Sophisticated Syntax
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Loose sentence: one in which the main clause comes first, followed by further dependent grammatical
units. James slowly rose from his seat with a sly smile, determined to show the class that he could, for once,
answer the instructor’s question.
Periodic sentence: one in which the main clause is withheld until the end. Delighted by James’s resolve,
the class and the instructor burst into applause. In formal writing, the periodic sentence is used for
structural variety and rhetorical emphasis. The loose sentence, however, a more relaxed construction, is
more frequently used in informal writing (creative pieces) and in conversation. Further, the periodic
sentence is used to create the effect of suspense as it propels the reader’s attention forward to the end. It is
also used in ironic or satiric prose as well as when the writer wants either to delay the meaning to first
create an impression, or to suggest that things are not what they seem. While he was declaring the ardour
of his passion in such terms, as but too often make vehemence pass for sincerity, Adeline, to whom this
declaration , if honourable, was distressing, and if dishonourable, was shocking, interrupted him and
thanked him for the offer of a distinction, which with a modest, but determined air, she said she must refuse.
Ann Radcliffe Thus the periodic sentence is a long sentence in which the completion of the syntax and
sense is delayed until the end, usually after a sequence of balanced subordinate clauses.
Hypotactic sentence: marked by the use of connecting words between clauses or sentences, explicitly
showing the logical or other relationships between them. I am tired because it is hot. Such use of syntactic
subordination of one clause to another is known as hypotaxis.
Paratactic sentence: simply juxtaposes clauses or sentences. I am tired: it is hot.
Natural order of sentences: the subject comes before the verb and is often followed by an object. Poets
often invert this normal order for effect. This is called inversion. Prose writers also use this technique as
periodic sentences are a form of inversion.
Split order of sentences: this often divides the verb into two parts with the subject coming in the middle.
In California oranges grow.
Juxtaposition: is a poetic and rhetorical device in which normally unassociated ideas, words, or phrases
are placed next to one another, creating and effect of surprise and wit. Ezra Pound “The apparition of
these faces in the crowd;/ Petals on a wet, black bough”
Parallel structure (parallelism): refers to a grammatical or structural similarity between sentences or parts
of a sentence. It involves an arrangement of words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs so that elements of
equal importance are equally developed and similarly phrased. It shows that the ideas or words are parallel
or similar. It evokes a comparison. Edward Gibbon “I was neither elated by the ambition of fame, nor
depressed by the apprehension of contempt.” It can be used in poetry as well. “I’ll give my jewels for a set
of beads,/ My gorgeous palace for a hermitage,/ My gay apparel for an almsman’s gown,/ My figured
goblets for a dish of wood...” (Shakespeare’s Richard II) Notice the repetition of my which has the effect
of making this a highly personal and subjective piece. Where the elements arranged in parallel are sharply
opposed, the effect is one of anthithesis.
Rhetorical question: is a question which expects no answer. It is used to draw attention to a point and is
generally stronger than a direct statement. “For what can war but endless war still breed?” John Milton
Sentence beginnings: examine sentence beginnings. Does the sentence or line begin with a prepositional
phrase, a participle, etc. Is there a pattern? Also look for the sentence or line which differs from the rest. It
is usually the important one.
Apposition: the placing in immediately succeeding order of two or more coordinate elements, the latter or
which is an explanation, qualification, or modification of the first. This syntactical unit is often set off by a
colon.
Adding or leaving out words:
• Asydeton (a-syn-de-ton): a condensed form of expression in which words, phrases, or clauses customarily
joined by conjunctions are presented in series without the conjunctions. Caesar’s (translation “I came, I
saw, I conquered.” (“Veni, vidi, vici”) The effect of this is to speed the pace of the passage,. This technique
is the omission of an expected conjunction. In a list of two or more items, we exact an and. When it is not
there, it calls attention to the phrase and the words in the phrase. In Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address, we
expect an and before “for the people” which is not there. “That government of the people, by the people,
for the people, shall not perish from the earth.”
