
Video is a useful tool for this type of sampling.
Working in teams is also useful. This is the only type
of sampling that gives us data with which we can
generate a flow chart. Time budgets can be derived
from this type of data. Especially useful if you are
interested in the amount of time spent in a given state;
less appropriate if you are studying behavioral events.
Scan Sampling
Collecting data at specified
time intervals, and noting
what each animal is
currently doing or where
they are located.
Still photos may be useful in doing this sampling.
This method is useful in asking question about habitat
preference, food preference, or preferred nearest
neighbor. Time budgets can be derived from this type
of data. The fraction of time spent in a given state
can be derived from this data. If you are studying
behavioral events, you are likely to miss them with
this sampling method.
Different sampling methods can be used to answer the same question. It can be an interesting
exercise for advanced students to compare the answer they get from collecting observations with
different sampling methods.
28
ACTIVITY
3.1
name
ALL OCCURRENCES SAMPLING DATA SHEET
All Occurrences: Recording each time a behavior is performed, either on a focal animal or
among all animals present.
Uses: Especially useful for studying rare of infrequent behaviors. Also useful if you are
interested in whether a behavior occurs more in one setting, by one sex, by one age class,
etc. Time budgets cannot be derived from this type of data. Not useful if you are interested
in the amount of time spent in a given state; more useful in studying behavioral events.
What activity does a classroom animal spend most of its time doing?
Prediction: ____________________________________________________________________
Species: ______________________________________________________________________
Start Time: _____________
End Time: _____________
Tally all occurrences of selected focal behaviors.
POSSIBLE BEHAVIORS
OCCURRENCES
TOTAL
PERCENTAGE
Sniffs food
Looks around cage
Enters shelter
Climbs on object
Self grooms
Eats
Runs on wheel
Other
Total behaviors
100%
DEFINITIONS
Add to this list or change it as necessary for your species.
Sniffs food – nose within two centimeters and pointing toward food
Looks around cage – both paws are up on side of cage
Enters shelter – all four feet are under roof of shelter
Climbs on object – all four feet are on object
Self grooms – lick, scratch or rub any part of own body
Eats – chew on food in any way
Runs on wheel – all four paws are on the wheel and it turns
Other – any behavior not mentioned (specify)
29
ACTIVITY
3.1
name
SCAN SAMPLING DATA SHEET: HABITAT USE
Scan Sampling: Collecting data at specified time intervals, either on focal animal or group.
Uses: This method is useful in asking questions about habitat preference. If you are studying behavioral
events, you are likely to miss them with this sampling method.
How does your chosen species explore a new environment? Which substrate does the animal prefer?
Prediction: _____________________________________________________________________________
Species: _______________________________________________________________________________
Start Time: _____________
End Time: _____________
Scan by quadrants at 15 second intervals. Record the number of animals in each quadrant or the behaviors
observed in each quadrant.
TIME
15
30
45
1:00
15
30
45
2:00
15
30
45
3:00
15
30
45
4:00
15
30
45
5:00
15
30
45
6:00
15
30
45
7:00
TOTAL
%age
A
QUADRANTS
B
C
D
What does your data tell you? Explain in a few sentences what you have learned about where your animal
prefers to be.
30
ACTIVITY
3.1
name
SCAN SAMPLING DATA SHEET: MARKED INDIVIDUALS
Scan Sampling: Collecting data at specified time intervals, either on focal animal.
Uses: This method is useful in asking questions about habitat preference, food preference, or preferred
nearest neighbor. Time budgets can be derived from this type of data. The fraction of time spent in a given
state can be derived from this data. If you are studying behavioral events, you are likely to miss them with
this sampling method.
How do different classroom animals behave?
Prediction: _____________________________________________________________________________
Species: _______________________________________________________________________________
Start Time: _____________
End Time: _____________
Scan by quadrants at 15 second intervals. Record the behavior of each animals at the moment of the scan.
Use the behaviors identified on the All Occurrences sheet.
INDIVIDUAL ANIMAL IDENTIFIER (FILL IN BELOW)
TIME
15
30
45
1:00
15
30
45
2:00
15
30
45
3:00
15
30
45
4:00
15
30
45
5:00
15
30
45
6:00
15
30
45
7:00
TOTAL
%age
What does your data tell you? Explain in a few sentences what you have learned about how these animals
spent their time.
31
ACTIVITY
3.1
name
FOCAL SAMPLING DATA SHEET
Focal Sampling: Collecting data focusing on one individual animal at a time.
Uses: This is the only type of sampling that gives us data with which we can generate a flow chart. Time
budgets can be derived from this type of data. Focal Sampling is especially useful if you are interested in
the amount of time spent in a given state; less appropriate if you are studying behavioral events.
How does your chosen individual behave?
Prediction: _____________________________________________________________________________
Species:____________________________________ Individual ID:______________________________
Start Time: _____________
End Time: _____________
Focus your observations on one individual for the given period of time. Record every behavior the animal
performs during the observation period. Different students may focus on different individuals.
TIME
Behaviors
What does your data tell you? Explain in a few sentences what you have learned about how your
animal behaves.
32
ACTIVITY
3.1
name
WHICH SAMPLING METHOD WORKS BEST?
FOR EACH OF THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS:
•
•
Write in the sampling method that would best measure the behavior, and indicate the reason.
Use your notes and work together as a group.
all occurrences sampling: recording each time a behavior is performed, either on a focal
animal or among all animals present.
events: behaviors that last for a brief time. It is usually important to know how often each
behavior occurs, and who each behavior involves. (e.g., bite, vocalize, approach)
focal animal sampling: collecting data focusing on one individual animal at a time. Video
is a useful tool for this type of sampling. Working in teams is also useful.
interval: one segment of time designated by the researcher for making observations.
quadrant: one part of an area marked off in fourths, or four quadrants.
scan sampling: collecting data at specified time intervals, either on focal animal or
group. Still photos may be useful in doing this sampling.
states: behaviors that last for some period of time. They have a clear beginning and end,
and some period of time lapses in between. (e.g., rest, play, feed)
1
Which part of the yard does my dog use the most?
2
How do birds spend their time?
3
Which area of a cat’s body is groomed the most?
4
What kind of dog food does my dog like best?
5
What does a squirrel do most — eat or play?
6
Does the male cardinal take part in parenting?
7
How much of a duck’s time is spent preening (grooming)?
8
When is a mouse most active?
33
ACTIVITY
3.1
name
LOOKING FOR PATTERNS:
DEVELOPING A BEHAVIORAL FLOW CHART
Look over your focal sample observations. Do you see any patterns? Does one behavior
almost always lead to another behavior? Create a flow chart that shows the order in which
behaviors occur and how often each behavior follows another. Explain a few of the major
trends that your flow chart illustrates.
Sample flow chart
The arrows from a particular behavior represent all the behaviors that occur after it. The
percentage shows how often the behavior is followed by each other behavior. In this
example sleeping is followed by walking 77% of the time, and by grooming 23% of the
time. Playing is always followed by grooming. In order to generate a flow chart like this,
you need focal sample data, because it records sequences of events.
Sleeping
77%
23%
Walking
76%
82%
18%
Grooming
91%
13%
Feeding
100%
11%
9%
Playing
34
3.1
WHICH SAMPLING METHOD WORKS BEST?
Answers to W h i c h S a m p l i n g M e t h o d W o r d s B e s t ?
1
Which part of the yard does my dog use the most?
Scan sampling, because it determines location.
2
How do birds spend their time?
Focal sampling, because long-term observations are needed.
3
Which area of a cat’s body is groomed the most?
All occurrences of grooming behaviors will answer this, or the cat’s body
can be divided into different quadrants and a scan sample can be taken
during grooming.
4
What kind of dog food does my dog like best?
Focal sampling, because data is needed on one animal, or if a number of
food bowls are available, scan sample can get at how often the dog is eating
each food.
5
What does a squirrel do most – eat or play?
Focal sampling, because information about one animal over a period of time
is needed.
6
Does the male cardinal take part in parenting?
All occurrences, because you are trying to determine if parental behavior
occurs in males. You are not looking for a frequency just whether the
behavior occurs.
7
How much of a duck’s time is spent preening (grooming)?
Focal sampling can give you data on how much of their time is spent in
preening, or you could take all occurrences data for just preening in a flock
of ducks.
8
When is a mouse most active?
Scan sampling determines time of activity. All occurrences data on active
vs. inactive could also give you data with which to answer this question.
35
3.1
WHICH SAMPLING METHOD WORKS BEST?
Student Research Samples
Read the following descriptions of student animal research. Decide which sampling method
was used in their experiment.
A
After observing the channel-billed toucan at the zoo, Emily wondered which parts of the exhibit
the bird used the most. She thought maybe the toucans spent most of their time in trees, so she
predicted that the toucan would spend most of its time in the part of the exhibit with a tree in it.
What sampling method should Emily use to answer her question? _______________________
B
Kit was observing a group of white storks. He wondered how storks spend their time.
He predicted that they spent most of their time standing.
What sampling method should Kit use to answer his question? __________________________
C
Duane was studying the spectacled owl. It didn’t seem to be moving around much the afternoon
he made his observations. He wondered if the owl was more active morning, afternoon, evening,
or night. He predicted that it was most active at night.
What sampling method should Duane use to answer his question?_______________________
D
Keesha was watching the gorals at the zoo. She thought they groomed themselves right after
playing with each other on the rocks.
What sampling method should Keesha use to answer her question?______________________
Answers to S t u d e n t R e s e a r c h S a m p l e s
A
Scan sampling
B
Either focal or a scan sample can give data on the frequencies of behaviors. If individuals are hard
to follow because animals move away, scan samples may work better. Otherwise pooling the focal
sample data from multiple individuals will give an answer.
C
Focal sampling would give Duane this data on a single individual.
D
Only focal sampling will give Keesha the sequence data which she needs to answer her question.
36
3.2
S A M P L E D ATA A N A LY S I S : J I M ’ S C R I C K E T S A N D
M A R S H A L L’ S C R O W S
Lesson Overview
Students participate in a sample analysis exercise to
discuss factors of analysis. They sort through useful
and irrelevant data. They look for patterns or trends
that help them decide whether their data support the
hypothesis in question.
Student Objectives
After completing this activity, students will be able to:
1 determine whether data support or refute a
hypothesis.
2 calculate the mean, median and mode of data
they collect.
3 accurately graph quantitative data.
4 identify whether a data set they collect has
incomplete or missing data.
Timeline
1 – 2 class periods
Groups Size
Small groups
Materials
—
—
—
—
Jim’s Crickets handout
Marshall’s Crows handout
Calculators
Graph paper
Key Terms
analyze – to examine in detail, to break a whole into parts
descriptive statistics – quantitative data pooled together
and organized to describe the characteristics of a group
statistical tests – methods for determining whether
trends, relationships, or differences in groups or
treatments are the result of random variation in nature
or indicate real patterns
mean – the average
median – the middle number of a list of numbers
mode – the most frequent number in a list of numbers
axis – the horizontal or vertical lines on a graph
hypothesis – the answer to your scientific question
about the outcome of your experiment
prediction – an explanation of your hypothesis; the why
37
3.1
S A M P L E D ATA A N A LY S I S : J I M ’ S C R I C K E T S A N D M A R S H A L L’ S C R O W S
Procedure
1
Discuss the ideas of: scientific question, hypothesis,
and specific prediction.
2
Hand out Jim’s Crickets.
3
Read the directions together.
4
You might want to divide this exercise into two parts.
The first three questions help students understand the
differences between scientific question, hypothesis,
and specific prediction. These can be discussed in
one period. The remaining questions lead them
through data analysis and can be discussed in a
subsequent class period.
Teacher Tips
•
Depending on the level of your students, you can use
these activities in a variety of ways. You can work on
them as a class, break them into parts and work on them
in small groups as guided practice (#1-3, #4-6), or have
students work on the whole thing independently.
•
Go through the description as a class and underline
clue words like wondered and maybe to help students
identify the question and prediction.
•
Give your students cues as to how to read the data chart.
Discuss any unknown terms (ovipositor, courtship). They
could highlight the data that is relevant to Jim’s question
and hypothesis.
38
3
Discuss how to go about analyzing the data. Take
suggestions from the students. Discuss what analysis
means. What statistical information would help?
What do you do with the data? (mean, mode, median,
patterns, or trends)
6
Give the students time to analyze the data in small
groups.
7
Go over the answers to the exercise. See if students
can spot the irrelevant data (courtship occurrence).
8
Discuss the importance of planning your data analysis
before beginning your research project.
9
Hand out Marshall’s Crows. Either use this as an
opportunity to test students’ understanding or as a
second example of data analysis for more practice.
ACTIVITY
3.2
name
JIM’S CRICKETS
WING BUDS ARE PRESENT IN JUVENILE
CRICKETS, BUT FULL SIZE WINGS LIKE
T H E S E A R E S E E N O N A D U LT S .
THE OVIPOSITOR IS THE ORGAN WITH
W H I C H T H E F E M A L E C R I C K E T L AY S
EGGS. IT EXTENDS STRAIGHT BACK
FROM THE ABDOMEN.
Jim has been studying crickets all month. First he created a detailed ethogram of more than 40 cricket behaviors,
including 5 different songs.
During the long hours of observation, Jim thought he noticed distinct differences between the time budgets of
different females. He wondered whether older females might have different priorities and constraints on their
behavior. He thought that older females would need to consume more calories to maintain their larger bodies. He
also expected that they would have to spend more time feeding than smaller, younger females. Jim marked individual
females with tiny dots of paint and began collecting data on their behaviors. Here is a table from Jim’s journal. Your
job is to decide whether his predictions were met and whether he should accept or reject his hypothesis.
Food Items Observed Eaten
Female Ovipositor
Cricket #
length
(mm)
1
2
4
6
7
9
12
15
16
17
5
6
8
3
6
3
3
4
6
3
Wings
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
N
N
N
Y
N
Weight
(grams)
Courtship
Observed
2
2
3
1
2
1
1
2
2
1
0
3
2
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
Apple
Cat Food
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Lettuce
X
X
X
X
Behavioral Time Budget (%)
Feeding
Behaviors
14
13
12
21
15
14
19
17
15
18
Courtship
Oviposition
Hiding
7
5
6
0
4
0
0
0
6
0
4
2
4
0
2
0
0
0
4
0
73
76
73
75
74
80
79
81
71
75
39
ACTIVITY
3.2
name
JIM’S CRICKETS QUESTIONS
1
Clearly state Jim’s general research question.
2
Clearly state Jim’s hypothesis.
3
Clearly state Jim’s prediction. (What does he expect to see if his hypothesis is correct?)
State Jim’s hypothesis and specific prediction in an if-then form:
If _________________________________________ then _________________________________________
4
Highlight or circle the data that is relevant to testing Jim’s prediction. How can you decide whether Jim’s data
supports his hypothesis or not? Present his data graphically to demonstrate whether it supports his hypothesis or not.
5
What statistics can you calculate to help decide whether Jim’s hypothesis is supported or not? How do
statistical tests help us decide?
6
How might you modify or rephrase Jim’s prediction? Explain your reasoning.
7
What else does Jim’s data suggest to you? Why can’t we just collect lots of data and decide what they tell us
after the fact? What risk do we run if we make our hypotheses and predictions after we see the data?
8
What should Jim do next? What other information does he need or what other data should he collect to test his
hypothesis? Why? What other questions might these data point him to further investigate?
9
Write any words or phrases you don’t understand.
40
3.2
S A M P L E D ATA A N A LY S I S : J I M ’ S C R I C K E T S A N D M A R S H A L L’ S C R O W S
Answers to J I M ’ S C R I C K E T S
1
2
6
How might you modify or rephrase Jim’s prediction?
Explain your reasoning.
The smaller crickets spend more time eating because
they are still growing.
7
What else does Jim’s data suggest to you?
Maybe the type of food makes a difference. Only small
crickets ate lettuce.
Clearly state Jim’s general research question.
Do older female crickets have different priorities than
smaller, younger female crickets?
Clearly state Jim’s hypothesis.
If older female crickets need to consume more calories
than younger female crickets in order to maintain their
larger bodies.
3
Clearly state Jim’s prediction.
…Then older females have to spend more time feeding
than smaller, younger females.
4
How can you decide whether Jim’s data supports
his hypothesis or not? Present his data graphically
demonstrate whether it supports his hypothesis or not.
Identify what is a large and a small cricket.
5-8 mm for ovipositor and >2 grams of weight)
Why can’t we just collect lots of data and decide what
they tell us after the fact?
If we don’t know what we are looking for, we may not
collect the kind of data that will best answer the
question. Also, some variables may not have been
controlled.
What risk do we run if we make our hypotheses and
predictions after we see the data?
If you make your hypothesis and predictions before
seeing the data, the experiment is a real test of the
hypothesis. It is possible to find patterns and trends in
any large data set. Some of those are just accidents of
random sampling. So if you collect data, and make a
hypothesis and prediction afterwards, you are likely to
make false conclusions.
Find the mean, median and mode of the percent of
time for feeding behaviors of large and small crickets.
(graph the mean)
5
What statistics can you calculate to help decide
whether Jim’s hypothesis is supported or not?
How do statistical tests help us decide?
Large:
Mean 13.8%
Median 14%
Mode 15%
Small:
Mean 17.8%
Median 18%
Mode n/a
The larger percentage of feeding behaviors for small
crickets indicates that they spend more time eating
than larger ones, which is opposite of Jim’s prediction.
8
What should Jim do next? What other information does
he need or what other data should he collect to test his
hypothesis? Why? What other questions might these
data point him to further investigate?
Conduct additional trials — more crickets.
Test specific food types.
Is male feeding behavior similar or different?
Why do crickets spend so much time hiding?
Is there a relationship between feeding times and
courtship times?
41
ACTIVITY
3.2
name
MARSHALL’S CROWS
Marshall has decided to study the trade-offs that crows need to
make when feeding. He knows that if crows did not have to feed,
they could stay very safe up in trees and always be looking
around for dogs, cats, and other predators. But they do have to
feed. And when a crow is busy eating, it cannot be looking
around for dogs at the same time.
Marshall has hypothesized that crows may get around this
problem by staying in large groups or mobs. Even though this
may lead to more competition for food, a crow in a mob might
benefit from the early warning caws of its neighbors.
Marshall has made the prediction that the larger the mob size, the more time each crow can spend feeding and less time
each needs to spend watching for predators.
Marshall made this hypothesis and prediction after watching crows in Forest Park for a total of 15 hours over four
weekends. He has generated an ethogram which describes more than 30 different crow behaviors. Among the feeding
behaviors are: perching on trash can, pecking at French fry bag, perching on roadkill, pecking at guts, flipping tidbit in
the air, swallowing tasty morsel. Among the predator avoidance behaviors are: stretch neck and stand on tippy toes,
look left, look right, hop onto higher perch and look around.
Marshall has decided to spend his Thanksgiving break collecting data with which to test his hypothesis. Aside from the
two hours he needs to spend at his grandparents’ house, he will be in Forest Park from dawn to dusk each day. He wants
to collect data on at least ten different mobs of crows.
42
ACTIVITY
3.2
name
MARSHALL’S CROWS QUESTIONS
1
What group characteristics will Marshall need to note about each of the mobs that he plans to observe?
2
What data will Marshall have to collect on individual crows in each mob? What type of sampling will he need to do?
3
What will Marshall have to do to pool the behavioral data he collects for each different mob of crows? How many crows in
each mob should he observe?
4
Make a data sheet that Marshall can use to collect his data on each of his mobs.
5
Did Marshall use anthropomorphism? Why/Why not?
6
Even before he has the data, we know what the axes of Marshall’s final graphs should be. What type of graph should he
use (bar graphs, scatter plot, pie chart)? Draw the axes of his graphs and label the axes.
7
Draw what you expect to see if the data supports Marshall’s hypothesis. (Use red.)
8
Draw what you could see if Marshall’s hypothesis is not supported by the data. (Use blue.)
9.
State another prediction that would follow from Marshall’s hypothesis.
43
S A M P L E D ATA A N A LY S I S : J I M ’ S C R I C K E T S A N D M A R S H A L L’ S C R O W S
Answers to M A R S H A L L’ S C R O W S
1
What group characteristics will Marshall need to note
about each of the mobs that he plans to observe?
He will need to note the size of each mob.
2
What data will Marshall have to collect on individual
crows in each mob? What type of sampling will he need
to do?
Marshall wants to know how much time crows in
different size mobs spend feeding and looking for
predators. He should do focal sampling on different
individuals and quantify what percentage of their time is
spent feeding versus looking around.
3
What will Marshall have to do to pool the behavioral
data he collects for each different mob of crows?
How many crows in each mob should he observe?
He needs to take an average or mean of the percent
of time spent feeding and looking around. He should
observe as many crows as possible per mob and at
least 10 mobs of each size.
7
Draw what you expect to see if the data supports
Marshall’s hypothesis. (Use red.)
Indicated by solid lines
average time spent looking
3.2
large mob
Make a data sheet that Marshall can use to collect
his data on each of his mobs.
Mob number _________
Crow #1 (5 min.) List all behaviors and time spent at each.
Crow #2 (5 min.) List all behaviors and time spent at each.
5
Did Marshall use anthropomorphism?
Yes: tasty morsel, tippy toes
6
Even before he has the data, we know what the axes
of Marshall’s final graphs should be. What type of graph
should he use (bar graph, scatter plot, pie chart)? Draw
the axes of his graphs and label the axes.
He should use bar graphs. (See graph axes after no. 8.)
large mob
9
44
Draw what you could see if Marshall’s hypothesis is
not supported by the data. (Use blue.)
Indicated by dashed lines
average time spent lfeeding
4
8
small mob
small mob
State another prediction that would follow from
Marshall’s hypothesis.
Predator avoidance behavior vs. feeding is at
approximately the same ratio, no matter how large
the mob is.
3.3
HOW DO WE CHOOSE A SCIENTIFIC QUESTION
T O I N V E S T I G AT E ? PA R T I
Lesson Overview
Group Size
Students evaluate sample questions about behaviors.
They must determine if the questions are scientifically
answerable and what methods would be required for
testing hypotheses that follow from these questions.
Reviews how to write a testable research question, as
well as the scientific method.
Whole class
Materials
— Dry erase or chalk board (or overhead projector)
— Homework: Scientific or Not worksheet; Testable
or Not worksheet
Student Objectives
1 Students will be able to distinguish a scientific
question from a hypothesis.
2 Students will be able to accurately identify scientific
research questions.
3 Students will be able to describe appropriate tests of
hypotheses.
Key Terms
scientific question – a question that can be answered
by observing and analyzing data
prediction – An estimate of what will happen in an
experiment.
quantifiable – able to be measured or counted
variables – range of situations or circumstances that
could affect the outcome of an experiment such as
temperature, sunlight, time, noise from the hall).
Procedure
1
One of the most difficult steps for students doing
independent research projects is the choice of a
research topic and framing of a research question.
The topics and questions most interesting to the
student might be either inappropriate for scientific
investigation or impossible to investigate given their
time, experience and resources.The following worksheets are designed to help students distinguish
scientific questions from unscientific questions and
testable hypotheses from untestable hypotheses
(either inherently untestable or untestable given the
students’ experience and resources).
Before they begin on the worksheets, a class
discussion of successful scientific investigations
should get them thinking along productive lines.
Timeline
2 class periods
45
3.3
a
H O W D O W E C H O O S E A S C I E N T I F I C Q U E S T I O N T O I N V E S T I G AT E ? PA R T I
You can ask your class the open ended question: What
are necessary and/or desirable features of a scientific
question that we want to investigate?
iii Nathan wants to know if koalas prefer any particular
part of the eucalyptus leaf.
Nathan can observe the koalas eating and see if
they eat certain parts first, or if they discard certain
parts of the leaves.
Scientific questions are typically:
Interesting to the Researcher
If you don’t care about the answer, your data is apt to
be less detailed.
iv Azaria wants to know if koalas can digest other green
foods like lettuce, cabbage, cucumber, spinach.
Perhaps this could be tested by examining the stool
of koalas who ate these foods and determining
how far these different foods were digested.
However, the koalas are unlikely to even taste foods
and the zoo certainly wouldn’t allow Azaria to
tamper with their diets.
Simple and Straightforward
Too many variables makes the test harder to control
and the results harder to analyze.
Answerable and Practical
You need to have access to the necessary tools and
have time to complete the experiment.
Quantifiable
Results that are measured and/or counted are helpful
to other researchers. Questions about feelings,
motivations or purposes are harder to measure.
b
Alternatively, you can organize the class discussion
around comparison of the following questions, and
discuss whether they would be good choices for an
independent research project. Try to determine if a
middle school student could reach the question at our
zoo, and what each student would have to do next:
i Randy wants to know if koala bears enjoy eating
only eucalyptus leaves.
Since we can’t interview the koalas, it is difficult to
determine whether they enjoy something.
ii Aubri wants to know if eucalyptus leaves provide
enough nutrition for the koalas.
Aubri might be able to answer this with library
research, but we cannot test the nutritional needs
of a species by behavioral observations in a zoo.
46
v Christopher wants to know why koalas only eat
eucalyptus leaves.
Like Aubri, he might be able to find the answer to
this question in the library, but not by taking his
own data at the zoo.
2
Ask students to work through the Scientific Question?
worksheet in groups of 2-3.
3
Discuss their small group answers in the full class.
4
Ask students to work through the Testable Hypothesis
worksheet in groups of 2-3.
5
Discuss the small group answers in the full class.
ACTIVITY
3.3
name
SCIENTIFIC QUESTION?
FOR EACH OF THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS:
• Indicate whether or not the question is a scientific question, and why.
• If the question is not scientific, revise it.
1
Are otters in danger?
2
Do naked mole rats like to eat carrots?
3
Why do meerkats stand up?
4
Are chimps closely related to humans?
5
Do male and female hornbills have different physical characteristics?
6
Is there any relationship between colors and behaviors of lizards?
7
Are storks social?
8
Why do honeybees like flowers?
9
Are sea lions lions?
10
If a boa constrictor and a tarantula fought, who would win?
11
Where do flamingos spend their time in the flight cage?
12
Do the rainbow lorikeets interact with other kinds of lorikeets in the aviary?
13
Why are cheetahs in trouble?
47
3.3
H O W D O W E C H O O S E A S C I E N T I F I C Q U E S T I O N T O I N V E S T I G AT E ? PA R T I
Answers to S C I E N T I F I C Q U E S T I O N ?
1
Are otters in danger?
Not scientific. Are otters endangered?
2
Do naked mole-rats like to eat carrots?
Not scientific. Do naked mole-rats eat carrots in
preference to other foods?
3
48
8
Why do honeybees like flowers?
Not scientific. Why do honeybees visit flowers?
Why do honeybees prefer to visit some flowers
over other lowers? Like is an
anthropomorphic term.
9
Are sea lions lions?
Not scientific. How are sea lions related to lions?
10
If a boa constrictor and a tarantula fought, who
would win?
Why do meerkats stand up?
Scientific.
Not scientific. How do tarantulas and boa
constrictors defend themselves and capture
their prey? These species don’t fight each other
because they don’t compete for the same food.
4
Are chimps closely related to humans?
Scientific.
5
Do male and female hornbills have different
physical characteristics?
Scientific.
11
Where do flamingos spend their time in the
flight cage at the zoo?
Scientific.
6
Is there any relationship between colors and
behaviors of lizards?
Scientific.
12
Do the rainbow lorikeets interact with other
kinds of lorikeets in the aviary?
Scientific.
7
Are storks social?
Scientific.
13
Why are cheetahs in trouble?