• Polysyndeton: choosing to have too many conjunctions. This device slows the pace and gives an almost
Biblical quality to the tone. “When you are old and gray and full of sleep,/ And nodding by the fire, take
down this book.” Yeats “... pusues his way,/ And swims, or sinks, or wades, or creeps, or flies.” (Milton)
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Ellipsis: the omission of one or more words which, while essential to the grammatical structure of the
sentence or line, are easily supplied by the reader,. The effect of ellipsis is rhetorical: it makes for emphasis
of the statement. The device often taps the reader into difficulties, since carelessness will result in
impossible constructions. Ellipses are also used to indicate words left out or ideas left out. This is a
common device used in stream of consciousness to separate ideas.
Repetition: is a device in which words, sounds, and ideas are used more than once for the purposed of
enhancing rhythm and creating emphasis. What is the purpose of the repetitions? How does it contribute to
meaning? “...government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth” Abe
Lincoln’s “Address in Gettysburg” Note the emphasis on people, the key ingredient in a democracy and in
preserving that democracy. Look for repetition of key words, phrases, and sentence patterns. The repetition
means the writer wants to emphasize the idea, image, or metaphor.
Forms of Repetition
• Epanalepsis(ep-an-a-lep-sis): one of the devices of repetition in which the same expression (word or
words) is reated both at the beginning and at the end of the line, clause or sentence. Common sense is not
so common. Voltaire
• Epistrophe: one of the devices of repetition in which the same expression is repeated at the end of two or
more lines, clauses, or sentences. For truth is one, and right is ever one. Spenser
• Anaphora: one of the devices of repetition in which the same expression is repeated at the beginning of
two or more lines, clauses, or sentences. This is a form of parallelism and repetition: “As I ebb’d with the
ocean of life,/ As I wended the shores I know, / As I walk’d where the ripples continually wash you
Paumanok.” Walt Whitman
• Inversion of sentence or word order: This often involves putting the verb before the subject or the object
before the subject. In California grow oranges. This creates an emphasis the writer wishes or a rhythmic
effect. Know why this was done.
Forms of Inversion:
• Anastrophe: fancy term for inversion. Inversion of the usual, normal, or logical order o f the parts of a
sentence. The purpose is rhythm or emphasis or euphony as in the following lines by Pope: “Nor fierce
Othello in so loud a strain/ Roar’d for the handkerchief that cas’d him pain.”
• Antimetabole: the repetition of words in successive clauses in reverse grammatical order. Moliere: “one
should eat to live, not live to eat.” In prose this is called antimetabole, in poetry, chiasmus.
• Chiasmus: a type of rhetorical balance in which the second part is syntactically balanced against eh first
but with the parts reversed. Coleridge: “Flowers are lovely, love is flowerlike.”
Punctuation: examine the punctuation which is often a clue to both meaning and effect. Dashes are used to
separate ideas and are indicative of a conversational and personal style. The important thoughts are often in the
dashes as they are more revealing. Note the use of colons. What follows the colon is often not a list but a
restatement or a further explanation of the prior unit of meaning. Note in poetry whether the lines are end0stopped
or enjambed (their meaning runs over into the next line). Note exclamation marks and question marks. Hyphens
join ideas.
Rhetorical Shifts: the AP exam loves to ask where the rhetorical shifts take place, what the shift indicates, and why
the shift was made. To find rhetorical shift in both prose and poetry, the reader must be sensitive to turn words
(strophe and antistrophe). Such words as but, yet, now, and then often indicate a change in mood, tone, effect, and
meaning. This change is called a rhetorical shift. The shift is also often indicated by a change in paragraphs, a
change in prose form say from description to dialogue or a change in speaker which signals a change in the tone.
Parenthesis: an explanatory remark thrown into the body of a statement and frequently separated from it by
parentheses (). However, any comment which is an interruption of the immediate subject is spoken of as a
parenthesis whether it be a word, phrase, clause, sentence, or paragraph. This device is used to show a casual,
familiar style, or it can be a form of authorial intrusion (when you hear the author’s comment inserted into the
story).
Pace: pace is a function of not only rhythm, sound devices, but also of length of words, number of conjunctions
used, and length of sentence. What is the pace of the sentence(s)? Why does the pace quicken in some parts of a
passage? Why and where does it slow down?