Not scientific. Why are cheetahs endangered?
ACTIVITY
3.3
name
TESTABLE HYPOTHESIS?
FOR EACH OF THE FOLLOWING HYPOTHESES:
• Indicate whether or not the hypothesis is testable using quantitative data that you
could collect by observing animals at the zoo.
• If the question is not testable, revise it.
• What data would you collect to test the hypothesis?sis?
1
Otters enjoy swimming.
2
Naked mole-rats like to eat carrots.
3
Meerkats stand up in order to look out for predators.
4
Chimps are closely related to humans.
5
Male and female hornbills act the same.
6
Green lizards live in the crowns of trees and brown lizards live
on the trunks of trees.
7
Storks are social animals.
8
Honeybees visit flowers that are likely to have the most nectar.
9
Sea lions are a kind of lion.
10
A boa constrictor could beat a tarantula in a fight.
11
Flamingos spend most of their time in the northeast corner of
the flight cage at the zoo.
12
Rainbow lorikeets don’t like to interact with other kinds of lorikeets in
the aviary.
13
Cheetahs are hunted for their furs because people think they
are the most beautiful wild cat.
49
3.3
H O W D O W E C H O O S E A S C I E N T I F I C Q U E S T I O N T O I N V E S T I G AT E ? PA R T I
Answers to T E S T A B L E H Y P O T H E S I S ?
Storks are social animals.
Testable. Develop ethogram and determine
whether they perform social behaviors such as
alarm calling and allogrooming. Scan sample
and determine whether animals are clumped,
randomly distributed or evenly distributed.
1
Otters enjoy swimming.
Not testable; we cannot know what they like.
Alternative: Otters spend most of their time
swimming. Generate a time budget for otters.
2
Naked mole rats like to eat carrots.
Not testable; we cannot know what they like.
Alternative: Naked mole-rats will eat carrots in
preference to other foods. Compare time spent
eating different foods, or numbers of animals
eating different foods.
8
Honeybees visit flowers that are likely to have the
most nectar.
Testable, but not at the zoo. Honeybees rest in
the nest after bringing home a crop full of
nectar. Focal sampling of bees that have just
returned to the hive will answer the question.
3
Meerkats stand up in order to look out for
predators.
Testable. Plot the number of meerkats standing
and the number of people in front of their
exhibit. Compare the number of meerkats
standing when the foxes or sand cat are active
versus when those predators are sleeping.
9
Sea lions are a kind of lion.
Not testable with observations at the zoo. Sea lions
and lions spend the same proportion of their time
resting and moving around their enclosures.
10
A boa constrictor could beat a tarantula in a fight.
Not testable with observations at the zoo. Most
predators will “stalk” their prey, even if they are not
fed live food. Focal sampling of various predatory
species during feeding time will answer the question.
11
Flamingos spend most of their time in the
northeast corner of the flight cage at the zoo.
Testable by scan sampling.
12
Rainbow lorikeets don’t like to interact with other
kinds of lorikeets in the aviary.
Not testable, because we cannot determine
what they like or dislike. Rainbow lorikeets
avoid interaction with other kinds of lorikeets
in the aviary. Scan sampling and comparison
of interspecific pairs versus intraspecific pairs
interacting in the aviary will answer the question.
13
Cheetahs are hunted for their furs because people
think they are the most beautiful wild cat.
Partly testable. Interview zoo visitors about which
is the most beautiful wild cat.
4
50
7
Chimps are closely related to humans.
Testable, but not with observations at the zoo.
Chimps and humans spend similar proportions
of their time feeding, resting and moving.
Generate time budgets or the two species at
the zoo using focal sampling.
5
Male and female hornbills are the same.
Not testable because the question is so vague.
Male and female hornbills spend the same
proportion of their time feeding young. Focal
sampling and time budgets for the males and
females would allow you to test this hypothesis.
6
Green lizards live in the crowns of trees and
brown lizards live on the trunks of trees.
Testable. Scan sample and tally proportion of
time spend on different surfaces.
SECTION
4
ANIMAL BEHAVIOR
RESEARCH PROJECTS
SECTION OVERVIEW
This section contains activities centered
around conducting an independent research
project at a zoological park. Students will
write up a proposal for their zoo research
project, which will lay out the question,
hypothesis, prediction and sampling method
before the research begins. The final project
will include a report or presentation of their
results and analysis after completion.
51
4.1
INTRODUCTION:
C O N S I D E R AT I O N S F O R F I E L D C L A S S E S AT T H E Z O O
Animals on Exhibit
Because zoos exhibit live animals, please understand
that sometimes there are circumstances beyond
zookeepers’ control, and that animals may not
always be on exhibit. As such, please have your
students plan for alternatives. The zoo information line
can often give you a heads-up on what is happening
with different species around the zoo.
3
Consider how the students will move around the zoo.
How will you group them? Will you move as one big
group? Will small groups go to designated areas and
meet at a central location at a specified time? Do you
need additional adult supervision?
4
Provide students with a written outline of the day’s
activities, including times and meeting locations.
This could be a small strip that they glue into their
science journal.
Student Considerations
5
In order to make the best of your students’ visit, there
are several things to keep in mind.
1
You will be much better able to direct students if
you are familiar with the areas your students are
visiting. You may want to visit the zoo ahead of time.
Know where to direct students needing to find the
nearest restroom. Are there students in wheelchairs or
using crutches? What is the most accessible route to
get to the exhibit?
2
When observing animals, students often want to
facilitate the animal’s behavior. By the time they are
visiting the zoo, they should understand they are trying
to observe the most natural behaviors. Also, if other
visitors are doing things to try and get the animals
to respond, they should note this occurrence in
comments on their data collection pages. They may
want to not include data collected during this time.
52
Discuss proper behavior prior to arriving at the zoo.
Remind students that the zoo is a museum, and the
behavior they exhibit should be appropriate for any
type of museum. They are not the only visitors, and
should be respectful of others. Encourage them to pay
particularly close attention to small children. Middle
school students occasionally run over others, as they
can be self-absorbed.
4.1
I N T R O D U C T I O N : C O N S I D E R AT I O N S F O R F I E L D C L A S S E S AT T H E Z 0 0
VISITING THE SAINT LOUIS ZOO
The Saint Louis Zoo is free and open to the public. Your
group does not need to register for a zoo visit unless you are
interested in classroom programs or tours (for which
preregistration is necessary). To visit the zoo for the activities
in this section, simply come to the zoo — there is no need to
call ahead. Contact the education department at
(314) 768-5466 with questions about the zoo visit, or to
learn more about programs, tours or curriculum resources
available through the teacher resource center. You can also
call ahead and have a member of the education department
meet your class and give them an introduction to the zoo.
Your students can also send questions to education
department staff by clicking on the WRITE US button on the
zoo web page, www.stlzoo.org..
Hours
The Saint Louis Zoo is open daily, year-round, except
for Christmas Day and New Year’s Day. The zoo
grounds open at 8 a.m., buildings open at 9 a.m. The
zoo closes promptly at 5 p.m. in the winter and 7 p.m.
in the summer (Memorial Day to Labor Day). Zoo
entry is always free. The Children’s Zoo, Insectarium
and Butterfly house are free between 9 and 10 a.m.
Fridays are VERY busy at the Zoo — you may want to
avoid visiting on Fridays.
Bus Traffic
Please ask bus drivers to heed the following
guidelines to help assure both a safe and convenient
arrival and departure. Buses may not unload or load
across the street from either of our two entrances.
This practice is unsafe for students and creates traffic
congestion. Further, by entering the park in the
correct orientation, buses will not have to turn around,
thus preventing traffic tie-ups and delays in the start
of your visit.
1
If you plan to have students dropped off at The Living
World, direct the bus driver to enter Forest Park from
Skinker Blvd. at Wells Drive. Turn left on Government
Drive and approach The Living World traveling
eastbound. Unload students in front of The Living World.
2
If you plan to have students dropped off at our South
Gate Entrance, direct the bus driver to enter Forest Park
from northbound Hampton Ave., turning west (left) at
Wells Drive. Unload students in front of the South Gate
at the tall ZOO pylon.
3
To assist both you and any zoo staff directing traffic
to identify your bus, be sure your school name is
clearly marked in the front passenger-side window.
Please note that the heaviest school visitation occurs
in April and May. Consequently, you will need extra
time to allow for heavy bus traffic. Please plan your
schedule accordingly.
Parking
Limited parking is available on the streets surrounding
the zoo. Parking is available on either of our two lots. We
charge $7 per car to park on our lots. Bus parking is $14,
and is available on the South Lot only. Parking fees are
subject to change.
Food Service
In order to make the most of your zoo visit, you may
want to eat lunch at the zoo. There are a variety of
opportunities, including having students bring their
own lunch, pre-ordering meals through the zoo, or
ordering that day from our food concessions.
53
4.1
1
2
3
I N T R O D U C T I O N : C O N S I D E R AT I O N S F O R F I E L D C L A S S E S AT T H E Z 0 0
You are welcome to bring your own sack lunches.
Please note, however, the zoo is unable to store lunches
for you. Be prepared to carry your lunches or store them
in your bus or vehicle(s). Perhaps you could have your
students carry backpacks with their own lunches. You
are welcome to eat your sack lunches at any of our
outdoor tables, except those on the terrace outside the
Painted Giraffe Cafe.
Zoo concessions offer a variety of fare including
burgers, hot dogs, pizza, salads and more. The
Painted Giraffe Cafe is located in The Living World,
and Lakeside Cafe is located in the Central Plaza.
Bring your hungry herd and let us satisfy your appetites
with sack lunches. Discounts are available for groups of
15 or more. To order, call our group sales office at (314)
781-0900, ext. 345, for menu and prices. Payment
arrangements are to be made at the time of reservation.
We accept cash, checks, American Express, Discover,
MasterCard and Visa.
Staff Assistance
It is not necessary to speak to any staff before coming
to the Zoo. However, a quick chat with a staff member
may be beneficial to your students, depending on the
purpose of the visit. If students have questions about
a specific house or species, or if a quick overview of a
topic would enrich the purpose of your visit, feel free
to call the education department at (314) 768-5466.
Additionally, there is an information help line that
students or teachers can call to find answers to
questions during their initial research. It is helpful if
the students are very clear on what they need to know
and have practiced asking their questions BEFORE
calling the hotline. The number is (314) 768-5498,
ext. 498. Students can also write letters to the
Education Department, or e-mail the Zoo on the
website www.stlzoo.org under “Write Us.”
Materials Checklist:
— Stopwatches
— Notebooks
— Maps
— Data sheets
— Video cameras/digital cameras
— Clipboards (students often need a firm
writing surface)
— Pencils (pens don’t write well in the air)
— Lunch or money if necessary
— Agenda with time for meeting back up
54
4.2
CHOOSING A STUDY SPECIES FOR RESEARCH
O N A N I M A L B E H AV I O R AT T H E Z O O
Lesson Overview
Zoo visit options for Section 4
Teachers may choose to make one, two or three visits.
In this lesson, students will choose a zoo animal for
their research project by viewing videos of 11 different
animals. This lesson begins the research project
process, and can include one, two or three zoo visits
(see chart).
4.2
Choosing a study
species for research
on animal behavior
at the zoo
OPTIONAL ZOO VISIT
(first visit of two or three)
4.3 Organism exploration
at the zoo
Student Objectives
After observing the behavior of various species,
students will be able to choose a study species for
behavioral research at the zoo.
4.4
Ethogram
Development of the
Zoo Study Subject
Timeline
OPTIONAL ZOO VISIT
(second visit of three)
4.5 Field Study Research:
Ethogram
Supplementation
1 class period and one week outside of class
Group Size
4.6
Library Exploration
Note: Students may make
this visit on their own time.
Whole class and individual work
Materials
— TV with DVD player, or computer with CD-ROM or
DVD and overhead projector
— “Behaving in Public,” CD-ROM or DVD video,
included with curriculum
4.7
How do we choose
a Scientific Question?
4.8
Research Proposal
ZOO VISIT
(only or last visit)
4.9 Field Study
Research: Collecting
Behavioral Data
55
4.2
C H O O S I N G A S T U D Y S P E C I E S F O R R E S E A R C H O N A N I M A L B E H AV I O R AT T H E Z 0 0
Procedure
1
The whole class will view a sampler video of 11 zoo
species, “Behaving in Public.”
2
Students will be given time to read a bit more about the
species that attract their attention in the magazine that
comes with this unit. If you plan two trips to the
zoo, students can use the first trip to visit each of the
11 species before choosing their study species.
SPECIES ON VIDEO
“BEHAVING IN PUBLIC”
Lion-tailed Macaque
Ring-tailed Lemur
Butterflies
Goral
River Otter
Naked Mole-rat
3
Have students answer the following questions about
all, or a subset, of the species they view.
What interests me about this animal?
Malayan sun bear
Flamingo
Chimpanzee
What questions do I have about this animal?
Would I like to spend time observing this animal?
Why or why not?
Is this animal my choice for a research subject?
4
56
Students must each choose one of these species for
generation of an ethogram and research project. You
may want to limit the number of students that can work
on the same species (even though they will work
independently) by having a sign up sheet. It is helpful to
have small groups (not singles) for each species.
4.3
O R G A N I S M E X P L O R AT I O N AT T H E Z O O
(OPTIONAL FIRST VISIT OF TWO OR THREE)
Lesson Overview
Students go to the zoo to observe potential species for a
behavioral study. For classes that can visit the zoo twice
(this is preferable), this visit is for preliminary exploration
and practice data gathering. If students can visit the zoo
twice or more, they can choose a species not on CD or
in the Animal Whys magazine.
3
Direct students to exhibits they should visit. Indicate
that they will observe each species to determine their
level of interest in that species. They need to complete a
preliminary observation sheet for each species that they
visit. Discuss how to use the data sheet if necessary.
4
In addition to recording the behaviors they observe,
have them ask themselves the following questions:
What interests me about this animal?
Student Objectives
What questions do I have about this animal?
While observing the behavior of various species at the
zoo, students will be able to describe behaviors and
place the descriptions within appropriate categories.
Would I like to spend time observing this animal?
Why or why not?
Key Terms
Is this animal my choice for a research subject?
exhibit – enclosure in which an animal lives in the zoo
5
Timeline
Have students turn in their choices and reasons for
choosing their species. This can be done at the end of
the class or for homework.
3-4 hours
Materials
— Map of zoo
— Observation sheets
Teacher Tips
•
Remind students to consider the time of day they did
their observations.
•
Students will need a Preliminary Behavioral Observation
sheet for EACH species they will observe.
Procedure
1
Make sure all permission slips are signed.
2
Depending on the age, size and maturity of your group,
you can have your class visit each of the animals as a
whole class, or assign students to visit each of the
areas in smaller groups in a specific amount of time.
Students can also make a short list of 4 possible study
species to visit and subsequently choose from.
57
ACTIVITY
4.3
name
PRELIMINARY BEHAVIORAL OBSERVATIONS
Species: _______________________________
Time: _____________
Date: __________
Weather: _____________
Number of Animals in Exhibit:__________
BEHAVIORS OBSERVED IN EACH CATEGORY
feeding
eliminating waste
care giving
parental behaviors
care solicitation
grooming
nesting
exploratory behaviors
locomotion
agonistic behaviors
sexual behaviors
communication
social behaviors
seasonal behaviors
58
ACTIVITY
4.3
name
PRELIMINARY BEHAVIORAL OBSERVATIONS
General observations or questions about these animals (use Animal Whys natural histories if necessary):
Drawing of animal observed:
59
4.4
ETHOGRAM DEVELOPMENT
OF THE ZOO STUDY SUBJECT
Lesson Overview
Students will generate an ethogram of their chosen
study species by viewing a moderate length film of the
species in the zoo. This will prepare them to develop
a research question and hypothesis that they can test
during a zoo visit.
Procedure
1
Students will view the 20 minute video of their chosen
species, and create an ethogram of the species.
Students can view these 20 minute segments as
many times as they wish. Since these videos are
edited from many hours of observation, time budgets
cannot be obtained from them. The natural histories
in Animal Whys contain background information on
most of the animals in the videos.
2
Students will hand in the ethogram of their chosen
zoo species. This ethogram should contain a list of
behaviors observed, and a careful description of the
behaviors. Drawings can be added for clarification.
Behaviors should be organized into functional
categories such as: feeding, locomotion, social,
parental, etc. Students who take additional
observations of their chosen species at the zoo can
add information about the frequency of different
behaviors and can supplement their ethogram with
pictures of their chosen species. Refer students to
the dog ethogram in Animal Whys for a model.
Student Objectives
While viewing a 20 minute video of their chosen study
species, students will be able to construct ethograms
of that species.
Timeline
One week outside of class
Materials
— Computers with CD-ROM and Quicktime
— CD Sampler set with:
• Butterflies
• Chimpanzees
• Chinese gorals
• Goats
• Lion-tailed macaques
• Malayan sun bears
• Naked mole-rats
• Paper kites
• Pink flamingos
• Ring-tailed Lemurs
• River otters
• The Wild Ones: Olive baboons and
Vervet monkeys
60
Teacher Tips
•
Remind students that the sampler videos will give them
a broad spectrum of behaviors — but are not shot in real
time. They do not represent a valid behavior sample.
They will work for practicing data collection, and to give
them an idea of all possible behaviors of the animal.
•
Students can support one another in data collection.
One can watch the time, one record, one call out
behaviors, etc.
4.5
FIELD STUDY RESEARCH: ETHOGRAM SUPPLEMENTATION
(OPTIONAL SECOND VISIT OF THREE)
Lesson Overview
Students go to the zoo to observe their chosen study
species and supplement their ethogram on the species.
Students may do the visit on their own, after school or
on weekends. This visit is for continued exploration,
practice data gathering, and familiarization with the
study species at the zoo.
Procedure
1
Make sure all permission slips are signed.
2
Direct students to the location of their study species.
Indicate that they will observe their species to add new
behaviors to their ethogram and to develop a time
budget for their species. The sample student project in
the Appendix can be shared with students, if you wish.
Student Objectives
While observing their study species at the zoo, students
will be able to:
1 add newly-observed behaviors to an alreadyconstructed ethogram.
2 conduct scan or focal sampling to develop a time
budget for their study species.
Key Terms
exhibit – enclosure in which an animal lives in the zoo
cage decorations – suggestions of the animal’s natural
habitat found in the exhibit.
Timeline
3-4 hours
Materials
— Map of zoo
— Watches for each student
— Notebooks for recording observations
61
ACTIVITY
4.5
name
PARENT VOLUNTEERS
Parent Volunteers,
Thanks so much for helping make this science project a success. The students have been hard at work training in various data
gathering techniques. For the zoo portion of the field trip, students will be assigned a particular area and a specific animal
species with which to work. We would like to have parent volunteers at each area to monitor students.
6TH GRADE ZOO FIELD CLASS
Volunteers — find your kids and head to the area to begin observations.
Animal/Area
Puffin
Penguin
Lion Tailed macaque
Lemurs
Baboon
Prairie Dogs
Naked Mole Rats
Otter
Group 1: 9 a.m. – 10:45 a.m.
Volunteers
Group 2: 9 a.m. – 10:45 a.m.
Volunteers
10:45 a.m. Leave areas and meet back at entrance
Walk as a group to _______________________________ to have lunch. Lunch 11 a.m. to 12 p.m.
12:00 Leave picnic area: Volunteers — find your kids and head to the area to begin observations.
Animal/Area
Puffin
Penguin
Lion Tailed macaque
Lemurs
Baboon
Prairie Dogs
Naked Mole Rats
Otter
Group 1: 12:15 p.m. – 1:45 p.m.
Volunteers
1:45 p.m. Leave areas and meet at entrance
2:00 p.m. Busses leave Zoo
2:15 – 2:30 p.m. Arrival at school
62
Group 2: 12:15 p.m. – 1:45 p.m
Volunteers
ACTIVITY
4.5
PARENT VOLUNTEERS
Behavior Expectations
•
Respectful communication to all: peers, parents, volunteers,
zoo staff, and teachers
•
Positive participation in all activities
•
Demonstrate responsible and respectful behavior towards all
school, zoo, and personal property
The Animal Behavior Observation Project goal is to give students
the opportunity to work in cooperative groups. They will gather
data on their assigned animals through the use of various sampling
techniques which they have practiced in class.
Here is a quick list of information for you to help make the field
experiences the best they can be!
Project Expectations
All students will participate positively in
their lab groups.
Group Roles
Group Supplies
Each group will have:
2 clipboards
notebook paper
lab sheets
pencils
stopwatches
•
Leader _____________________________________________
•
Materials Manger ____________________________________
•
Timekeeper _________________________________________
•
Chief Support _______________________________________
63
4.6
L I B R A RY E X P L O R AT I O N
Lesson Overview
After completion of the ethogram, students will be
instructed to further explore their chosen species in the
library and on the web. This exercise will further
familiarize them with their study species and may lead
them to interesting research questions.
Student Objectives
After conducting library research on their study
species, students will be able to provide the
species’: scientific name, physical description,
reproductive/lifespan facts, species-specific behaviors,
habitat/range, food sources, interactions with other
species/environment, endangered status.
habitat – the type of vegetation, geology and climate in
which a species is found in nature.
range – the largest area over which an organism
travels within its habitat
interactions – how an organism reacts to and affects
other organisms. (plants and animals)
conservation status – if an organism is threatened,
endangered, protected, or abundant. Based on
population numbers and resource/habitat availability.
library research – this is information (data) gained
about the topic from books (print), videos, websites,
interviews, etc.
field research – this is data gained from conducting
experimental trials (ethograms) or through observation
of actual conditions (first hand).
Timeline
Key Terms
2-3 class periods
scientific name – the Latin name assigned to each
kind of organism, made up of the genus name and
species name.
life span – the average life length for an organism of a
particular species
species – the most specific group an organism is
categorized in; the last part of the scientific name; a
group of organisms which share an evolutionary
lineage and which can successfully interbreed (if it is
a sexual species).
64
Materials
— Computer with Internet access
— Library access
4.6
L I B R A RY E X P L O R AT I O N
Procedure
1
2
Explain to students that they need to have some more
background information to better understand their
animal and to help them develop a scientific question.
To do this, they will do some library exploration.
Discuss the difference between research and library
exploration (often called library research).
3
Give the students 1-3 days to conduct their library
exploration. Schedule time in a library and/or computer
lab. Refer to the appendix for specific websites and
resources.
4
This is a good opportunity to discuss note taking
techniques. Share several methods with students.
5
Encourage students to create a questions page in their
journal. As questions arise regarding their animal, have
them record them all in one place. Some of them will
be answered from their library exploration. Others may
serve as potential experiment questions later. See
student example in Appendix for a sample library
research write up.
Go over what information they will need to find on their
animal. Answer (or ask) questions about the specific
categories. For example:
What is a habitat? What does it have to do with
behavior?
What are species-specific behaviors?
What is a scientific name?
Teacher Tips
What does life span have to do with behavior?
•
What is an organism’s physical description, and how
does that influence its behavior?
Provide an outlined form to organize research for
students with special needs.
What is a range?
What food sources does an organism need?
What is an animal’s endangered status? How is that
determined?
How do we find out about interactions of an animal?
65
4.7
HOW DO WE CHOOSE A SCIENTIFIC QUESTION
T O I N V E S T I G AT E ? PA R T I I
Lesson Overview
Students will apply the tools of developing scientific
questions, hypotheses and tests to their own study
species at the zoo.
Procedure
1
Student Objectives
Review the steps of one scientific method. In this
method, hypotheses are tested by using controlled
experiments. These steps include:
Observe/Research
Question
Hypothesis
Experiment/Data Collection
Data Interpretation/Analysis
Review Hypothesis
Report Findings
After completing this activity, students will be able to:
1 generate scientific questions and hypotheses.
2 describe appropriate tests of their hypotheses.
Timeline
2
Discuss the elements of testable scientific questions
that they examined in section 3.3.
3
Ask students to reflect on their ethogram and work
through the experimental development worksheet as
homework.
4
The following day, students can compare their initial
research plans in small groups of 3-4 and correct
their work based on feedback from classmates before
handing in the work.
Two classes
Materials
— Experimental Development worksheet
66
ACTIVITY
4.7
name
EXPERIMENTAL DEVELOPMENT
1
List three scientific questions about the species for which you developed an ethogram at home.
2
Clearly state a hypothesis that follows from one of these questions.
2
Explain how you would test whether this hypothesis is supported. What comparisons would you make
or what trends would you look for?
4
Describe the methodology you would use.
5
Describe the sampling technique you would use.
6
What results would support your hypothesis?
7
What results would not support your hypothesis?
8
What results might be inconclusive?
67
4.8
RESEARCH PROPOSAL
Lesson Overview
Too often student research projects fail because of
lack of preparation and feedback before the data
collection begins. In this lesson, students will develop
or refine a scientific question about their animal.
Students will generate a hypothesis to answer the
question and choose a sampling method to help them
test the hypothesis. Then they will write a research
proposal that outlines the scientific framework for their
research project.
Student Objectives
At the end of this activity, students will be able to:
1 ask a scientific question about their selected species.
2 write a testable hypothesis related to their question.
3 choose a sampling method appropriate to their
testing.
Key Terms
hypothesis – a testable statement, with a cause and an
effect. Often stated in If…Then form
variables – changeable factors that might affect the
outcome of an experiment and/or impact an animal’s
behavior
materials – a list of supplies needed in order to complete
an experiment
procedures – a step-by-step list of what will occur during
an experiment; very specific
data – information gathered during an experiment,
could be qualitative or quantitative
qualitative – data that is sensory in nature,
descriptive, whether the animal was red or white,
whether the call was loud or soft; data not based on
numerical measurements
quantitative – data that is numerical in nature,
numbers of occurrences, time a behavior lasts,
number of animals performing the behavior; data is
based on numerical measurements
Timeline
3 hours in class, 1 week outside of class
Materials
— Pre-Proposal Assignment sheet
— Research Proposal writing assignment
Group Size
Group and individual work
68
4.8
RESEARCH PROPOSAL
Procedure
Teacher Tips
1
Ask students to use the Pre-Proposal Assignment to
organize their thinking about their study species.
•
2
Have small groups review each others’ sheets. Which
research questions have they answered? Which ones
are not testable? Of the remaining ones, which ones
would make interesting research questions?
3
The teacher needs to circulate and discuss questions
as they are selected.
4
Once they have selected a question, ask the students
what their next steps are. Guide them to see that to
answer this, they will perform an experiment, and that
a sampling method is merely a way to collect data.
Often students don’t think animal behavior studies are
“real” experiments.
5
Allow time for groups to develop their experiments and
data sheets for their samplings. The teacher needs to
move around and answer questions, provide feedback
and monitor on-task behavior. If students are unclear
about which sampling method to use, tell them they
may need more than one.
6
Let students know when they will conduct their field
research.
7
Students will be assigned to write-up a formal research
proposal for testing a hypothesis during their zoo visit.
You may want to have students turn this in far in
advance of their research trip to the zoo so that you
have time to give more feedback and they have time to
revise their project.
You may want to fill out a Proposal sheet as a class so
students understand how to go about it. Then you can
let them work independently after they have seen it
modeled.
69
ACTIVITY
4.8
name
PRE-PROPOSAL ASSIGNMENT SHEET
1
List three scientific questions about the zoo species for which you developed an
ethogram from the video, CD or DVD.
2
Choose one of these questions, and explain why it is an interesting scientific question.
3
Clearly state a hypothesis that follows from this question.
4
Explain how you would test whether this hypothesis is supported. What comparisons
would you make or what trends (patterns) would you look for?
5
Explain how you would test whether this hypothesis is false. What comparisons would
you make or what trends would you look for?
6
Describe the sampling technique you will use. How many individuals will you observe?
a What results would support your hypothesis?
b What results would not support your hypothesis?
c What results might be inconclusive (unable to decide)?
70
ACTIVITY
4.8
name
RESEARCH PROPOSAL WRITING ASSIGNMENT
Write a one to two page proposal explaining the research you
plan to do at the zoo. Begin with some background
information about your study species. Next explain the
research question and why it is of interest. State the
hypothesis you propose to test that will help you answer this
question. Next, discuss how you will test your
hypothesis, what data will you collect, and how you
will decide whether the data supports or refutes your
hypothesis. Include a sample data sheet.
71
ACTIVITY
4.8
name
ALTERNATIVE PROPOSAL FORM
Animal Behavior Experiment Proposal
Group Roles
Species to observe: ___________________________________
• Leader_________________________________________
Sampling method proposed: ___________________________
• Materials_______________________________________
Question: ___________________________________________
• Timekeeper_____________________________________
___________________________________________________
• Chief Support ___________________________________
___________________________________________________
Hypothesis: ________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Procedure: Explain how you will setup and perform your experiment.
What is the independent variable in your experiment?
What is the dependent variable?
Design a data table to record your results.
What will you need to complete your experiment?
How long will your experiment take to complete?
72
4.9
FIELD STUDY RESEARCH:
C O L L E C T I N G B E H AV I O R A L D ATA
Lesson Overview
Students will visit the zoo to observe their selected
species and collect the data to attempt to answer their
research question.
2
Have students gather all of their materials: data sheets,
clipboards, map of zoo, clipboards, stop watches,
colored pencils for sketching physical characteristics.
3
Have all permission slips signed.
At the zoo:
Student Objectives
While observing their study species at the zoo, students
will be able to:
4
Direct students to observe their animals and
collect data.
1 collect behavioral data.
2 record information from zoo signage.
3 sketch physical characteristics and the habitat of
their selected species.
4 determine which variables might affect the behavior
of their selected species.
5
Remind them to do several trials during their visit.
6
Remind them that each student must collect data.
7
Encourage them to record information about their
species from any signs around the exhibit.
8
Have students sketch the physical characteristics
of their animal, as well as the habitat displayed in
the exhibit.
9
Afterwards, ask them if there are any variables that
could have affected their outcome. Have them record
those variables.
Timeline
3 - 4 hours
Materials
—
—
—
—
clipboards
stopwatches
data sheets
colored pencils
Procedure
1
Teacher Tips
Before the visit:
•
Organize your observational areas at the zoo — think
about proximity — then group students accordingly.
Students should have completed a research proposal
and it should have been approved by the teacher.
•
Help groups of students to assign jobs in their groups to
facilitate data collection (ie: timer, tallier, observer,
caller). Practice these jobs before going to the zoo.
73
4.10
A N A LY S I S O F R E S U LT S A N D
WRITE UP OF RESEARCH PROJECT
Lesson Overview
Alternative Project Ideas
Students will synthesize the skills and information they
learned in this unit by writing up a report of their zoo
research project.
•
•
•
Student Objectives
•
After completing this activity, students will be able to:
1 analyze data they collected.
2 evaluate whether the data support or refute their
hypotheses.
3 organize and present findings from a research
project they conducted.
Written research paper
Oral research presentation
Visual research presentation (poster – science fair
structure)
Technology research presentation (Hyperstudio,
Power Point)
Teacher Tips
•
Help kids see where they have been and where they
are going in this project. Help them tie their question
to their data.
•
Refer back to Jim’s Crickets for data analysis.
•
Discuss graph options and what each kind of graph is
used for.
•
Discuss what to do if your data doesn’t support your
question.
•
Discuss experiment reliability (Is it repeatable from
your write up?) and validity (Is it controlled?)
•
Provide a template for students that need more
scaffolding.
Timeline
One week outside of class
Procedure
Have students write a report of their zoo research using
the following assignment sheet.
74
ACTIVITY 4.10
name
ZOO RESEARCH PROJECT FINAL REPORT ASSIGNMENT
Your final research report should contain the following elements:
1
Cover page: Descriptive title including the
name of the study species, a picture of the
study species, your same.
2
Introduction: Background information on
your study species (e.g. where doesit live?,
what does it eat?, is it endangered?), What is
the zoo habitat it lives in? Why is it interesting
to you? What is your research question? What is
the hypothesis you tested?
3
Methods: Where did you observe your species,
how many individualsdid you observe, how
long did youobserve them? What sampling
method did you use? Number of observations
you made? How long were your observations?
What were the weather or other conditions that
could have affected your observations? (This
section builds reliability.)
4
Results: Present your results in a table or
graph. Explain in a paragraph or two what you
found that is relevant to testing your hypothesis
and answering your original question. Your
ethogram is not a result; it is a tool you used in
order to get to this point.
5
Discussion: Explain how your results are
relevant to your original question. Why are they
interesting? What can you now conclude? What
did you learn or observe that wasn’t related to
your question?
6
References: information that you included in
this report that you learned from books,
magazines, websites, etc., must be referenced.
If you do not cite where you learned the
information, you can be accused off plagiarism.
75
4.10 A N A LY S I S O F R E S U LT S A N D W R I T E U P O F R E S E A R C H P R O J E C T
RESEARCH PROJECT SCORING GUIDE
NAME: __________________________________________________________ Grade: ______________________
Date: ________________________ Organism: ______________________________________________________
Group: _______________________________________________________________________________________
PROJECT PART
BEGINNING
DEVELOPING
ACCOMPLISHED
EXEMPLARY
COVER
Incomplete
Name, date
Name, date, common
and scientific name
Picture, color detail
plus items in
accomplished
category
1
OBSERVATION
FROM ZOO
Not included
Included
but incomplete
Completely
filled out, includes
inference and
question
Completed in ink,
inference and
question are
thoughtful
2
LIBRARY
RESEARCH
Less than half
included, no
references
5-7 required parts
included, sparse
references,
incomplete
All 8 parts included;
paragraph format
used, references
included
All described in
detail; related but not
required information
included
3
DEVELOPED
ETHOGRAM
Included but
incomplete or
unrelated; no
definitions
Included but not
well connected or
constructed,
definitions incomplete
Ethogram fits
question asked,
question included,
definitions included
Well constructed,
thoughtful question,
observational data
described in detail
4
DATA COLLECTION
ANALYSIS AND
CONCLUSION
Included but not
connected to
question and/or
incomplete
Connected but not
well-documented to
question using data
from ethogram;
some variables not
controlled; methods
unclear
Connected to
question, paragraph
format used, data
supports conclusion;
variables mentioned
reliable and valid
experiment
Both written and
visual analysis
included; well
connected to
question and possible
variables; insightful
observations made
NEATNESS
All in pencil,
sloppy, unedited
In ink but sloppy,
smeary and/or
unorganized
Neatly done in ink,
parts in order listed,
mostly edited
Word processed or
neatly done in ink;
bound or organized,
well edited, visuals
included
ON TIME
1 week or more late
2 days late
1 day late
On time
Comments: _____________________________________________________________________________________
76
4.10 A N A LY S I S O F R E S U LT S A N D W R I T E U P O F R E S E A R C H P R O J E C T
SCORING GUIDE FOR EXPERIMENTS USING THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
A LT E R N AT I V E S C O R I N G G U I D E : G R O U P M E T H O D
Partially conclusive: answer
contains a reasonable amount
of prior knowledge
2 points meets
Inconclusive: answer indicates
lack of prior knowledge
1 point does not meet
Research
Conclusive: answer contains an
exceptional amount of prior
knowledge
3 points exceeds
Hypothesis
Correctly stated with both
variables identified
3 points exceeds/meets
Variables
All variables are identified and
explained well
3 points exceeds
All variables are stated correctly
2 points meets
One of the variables is missing
or incorrectly stated
1 point does not meet
Procedure
Easily followed containing all
procedural steps in their correct
order. Metric units are used
where necessary
3 points exceeds
Written, but some steps are
vague or unclear. Metric units
are used
2 points meets
Procedure missing two or more
critical steps; metric units
not used
1 point does not meet
Chart of Data
(raw data)
Neat, complete and correctly
labeled
3 points exceeds
Complete, but lacking a clearly
explanatory title and/or labeling
2 points meets
Incomplete, lacking any of the
following: a title, dependent or
independent variable, or
collected data
1 point does not meet
Graph of Results
Neat, complete and correctly
labeled
3 points exceeds
Complete, but lacking a clearly
explanatory title and/or labeling
2 points meets
Incomplete, lacking any of the
following: a title, dependent or
independent variable, or
collected data
1 point does not meet
Observations
Thoughtful, very descriptive using
a variety new vocabulary terms
3 points exceeds
Partially conclusive using some
new vocabulary terms
2 points meets
Inconclusive demonstrating
limited vocabulary terms
1 point does not meet
Conclusions, Inferences
Tells whether hypothesis was
proven correct or incorrect by
providing sufficient information
for all of the following –
conclusion (a statement of
the results), inferences
(assumptions that can be drawn
form the conclusion) and
recommendations for the design
of an experiment
3 points exceeds
Provides sufficient information
for any two of the following –
conclusion, inferences,
recommendations
2 points meets
Provides insufficient information
for two or all of the following –
conclusion, inferences,
recommendations
1 point does not meet
Teacher Observations
Student performed experiment
honestly, accurately, and
independently
3 points exceeds
Student performed experiment
honestly and accurately, but
needed teacher assistance
2 points meets
Student did not perform the
experiment honestly and/or
accurately
1 point does not meet
Overall Rating
Exceeds = 25 – 27 points
Meets = 18 – 24 points
Does not meet = Below 18 points
No hypothesis
1 point does not meet
77
4.11
R E F L E C T I O N / E VA L U AT I O N
Lesson Overview
Students have the opportunity to reflect over their
conclusions and what they have learned during this
project. This could also include students evaluating their
peers’ presentations.
Procedure
1
Have students share their projects with each other. This
could be for the whole class or in like-species groups.
2
Ask students to record questions, comments and
compliments about their peers’ projects.
3
Allow time for students to comment after each
presentation.
4
Hand out Student Self Reflection.
5
Ask the students to demonstrate what they have
learned by answering the questions as completely as
they can. Encourage them to use specific examples
from their research.
6
Have the students compare what they knew when
first started doing animal observations and what they
know now. Have their knowledge and understanding
increased?
Student Objectives
After completing this activity, students will be able to:
1 answer reflective questions on various aspects of
research they conducted.
2 compare and contrast their prior knowledge of animal
behavior research with their post-research knowledge.
Timeline
1 class period
78
ACTIVITY 4.11
name
STUDENT SELF-REFLECTION
1
What causes behavior?
2
How do scientists measure, test, or explain behavior?
3
How certain do you feel that the conclusion you reached regarding behavior of
your animal is accurate? Why?
4
Is your research project repeatable by any other scientists, just from using your
report? Why or why not?
5
What did you see in other projects that you would add to your own? Why?
79
4.12
F U R T H E R I N V E S T I G AT I O N S
Lesson Overview
•
How well can your students apply their ethogram skills
to other species? Show the monkey and/or baboon tape
from the first lesson again. This time, ask the students
to write a question, make a hypothesis and create an
appropriate ethogram for the animal. Then show it
again and let them collect their data. Have them write a
conclusion. This could serve as a final exam.
•
Use your new found knowledge to do a behavioral study
of an animal close to home. Study a classroom pet
(hamsters, fish, lizards), or one from your school yard
(birds, squirrels, rolypolys, worms, ants) or one from a
nearby park. You could even study other students in
your school. Try to solve a problem that currently exists
that is behavioral in nature. Use the same process.
•
Justify a behavior change in your school or community
(service project) by collecting human behavior data.
Examples: recycling issues, SUV usage, test out a
proverb or saying you’ve heard.
•
Share what you have learned with other experts. Invite
zoo personnel to your school, or go there, and share
your findings. If you do a study of your school, school
ground or local park, invite concerned parties to your
presentations. Use this scientific methodology to solve a
problem that affects all citizens.
Students or teachers may choose to continue with this
topic in a variety of extension activities.
Student Objectives
Students will continue to expand their knowledge
of behavioral studies by completing a deeper
investigation.
Timeline
Varies. Based on the project chosen.
Procedure
1
Either give the students choices to select from, ask
them to brainstorm topics of interest, or select one of
your choice to proceed with.
2
Suggested extensions include:
•
Just as the zoo provided you with a video on your
species, produce your own video/hyperstudio on your
species, or one of your choosing. Will yours be used to
practice ethogram techniques? Or will it be like a
National Geographic Explorer Report? If no technology
is available, create a written natural history of zoo
species like the ones in this unit. If each student
creates one, you might have the whole zoo covered!
•
80
Did your project raise more questions about your
animal’s behavior, or about a similar animal? If so, use
your scientific question to develop a science fair project.
Submit it to your school or community’s science fair!
Make your own extension! Be creative!
SECTION
5
APPENDICES
81
5.1
CARE TIPS FOR CLASSROOM ANIMALS
CRICKETS IN THE CLASSROOM
Field crickets are excellent subjects for studying behavior in
the classroom because they have a wide repertoire of social
behaviors. However, in order to see these behaviors we need
to observe the right crickets in the right environment.
Age
Many pet stores sell large and small crickets, but size
does not guarantee maturity. Juveniles will not engage
in territorial, courtship, or oviposition behaviors.
Juveniles, even large juveniles, do not have wings; they
merely have wing buds or pads. Adults have dark hard
forewings that the males use to produce their songs.
Comparisons between juveniles and adults would be
an interesting project if you have enough crickets of
both age categories.
Sex
Males and females behave very differently. Males are
territorial and will sing to attract females. Males are
distinct in having thick veins in their forewings, which
produce their song when wings are moved past each
other. Females are most easily distinguished by their
ovipositors. This long thin organ extends from the tip of
the abdomen and is lowered into the soil where eggs
are deposited after the female copulates.
82
Housing
Males will defend a burrow against other males. If you
house your crickets in an aquarium, give each male a
small burrow to defend. (A toilet paper tube cut in
half and then lengthwise, or a large tampon tube, will
work well.) Males will behave differently in class
depending on their experience before class. Males
who are housed together will behave very differently
than males who are isolated until class. Isolated males
will scramble to find and then defend the new burrows.
Females will lay eggs in moist (not soaking wet) sand or
loose soil. A petri dish can make a suitable oviposition
site. If a female is kept away from oviposition sites
before class, she is more likely to have eggs to lay
during class. She will probe the soil with the ovipositor
and deposit eggs if the humidity is appropriate. A
female isolated from males before class is also more
likely to respond to his courtship song during class.
Distractions
Crickets are more likely to sing at night (hence the
sound we associate with camping in the woods) but will
sing and behave during the daytime. Try to keep the
lights a bit dim and be very careful to avoid bumping the
table that the animal container is on. Crickets have their
acoustic organs (ears) on their forelegs and therefore
pick up vibrations from the surface they are standing on.
5.1
CARE TIPS FOR CLASSROOM ANIMALS
DO’S AND DONT’S
FOR MICE IN THE CLASSROOM
DO keep your mice clean. Your mouse cage should
be cleaned at least once a week. Be guided by your
nose. If you smell ammonia around the cage area, then
the time to change the bedding is past due. Put the
mice in a secure place, dump out the old bedding, wipe
out the bottom with a little soap and water, dry out
the cage, add fresh bedding, food, water and mice.
DO handle the mice yourself, DON’T delegate this
responsibility to members of the class. The mice will
respond by being much calmer when handled
regularly by the same person. Having you the teacher
handle and care for the mice is a requirement and
has the added benefit of reducing escapes and
nipped fingers.
DO keep your mice warm but not hot.
DON’T place in direct sunlight or in drafts from open
windows and air conditioners.
DO keep your mice dry. Sometimes water bottles leak
and flood the cage. Check your water bottle every day.
DO provide your mice with fresh drinking water. Water
bottles should be filled with fresh water twice weekly
and washed with a mild soap once a week.
83
5.1
CARE TIPS FOR CLASSROOM ANIMALS
DO make sure your mice have plenty of nutritious food.
The Rodent Lab Chow provided has everything
necessary to raise healthy litters of mice. Seeds and
other treats should be used sparingly for observations
of food preferences and foraging behaviors.
DON’T let the class decide what to feed the mice. Some
of their suggestions might be very good such as treats
of seeds, fresh vegetables and fruits, but others might
be harmful to the mice in the long run. Some foods
might be preferred by the mice but be nutritionally
incomplete.
DON’T trust the mice to eat what is best for them.
DO use the filter material provided for the top of the
cage. This material, when attached to the cage, acts as
a two way barrier by keeping unwanted objects out of
the cage and keeping dust and animal dander’s out of
your classroom.
DO use your mice as a resource and observational tool
for classroom discussion. Your class can learn a lot
about animal behavior by keeping a daily log of the
activities and behaviors shown by individual mice.
DO use the collected information from your class to
prepare an ethogram of mouse behavior.
DO limit the number of children observing the mice at
one time. Small groups of 3-4 work well.
DON’T allow children to tap on the cage to make the
mice active. Varying the time of day for observations
should expose the class to a range of behaviors.
DO use the mice for simple experiments that give the
mice a choice, such as; do they prefer cotton or kleenex
for their nest? do they prefer to build a nest in the open
or in a tube from a toilet paper roll?
84
DON’T use your mice as experimental subjects and
offer them objects that might be potentially harmful.
DO let your mice breed. Raising a litter of mouse pups
is a fascinating experience for the class. Mice have a
gestation period of 20-21 days. Try to clean the cage a
few days before the expected birth and then not again
for about a week after the female delivers. Most mice
choose a corner of the cage for urination. You should
clean these “wet spots” every 3-4 days to keep odors
under control. You may safely move the litter when they
are seven to ten days old for a more thorough cleaning.
DO remove the male and house him separately if you
don’t want another litter right away. The female will be
receptive to the male immediately after giving birth. If the
male remains, you’ll have another litter in about 3 weeks.
DO be careful when cleaning a cage containing young
mice of about 3 weeks. They are very excitable and
have amazing jumping abilities.
DON’T allow the cage to become overcrowded.
Overcrowding will be stressful to the mice and cause
aggression. A pecking order will be established by
fighting among the mice and the losers could
be severely injured. Overcrowding might also result in
cannibalism of new litters.
DON’T send the surplus mice home with members of
your class. Once out of the classroom you can’t control
what happens to the animals and their welfare may
be at stake.
DO bring surplus animals back to the university. We will
gladly take back progeny and parents when your
projects are finished. If you have mice from another
source, like a pet shop, ask if you can give them your
surplus mice.
5.2
SAMPLE EXAMS
DIAGNOSTIC EXAM A
Ellie has been observing the mice in her classroom for
months. Last semester, Ellie noticed that the mice play with
each other like kittens or puppies. Ellie wondered why mice
play. Her friend David suggests that it is good exercise for the
mice and helps keep them fit. However Ellie has heard
that human play is an important part of learning how to
behave as an adult, and thinks that mice could play for
the same reason.
The adult female mouse in Ellie’s class is pregnant again and
Ellie wants to study the pups for her behavior research
project. Ellie thinks that the pups will behave differently than
the older mice since they are still learning how to behave.
Ellie has convinced her classmates to help her collect data
on the new mice but she has to organize her ideas and
organize the data collection so that it can be used to test
her hypothesis.
6
Since the observers cannot watch every animal, all of
the time, explain how they can make their observations
so that they get the fairest test of their hypothesis?
What predictions has Ellie made that should be found if
her hypothesis is true?
7
Make a data sheet that Ellie’s classmates can use to
collect data for her.
4
Clearly state a prediction that Ellie and her classmates
can test by making observations of their class mice over
the next month.
8
Even before she has the data, we know what kind of
graph will best illustrate Ellie’s results. Draw the axes of
her graph and label the axes.
5
Ellie’s classmates are going to help her collect data.
How can Ellie help make sure that the observations
recorded by different people are comparable and can
be pooled together?
9
Fill in what you expect Ellie’s graph to look like if the
data supports her hypothesis (in red ink). Draw the
lines you expect to see if the data do not support Ellie’s
hypothesis (in blue ink).
1
Clearly state Ellie’s research question.
2
Clearly state Ellie’s hypothesis.
3
85
5.2
SAMPLE EXAMS
KEY EXAM A
1
Why do mice play?
2
Mice play in order to better learn how to behave as adults.
3
Pups will behave differently than adults.
4
Pups will spend more of their time playing than adults. Or, pups will play less as they become adults.
5
Ellie can define what play looks like or teach her classmates what different behaviors look like so they
all call the same behavior the same thing.
6
They can watch each animal for the same amount of time each day.
7
Animal’s Name
Mother
Father
Pup 1
Pup 2
Pup 3
Minutes observed playing
Minutes observed not playing
8 and 9 Average time spent playing
or
adults
86
pups
age
5.2
SAMPLE EXAMS
DIAGNOSTIC EXAM B
David loves gray tree squirrels. He always has a bag of
peanuts in the pocket of his parka so that he can feed the
squirrels that he meets walking to or from school. He noticed
that some squirrels are very calm when they take his
peanuts and even sit next to him to eat the nuts. Others
seem very nervous and run away as soon as they get a nut.
David is curious why the squirrels behave so differently. His
friend Ellie suggests that the girl squirrels are larger and
braver and that the boy squirrels are the small, scared ones.
However, David is pretty sure that the same squirrels are
calm sometimes and nervous other times.
David has noticed that as soon as a dog comes in sight all
the squirrels run up the nearest tree. He thinks that the
squirrels might feel more secure when he is feeding them
near a tree. He has convinced his friends to help him collect
data to test his hypothesis. They agree to meet at Oak Knoll
Park on the following Sunday afternoon.
1
5
David’s classmates are going to help him collect data.
How can David help make sure that the observations
recorded by different people are comparable and can
be pooled together?
6
Since the observers cannot watch every animal all of
the time explain how they can make their observations
so that they get the fairest test of their hypothesis.
7
Make a data sheet that David’s classmates can use to
collect data for him.
8
Even before he has the data, we know what kind of
graph will best illustrate David’s results. Draw the axes
of his graph and label the axes.
9
Fill in what you expect David’s graph to look like if the
data supports his hypothesis (in red ink). Draw the
lines you expect to see if the data do not support
David’s hypothesis (in blue ink).
Clearly state David’s research question.
2
Clearly state David’s hypothesis.
3
What predictions can David make that should be found
IF his hypothesis is true?
4
Clearly state one prediction that David and his
classmates can test by making observations in Oak
Knoll Park on a Sunday afternoon.
87
5.2
SAMPLE EXAMS
8 and 9 Minutes spent taking and eating peanuts before
moving back to a tree.
KEY EXAM B
1
Why are the squirrels sometimes calm and other times
nervous when they take his peanuts?
2
Squirrels feel safer when they are near a tree.
3
Squirrels will act more nervous and run away faster if
they are far from a tree.
4
The farther you are from a tree, the more quickly a
squirrel will take your peanut and run away.
5
David can define what he means by “run away”, “walk
around”, “beg for more” and other behaviors his friends
are likely to see. He can also make sure they offer the
same kind of peanuts and offer them in the same way.
6
They can test each squirrel at different distances from
the nearest tree. Or they can test each squirrel only once
but test different squirrels at different distances from the
nearest tree.
7
Animal’s name
or number
Distance to
nearest tree
Time squirrel
takes peanut
Time squirrel moves
back to tree
If one animal is tested at different distances, then
column 1 can be omitted and each friend gets a data
sheet for each animal.
88
Distance to Nearest Tree
Total minutes spent taking and eating
peanuts before moving back to a tree.
STUDENT SAMPLE
S A M P L E O F A S T U D E N T R E P O RT
89
STUDENT SAMPLE
90
STUDENT SAMPLE
91
STUDENT SAMPLE
92
STUDENT SAMPLE
93
STUDENT SAMPLE
94
STUDENT SAMPLE
95
STUDENT SAMPLE
96
STUDENT SAMPLE
97
STUDENT SAMPLE
98
?
WHYS
animal
WHAT IS
Stan Braude, an animal behavior
researcher at Washington University,
BEHAVIOR?
has identified previously unknown
behaviors of the naked mole-rat.
T
he study of animal behavior is the
scientific study of everything that
animals do. Animals may be single-celled
Why Do
Scientists Study Behavior?
organisms, invertebrates, fish, amphibians,
cientists have long studied animal behavior in order to better understand them. From
S
Animal behavior involves the investigation of
anthropologists studying humans, to biologists observing animals in the wild, to
the relationship of animals to their physical
zoologists trying to help animals in captivity to survive, behavior is a source of knowledge
environment as well as to other organisms. It
and evidence to scientists.
includes topics such as how animals find
reptiles, birds, humans, or other mammals.
and defend resources, avoid predators,
Zoos allow us to observe animals at a much closer level, just as class pets do in a classroom.
choose mates and reproduce, and care for
By gaining this understanding of animals in captivity, scientists can then look for those
their young.
behaviors in the wild, testing out theories and answering questions about the organisms.
People who study animal behavior are
Additionally, studying animal behavior helps scientists to predict how human actions will
typically trying to answer one or more of the
affect animals and their environment in the future. Both are dependent on humans for
following four kinds of questions about
their continued existence. Humans have a responsibility to study animal behavior to
behavior. These questions are often referred
determine the needs of the animal kingdom and to determine when certain species are
to as Tinbergen’s four questions after the
being threatened. Human survival, as well as animal survival, depends on healthy
animal behaviorist Niko Tinbergen, who first
populations of diverse species.
described them (see below).
Tinbergen’s Four Questions about Animal Behavior
1 What is the cause of the behavior?
What mechanism is underlying it?
What “triggered” it just now?
Answers may include both the
external stimuli that affect behavior,
and the internal hormonal and
neural mechanisms that control
behavior.
2 How did the behavior develop
within the individual’s lifetime?
Helps scientists learn how behavior
changes over the lifetime of the animal, and how these changes are
affected by both genes and experience.
3 What function or functions does the
behavior serve?
Helps determine the behavior’s
effect on the animal and its value in
helping the animal to survive or
reproduce successfully in a particular environment.
4 How did the behavior evolve
over time?
Helps determine the origins of
behavior patterns and how these
change over generations.
from http://acunix.wheatonma.edu/kmorgan/AB_Careers/animal_behavior_careers.html
99
BEHAVIORAL
RESEARCH
Saint Louis
ZOO
at the
ZOO STUDY
he Saint Louis Zoo applies animal
behavior research in its conservation
efforts both at the zoo and in the field.
The zoo’s efforts to breed threatened
and endangered animal species is
enhanced where knowledge of specific,
interactive behaviors and animal
physiology is known. Here are brief
descriptions of three studies being
conducted at or by the Saint Louis Zoo.
For more information about these or
other studies, visit at the Saint Louis Zoo
online at www.stlzoo.org.
T
MOTHER / INFANT ANTELOPE
The zoo is developing a profile of typical behavior of mother and
infant pairs of antelopes during the first 30 days after birth. It will
be used as a baseline comparison of the species. The study
evaluates the behavioral interactions of the mother and infant that
are likely to be related to successful bonding and care. They include,
for the most part, measures of proximity, grooming and ursing.
In the wild, young hoofstock can be categorized either as
“hiders” or “followers,” depending on the species’ survival
strategy. Forest antelope species are known to hide their young
in the brush and return to nurse at very infrequent intervals
(sometimes as little as three times in a 24-hour period),
reducing the chance they are bringing the fawn to a predator’s
attention. In contrast, species from open grasslands give birth
to precocial young that are able to ”follow” their mothers.
Consequently, these young nurse much more frequently.
In the zoo’s commitment to leave infants with their mothers
whenever possible, it is in their best interest to understand what
is normal nursing behavior for each captive species. Knowing,
for example, that an individual species is a “hider,” animal care
staff will not be alarmed if they do not see a mother nursing her
young constantly.
Data for this study is collected via 24-hour video filming of the
exhibit, then tabulated by computer.
100
ZOO STUDY
MEXICAN WOLF
Saint Louis Zoo researchers are conducting studies at Washington University’s Tyson
Research Center to increase the numbers of the endangered Mexican wolves. Scientists
have a strong interest in understanding the behaviors related to reproduction
in order to support breeding efforts at the Wolf Sanctuary.
Researchers count the occurrence and duration of behaviors on a clipboard
and simple data sheet.
CAREERS IN
ZOO STUDY
BLYTH’S HORNBILL
animal behavior
hese careers require a doctor
of philosophy (Ph.D.) or doctor
of veterinary medicine (D.V.M.)
degree.
• Animal psychologist
• College professor/researcher in
biology, zoology, psychology,
others
• Conservation field researcher
• Health researcher
• Research assistant
• Veterinarian
• Zoo curator or researcher
• Zoo director
T
Previous zoo studies have focused on the
great Indian hornbill. The zoo is satisfied with
the results of this species’ breeding efforts.
More recently, the zoo began looking at
another hornbill species whose reproductive
habits are quite similar — the Blyth’s
hornbill. In fully understanding the intricate
behaviors and rituals of these birds, we can
better provide the environment for their
breeding success. We can also help other zoos
and in situ (in the country of origin)
conservation efforts find similar success.
The reproductive behaviors of hornbills are
fascinating. They are housed in mating
pairs, since these birds are among those
who will form monogamous pair bonds.
Females “interview” potential mates by mimicking the behaviors they will use during
nesting. A male will appropriately respond by exhibiting food-giving behavior, proving that
he will care for the female when she walls herself into a log/tree cavity, leaving only a
small opening through which she will receive food and carefully excrete her waste. During
this time she will lay her eggs, incubate and hatch them. She will emerge when the chicks
are ready to fledge.
Researchers collect data on a laptop computer.
hese careers require at least
a bachelor’s degree, and
probably a master’s degree.
• Animal care facility manager
• Animal caretaker
• Animal control officer
• Animal caretaker
• Companion animal trainer
• Veterinary assistant
• Zoo educator
• Zookeeper
T
from http://acunix.wheatonma.edu/kmorgan/
AB_Careers/animal_behavior_careers.html.
101
What is an
Q
ETHOGRAM?
AN ETHOGRAM IS A DESCRIPTIVE
LIST OF ALL BEHAVIORS OF A
PARTICULAR SPECIES.
A
Ethograms are essential tools for
scientists and students who want
to study animal behavior and
communicate their results to others. A
complete ethogram describes the social
or environmental setting for each
behavior, includes information about
the timing and frequency of the
behaviors, and organizes the behaviors
into functional categories.
When we suggest a function for a
behavior, we are making an implicit
hypothesis that may require further
observation to verify. The name we
assign to a behavior can also imply a
function for that behavior. For example
the same body posture can be labeled
“lying down” and “resting.” “Lying down”
only describes what the animal is doing;
“resting” implies why the animal is doing
it. In fact many animals lie down for
reasons other than rest. Social animals
may lie down as a sign of submission
and predators or prey may lie down to
hide from each other.
102
In order to be a useful scientific tool for
studying behavior, an ethogram must be
unambiguous in distinguishing different
behaviors. Descriptions of behaviors
must be clear and complete. Data
shown in graphs and tables helps
others understand it better. Ethograms
can also contain pictures, or drawings
of the animal to help the reader
understand exactly what behavior is
being described.
Tally:
record data by making
hashmarks, indicates
numbers or counts.
Scan sampling:
collecting data at specified
time intervals, either on
focal animal or group.
Focal sampling:
collecting data focusing
on one individual animal
at a time.
All occurrences sampling:
recording each time a
behavior is performed, either
on a focal animal or among
all animals present.
CATEGORIES OF BEHAVIOR
Time budget:
a record of how an
organism spends its time
STEPS IN ETHOGRAM DEVELOPMENT
BEHAVIOR SAMPLING TOOLS
Eating
Elimnative
Care-Giving
Communicative
Care-Soliciting
Maintenance
Shelter-Seeking
Territorial
Exploratory
Aggression
Sexual
Density-dependent
Social
Hibernation/Migration
Environmental
1
List behaviors and name
individual behaviors.
2
Organize behaviors into
functional categories (feeding,
resting, traveling, etc.).
3
Describe each behavior
(including pictures and
diagrams).
4
Tally frequency of behaviors
and calculate the time budget.
5
Give context of behavior
(social or environmental).
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QUESTIONS TO FOCUS OBSERVATIONS
feeding
• Are food and water ingested differently?
• Is food transported or stored?
• Are different foods handled differently?
eliminating waste
• Are there special postures associated with
•
•
elimination?
Are certain locations chosen for elimination?
Are feces consumed? By whom?
care giving
• What communicative behaviors are
•
associated with care giving?
Which care giving behaviors are associated
with different types of individuals?
care soliciting
• What communicative behaviors are
•
associated with care giving?
Which care giving behaviors are associated
with different types of individuals?
grooming
• Do individuals groom at certain times or in
•
•
certain situations?
Do individuals groom each other?
Are different parasites removed with
specific behaviors?
nesting
• When do animals enter their nest?
• What behaviors are associated with
•
•
constructing the nest?
What behaviors are associated with
cleaning the nest?
Are nests defended or abandoned in the
face of danger?
exploratory behavior
• How do animals respond to new objects?
• How do animals of different ages respond
•
104
to new situations or places?
How do animals find their way home or
navigate in their neighborhood?
agonistic behavior
• Are there agonistic vocalizations and
•
•
postures?
Do animals of different ages respond to
aggression differently?
How do the animals defend themselves
from aggression?
sexual behavior
• How do males and females behave
•
•
•
differently during courtship?
What environmental circumstances are
associated with courtship behaviors?
What behaviors are associated with sexual
maturity in each sex?
What behaviors proceed or follow mating?
communication
• What visual, auditory, tactile or chemical
•
•
•
signals does your species use?
Are some signals used together?
Are some signals used exclusively by
animals of certain ages or one sex?
Are there signals used only within your
species? Are there signals used for
interspecific communication?
social
• Is the species social or do animals live alone?
• What types of animals normally make up
•
•
a group?
How large are typical groups?
Do animals behave differently depending
on the size of the group?
seasonal
• Do animals respond to changing climate by
•
•
hibernating, migrating or other modification
of behavior?
What triggers these changes?
How do migrants navigate?
a sample ethogram:
DOMESTIC DOG
resting behaviors
social behaviors/humans
Rest: lying down with eyes open or closed
Sit: sit on hind legs
Stand: stand on four legs
Amicable human: lick, paw, allogroom
human, often with tail wag
Threat human: snarl, raise hackles
to human
Attack human: bite, snap or chase human
Defensive human: evade human, cower,
roll over
Competitive human: defend object or food
from human
Sniff human: nose to any area of human
Solicit play human: bow, metaplay
with human
Play human: bouncing gait, play face,
wrestle, play chase
Pat dog: human pat dog
locomotive behaviors
Walk: ambulatory gait
Trot: trotting gait
Run: running gait
Hind legs: standing on hind legs using
forelegs against a wall to support the body
Circle: repetitive circling around pen
Tail chase: repetitive chasing of tail
Pace: repetitive pacing usually along a fence
Social pace: repetitive pacing along fence
with a dog on the other side
Jump: repetitive jumping so that hind legs
leave the ground
Wall bounce: repetitive jumping at wall,
rebounding off it
Flank suck: repetitive and prolonged
auto-grooming of flank
vocal behaviors
Bark: staccato vocalizations
Howl: long drawn out vocalizations
Bark at passers: recorded where object of
barking could be seen
social behaviors/dogs
solitary behaviors
Contact dog: lying in contact with dog
Amicable dog: lick, paw or allogroom dog
often with tail wag
Threat dog: snarl, raise hackles to dog
Attack dog: bite, snap, or chase dog often
with aggressive vocalizations
Defensive dog: Evade dog, cower, roll over,
lick face
Competitive dog: defend object or food
from dog
Sniff dog: nose to any area of another dog
Solicit play dog: bow, short charges with
bouncing gait, often barking
T-dog: muzzle placed across neck of
another dog
Mount dog: hetero/homosexual mounting of
another dog
Mounted: focal animal mounted by other dog
Autogroom: lick, pull at body/pelage
Dig: dig at ground with forepaws
Urinate squat: urinate in squatting position
Urinate raised leg: urinate with one leg
cocked
Kick ground: scratching ground usually
following urination or defecation
Sniff ground: Nose to ground
Eat: eating food
Drink: drinking
Coprophagy: eat own or other dog’s feces
Chew: chew nonnutritive material
Eat grass: eating grass
Mouth toy: chew toy
from Serpell, J. (ed.). The Domestic Dog: its evolution, behavior, and
interactions with people. 1995 Cambridge University Press.
105
natural histories
These natural histories give a general overview of each
animal’s characteristics and behaviors in the wild.
lion-tailed macaque
Macaca silenus
appearance:
They are medium-sized monkeys with stout bodies and strong
limbs. They have a ruff of long grayish hair on each side of the face.
size:
764 mm in head and body length. Weight average is 18 kg; males are
generally 50 percent heavier than females.
food: wild and cultivated fruits, berries, grains, leaves, buds, seeds, flowers, bark,
fungi, insects, lizards, tree-frogs, snails, giant squirrel babies
range: Western Ghats Mountains, India
habitat and basic behavior: While some monkeys can live in urban areas, the
lion-tailed macaque is a true rain-forest dweller and is unable to adapt to cities. All
macaques are primarily diurnal, and all have an arboreal capability, but most species
come down from the trees at least on occasion to forage or move over long distances.
The lion-tailed macaque spends less than one percent of its time on the ground. They
carefully inspect surroundings for a long time before descending from the trees.
Lion-tails have cheek pouches which they quickly stuff as they forage for food in
dangerous places. They are good swimmers. At night, they huddle in a sleeping
cluster high in the canopy. In captivity, the lion-tailed macaque has been observed
manufacturing and using tools to extract syrup from containers.
Macaques live in social groups of 10-20, including one to three adult males.
Females do not have their first offspring until they are 5 years old and males do not
reach sexual maturity until 8 years old. The species has a low reproductive rate,
which may contribute to its endangered status.
threats:
Major threat is habitat loss to hydroelectric power, timber and tea
plantations, and harvesting of firewood and other forest products for human use.
They are also hunted by the Nilgiri hills natives for their skin and meat.
from Ali, Rauf. Lion-Tailed Macaque: Status and Conservation. 1985, Alan R. Liss, Inc. New York
Nowak, R.M. “Walker’s Mammals of the World," 6th ed. John Hopkins Univ. Press, Baltimore, 1999
Singapore Zoological Gardens Docents, 2000, http://www.szdocent.org/pp/p-mclion.htm
106
goral
Naemorhedus goral
appearance: Goat like mammals, with short, woolly undercoats and long coarse
guard hairs. Vary in color from gray to dark brown to reddish, with white or yellow throat
patches. Both sexes have conical horns, 127-78 mm in length, which curve toward the
rear. Stout, long limbs are well adapted to climbing.
size: Head and body 820-1200 mm, tail 76-203 mm, shoulder height 570-785 mm,
weight 22-35 kg
food: Diet consists of twigs, low shrubs, grass and nuts.
range: Gorals are found across most of the southern slopes of the Himalayas of
northern India, west China, and north to Korea, at elevations of 1,800-2,000 m.
habitat and basic behavior:
Gorals tend to rest on sunny rock ledges,
where they are difficult to recognize even in full view. They are found on rugged,
wooded mountains, and seem to prefer the most difficult terrain possible. When
motionless, their color blends with the rocks. They live together in groups of
4-12, but males commonly live alone most of the year. When frightened, gorals emit a
hissing or sneezing sound.
They may spend most of the year within a home range of just a few dozen hectares,
but move a few kilometers to a more favorable wintering areas. They are most active
during early morning and late evening, but on cloudy days roam throughout the day.
After eating in the morning, they usually drink water and then retire to a sunny rock
ledge. They can be difficult to recognize in full view, because their color blends with
the rocks.
Gorals reach sexual maturity at age 3. Gestation lasts 6-8 months. One to two
offspring are born.
threats: Gorals are often hunted for meat and sport, even in protected areas. The
most significant threat to them is severe habitat disturbance and alteration, particularly
in the lower portions of the Himalayas and in northeastern India. However, goral can
survive in areas that have limited disturbance of shrubs and forest cover.
from Shackelton, D. M. (ed.) and the IUCN/SSC Caprinae Specialist Group. ”Wild Sheep and Goats and Their Relatives. Status Survey
and Conservation Action Plan for Caprinae." IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK, 1997. Nowak, R.M. “Walker’s Mammals
of the World," (6th ed.), John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1999.
Mochi, U. and T.D. Carter. “Hoofed Mammals of the World."
Singapore Zoological Gardens Docents, 2000, http://www.szdocent.org/pp/p-mclion.htm
107
ring-tailed lemur
Lemur catta
appearance:
Monkeys with long
pointed muzzles, large eyes, and
triangular ears. Upper parts are brownish
gray, underparts are whitish, tail ringed
with black and white. Palms and soles are
long, smooth and leatherlike.
size:
Head and body length 385-455
mm, tail length 560-624 mm, weight
2.3-3.5 kg.
food:
fruits, leaves, other plant parts;
rarely insects. The kiley tree is the
mainstay of their diet.
range:
southwestern Madagascar, in
wooded and thinly wooded country
habitat and basic behavior:
Found only in Madagascar, lemurs are
among the most diverse primate faunas
on earth, and highly unusual. They live in
large family groups called troops,
consisting of 5-30 lemurs. The troops
forage for food throughout the day, and
can be active at night, as well.
Troops have no consistent leadership,
and feature much agonistic behavior and
fighting. The sexes have separate
dominance hierarchies, with females
dominating the males. The troops are
organized around a core group of adult
females and their infants. Females
remain in the troop of their birth, but
males move among the troops.
108
Lemurs have been considered as
territorial, however, territories overlap
considerably. Lemurs vigorously defend
areas being used. Disputes generally
involve two opposing groups of females
running at each other and vocalizing, but
direct contact is rare. Researchers have
identified 15 different vocalizations,
including a howl audible to humans at
1,000 meters. Mating occurs in spring
and births in late summer to fall. Births
often occur within a period of days in a
troop. Single young are most common,
but twins are not rare. Weight at birth is
50-80 grams. During the first two weeks of
life, the young cling to the mother’s
underside, then rides on her back.
Females generally conceive at 19-20
months. Males are sexually mature at age
2.5, but may not be allowed to mate by
older males.
threats:
Madagascar is one of the
world’s most threatened biodiversity
“hotspots,” with 80 percent of its forests
already gone and most of what remains
at great risk. The ring-tailed lemur is the
only surviving semi-terrestrial diurnal
lemur. Its preferred habitats, of forests
along rivers, are disappearing because of
fires, overgrazing, and cutting trees for
charcoal. Hunting for pets and zoos is
also a threat.
from Mittermeier, R.A., I. Tattersall, W.R. Konstant, D.M. Meyers and
R.B. Mast. Lemurs of Madagascar. Washington D.C., Conservation
International, 1994.
Nowak, R.M. “Walker’s Mammals of the World," (6th ed.), John
Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1999.
butterflies and moths
Multiple species within order Lepidoptera
note: More than 160,000 species exist within Lepidoptera; students may compare
and contrast two or more species.
appearance:
Insects with large, easily distinguishable wings. Among the most
popular and easily recognized insects, butterflies and moths are separated mostly by
observable differences. Most butterflies fly by day and most moths fly at night. Most
butterflies are brightly colored and most moths are dull. Despite these differences and
others, there is no single feature that separates all butterflies from all moths.
size: Range of sizes from very small to wingspans of 180 mm Idea tamb sisiana.
food:
generally plants. The Pyralid (Laetilia coccidivora) is carnivorous; in the
caterpillar stage, it eats scale insects and aphids.
range: Butterflies and moths are found around the world.
habitat and basic behavior:
Butterflies and moths each go through four
different life stages: egg, caterpillar, pupa, and adult. Life spans vary greatly between
species, from a few weeks or several years. Some of the wood-boring larvae of the
Cossid moths may spend months, or even years, in the caterpillar stage.
Many moths and butterflies have complicated courtship behavior, including
performing elaborate flights and “dances.” They often use chemicals called
pheremones to attract members of the opposite sex. When a male finds a female
who shows interest in him, they both land. The mating pair will often tap each other
with their antennae, detecting other scents. Mating may last for 20 minutes to
several hours, during which time the insects do not move. Most males proceed to
look for other females after mating, but females seek a place to lay their eggs.
Some scatter their eggs, but others seek a food plant for the new caterpillars.
Some butterflies, such as the Orangetip (Anthocharis cardamines), have distinctly
different appearances for males and female. This is known as sexual dimorphism.
Whalley, P. Butterfly and moth. New York: Dorling Kindersley, 2000.
Feltwell, J. The encyclopedia of butterflies. Great Britain: Quarto Publishing, 1993.
109
river otter
Lutra canadensis
appearance: Mammal with prominent whiskers, medium size eyes, small ears, thick neck and long,
heavy tail. Legs are short with webbed feet. Color is dark brown or black, light brown or gray on belly, and
silvery on face or throat.
size: 90-135 cm with one-third of length consisting of the tail; 4.5-11.5 kg
food: Mostly fish and crayfish, sometimes frogs, salamanders, snails, clams, snakes, turtles, muskrats,
birds, insects, earthworms
range: North American lakes and rivers
habitat and basic behavior:
Otters usually live in family groups. They live in burrows in the
banks of rivers or lakes, usually ones that were built earlier by muskrats, beavers or woodchucks. Home
ranges may include 80-160 miles of shoreline. Otters are powerful swimmers that often swim with just the
top of the head and eyes above water. They can swim 10 km/hour on the surface and submerge for up
to 4 minutes.
Even the adults regularly engage in social behaviors that are best described as play. They are particularly
fond of sliding down steep slopes that have been made slippery with mud or ice, and that terminate either
in a deep pool of water or snowdrift. They will climb up such a slope and slide back down repeatedly,
particularly if accompanied by other members of the group. They also spend prolonged periods in small
groups tossing rocks or clam shells into the water and then diving for them. One of the most common ways
of traveling on snow is to run for a few feet, then slide on their bellies as far as they can.
threats:
Hunting and trapping for fur has greatly reduced populations, and river otters are considered
endangered today. They are parasitized by tapeworms.
Saint Louis Zoo
110
naked mole rat
Heterocephalus glaber
appearance:
Cylindrical mammal
completely lacking hair, except for a few
sensory whiskers (vibrissae) on face and
tail, plus a fringe of hair on feet. Short
legs, tiny eyes and no external ears. Very
powerful jaw muscles and large
protruding incisors used for burrowing.
Skin is very wrinkled because no fat layer
is underneath. Color varies from pink to
yellow to white or gray.
size: 7.0-8.5 cm body length, tail length
3.5-4.0 cm, weight 30-60 gm; queen
may be 90 gm.
food:
Mole-rats are strict herbivores;
food includes roots, tubers and
underground plant parts found while
burrowing.
range:
Eastern sub-Saharan Africa,
central and eastern Ethiopia, central
Somalia and Kenya.
habitat and basic behavior:
Naked mole-rats are the only mammals
that exhibit eusocial behavior. This type
of behavior describes the colony
lifestyles of bees, ants and termites.
Eusocial animals live in large colonies
within which only one female, the
queen, and a small number of males
participate in reproduction. The rest of
the colony members share such tasks
as feeding and defending the queen
and raising her offspring. In honey bee
colonies, the queen produces a
chemical which prevents other females
from breeding. In naked mole-rat
colonies, the queen fights other
females, often to the death, to prevent
them from breeding.
A queen may breed for 12 years, or until
she is displaced by a more aggressive
female. The queen has four litters a
year, with an average size of seven to
ten pups. When a litter is born, a group
of non-reproductive colony members
forms a living carpet on which the
queen and her pups lie for three to four
weeks while the queen nurses them.
The first solid food the pups eat are
feces that they actively solicit the adults
to produce for them. The young then
begin to help keep the tunnels clear and
to gather food for the nest. Older
individuals dig new tunnels in search of
food and defend the burrow against
intruders.
threats: Burrowing reptiles,
especially the rufous-beaked snake.
Saint Louis Zoo
111
goat
Eight species in genus Capra
appearance: Goats with varied sizes and horns. Males
are odorous, with beards. In wild species, horns of males are
500-1,600 mm long and horns of females are 150-380 mm
long, with much variation between species. Some are long
and curved, some curlicued.
size: Sizes are varied, but males are generally larger than
females.
food: All species graze for grass and vegetation.
range:
Europe, Asia, and Africa
habitat and basic behavior: Most goats are well
adapted to mountainous areas and are good climbers. Adult
males and females are often separate for most of the year.
The Cretan wild goat (Capra aegagrus) lives in groups of five
to 25 individuals, which vary through the year. Females
remain in the groups except to give birth. Males usually stay
apart in small bachelor groups. They form dominance
hierarchies and compete for mating privileges. Conflicts
involve threats, visual displays with the horns. They may rear
up and crash horns together.
threats:
Hunting for horn trophies and meat has
decimated many species. The domestic goat is maintained
worldwide for milk, meat and wool. It often competes with
wild species for food. The European ibex was reduced by
sport hunting and a demand for body parts to only about 60
individuals in northern Italy in the nineteenth century. Those
animals were carefully protected and used to reintroduce
the species to the Alps. By the 1980s there were more than
12,000 in Switzerland and elsewhere.
from Nowak, R.M. “Walker’s Mammals of the World," (6th ed.), John Hopkins University Press,
Baltimore, 1999.
112
chimpanzee
Pan troglodytes
appearance:
socialized societies that may have as
size:
many as 80 members. Social position
in the hierarchy is extremely important.
Chimps communicate by facial
expressions, vocal sounds and posture.
They have a long childhood, with
young dependent on their mothers
until age 5, and maturity at age 13.
Bonds between mother and young,
especially females, can last a lifetime.
Chimps can live up to age 50.
Monkeys with
prominent ears, protruding lips, arms
that are longer than legs, a long hand
with a short thumb, and no tails. Face
is bare and usually black, color ranges
from deep black to light brown. Hair
on the head may grow in any
direction, and baldness occurs in both
sexes at maturity.
Head and body length about
635-940 mm, height 1.0-1.7 meters,
weight 34-70 kg for males, 26-50 kg
for females. Captive animals can
weigh as much as 68-80 kg.
food:
Fruit, seeds, honey, insects,
eggs and meat. They may prey on
other monkeys and small animals.
range:
Tropical rainforests and
savannah in Gambia and Uganda
habitat and basic behavior:
Most chimpanzees spend daylight
hours in trees. Young individuals may
swing from branch to branch
(brachiate), but the most common
form of locomotion is knuckle-walking:
walking on all fours with the fingers
turned under. They live in highly
The chimpanzee is renowned for its
ability to make and use tools. They often
feed by carefully poking a stick or vine
into a termite nest to collect the insects.
Chimps also use sticks as hooks to pull
down fruit-laden branches. They may
fight with sticks as weapons. They use
stones as hammers to crack nuts.
threats:
Hunting for pets, and
habitat loss threaten the chimpanzee in
the wild.
from Nowak, R.M. “Walker’s Mammals of the World," (6th
ed.), John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1999.
113
malayan sun bear
Ursus malayanus
appearance:
These small bears are mostly
black, with whitish or orange breast mark and
grayish or orange muzzle. The body is stocky,
muzzle short, paws large and claws are strongly
curved and pointed. The soles are naked.
size:
1,000-1,400 mm, tail length 30-70 mm,
shoulder height about 700 mm, weight 27-65 kg.
Mothers give birth to one or two young, about
325 gm each. Cubs are blind, nearly naked and
helpless. They are very dependent on their
mothers for at least three or four weeks. Once out
of the den, cubs learn to climb very quickly. They
stay with their mothers for at least a year, possibly
longer. Captive bears can live up to 31 years
threats: Sun bear cubs are popular as pets, but
food: omnivorous, including honey, insects, larvae,
coconut palm, termites, fowl, rodents, fruit juices
range: Dense forests in central China, Burma,
Thailand, Indochina, Malay peninsula, Sumatra,
Borneo
larger animals are unruly and often sold as parts,
which are used in the medicinal trade. Logging of
forests and conversion to rubber plants has
contributed to habitat loss and population decline.
They are considered endangered. Tigers and other
big cats are predators.
habitat and basic behavior: Sun bears
are active at night, usually sleeping and sunbathing
by day in trees. They break or bend tree branches
to form nests and lookout posts. The walking gait is
unusual in that all feet are turned inward. The
species is very shy and retiring and does not
hibernate. An expert tree climber, it is cautious,
wary and intelligent. A young captive observed the
way in which a cupboard containing sugar was
locked with a key, and later opened the cupboard
by inserting a claw in the keyhole and turning.
114
from Nowak, R.M. “Walker’s Mammals of the World," (6th ed.), John Hopkins
University Press, Baltimore, 1999.
Stonehouse, B. Bears: A Visual Introduction to Bears. AND Cartographic
Publishers Ltd. New York, 1998.
flamingo
Phoenicopterus ruber ruber
appearance: Large, brilliantly colored aquatic birds. Long sinuous necks, long
legs and webbed feet. Slim, rose colored wader. Bill is specialized for filter feeding
and sharply bent in the middle.
size: 90-155 cm tall, males are a little larger than females.
food: Small marine life, including mollusks, crustaceans, blue-green algae and
diatoms.
range: Mudflat areas of southern Florida, South America, Africa and Asia. Highly
adaptive to chemicals in water, including chlorides, sodium carbonate and sulfides.
Can exist in very hot and high altitude climates.
habitat and basic behavior:
Family is one of the oldest bird groups still
alive, with fossil evidence going back to early tertiary. The birds are highly social and
gregarious, living in large flocks of up to tens of thousands. In east Africa, over a million
lesser flamingoes can gather. Birds often spend the day resting, and feed at night.
Starting several months before breeding and continuing afterwards, flamingoes often
devote considerable time to the performance of collective displays, which may be
carried out by hundreds of birds. They consist of a series of ritualized postures and
movements. One of the most common, “head flagging,” involves stretching the neck
and head up as high as possible and turning head from side to side. The purpose of
these displays is to synchronize, by means of hormonal stimulation, the breeding
attempts of as many birds as possible. In this way, populations can make the most
of the periods when conditions are optimal.
A characteristic feature of flamingoes is their resting posture of standing on one leg.
In this way, the amount of heat lost through the leg and foot is reduced. This
posture is also used in hot weather, so it is likely comfortable for the birds.
threats:
Humans have been mostly threatened by human capture for zoos.
Wetland habitat destruction also threatens the birds.
from Harrison, Bird Families of the World, New York: Abrams, 1978.
del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A & Sargatal, J. eds. Handbook of the Birds of the World, Vol. 1. Lynx Edcions, Barcelona, 1992.
115
O B S E RVAT I O N S
116
NOTES
117
RESEARCH
118
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