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Learning
6.1
•
•
•
How Do We Learn?
Learning Results from Experience
There Are Three Types of Learning
Habituation and Sensitization Are Simple Models of Learning
6.2 How Do We Learn Predictive Associations?
• Behavioral Responses Are Conditioned.
• Classical Conditioning Involves More Than Events Occurring
at the Same Time
• Learning Involves Expectancies and Prediction
• Phobias and Addictions Have Learned Components
6.3 How Does Operant Conditioning Change Behavior?
• Reinforcement Increases Behavior
• What to Believe? Using Psychological Reasoning
Seeing Relationships that Do Not Exist: How Do
Superstitions Start?
• Operant Conditioning Is Influenced by Schedules of
Reinforcement
• Punishment Decreases Behavior
• Using Psychology in Your Life How Can Behavior
Modification Help Me Get in Shape?
• Biology and Cognition Influence Operant Conditioning
• Dopamine Activity Underlies Reinforcement
6.4
•
•
•
•
How Does Watching Others Affect Learning?
Learning Can Occur through Observation and Imitation
Watching Violence in Media May Encourage Aggression:
Fear Can Be Learned through Observation
Mirror Neurons Are Activated by Watching Others
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Learning
There are three basic types of learning that covered in this
chapter.
Psychological Science, Fifth Edition
Copyright © 2015 W. W. Norton & Company
• Habituation
• Sensitization
• Classical
Conditioning
• Operant
Conditioning
• Observational
Learning
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Learning
Learning: A relatively enduring change in behavior,
resulting from experience (page 223). There are three
basic types of learning
Classical
Conditioning
usually
involves
involuntary
responses
Operant
Conditioning
usually
involves
voluntary
responses
Observational Learning by
Learning
watching
others
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Learning: A relatively enduring change in behavior,
resulting from experience (page 223).
Classical Conditioning (Pavlovian Conditioning): A type of
associative learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to
elicit a response when it is associated with a stimulus that
already produces that response. (page 226).
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Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning (Pavlovian Conditioning): A type of
associative learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to
elicit a response when it is associated with a stimulus that
already produces that response. (page 226).
Examples of Classical Conditioning:
• Pavlov’s dogs
• Advertising
• “That was easy”
• Feeling good (the response) when
you hear a song (the stimulus) on
the radio that is connected to a
special time you’ve had.
• Little Albert
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The Basics of Classical Conditioning
Pavlov and the Dogs:
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That was Easy
UCS UCR
NS
CS CR
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Classical Conditioning and Advertising
UCS UCR
NS
CS CR
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Classical Conditioning
Pictures
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Elements of Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning (Pavlovian Conditioning): A type of
learning response; a neutral object comes to elicit a
response when it is associated with a stimulus that already
produces that response (page 227).
Identify the US, UR, neutral stimulus, CS and CR
(1) Before each of his chemotherapy sessions, Allen, a
young cancer patient, is given a bowl of ice cream.
The chemotherapy makes Allen nauseated. Now just
seeing the bowl of ice cream makes him feel queasy.
(2) Frank loved to swim in the lake near his house. After
swimming in the lake one afternoon, he discovered
two big slimy, bloodsucking leeches firmly attached to
his leg. He was revolted as he pulled the slimy
leeches off his leg. Now every time he passes the
lake, he shudders in disgust.
(3) Every time two-year-old Jodie heard the doorbell ring
she raced to open the front door. On Halloween
night, Jodie answered the doorbell and encountered a
scary monster with nine flashing eyes. Jodie
screamed in fear and ran away. Now Jodie screams
and hides whenever the doorbell rings.
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Classical Conditioning
Using the process of classical conditioning, explain why
politicians kiss babies or why beautiful women are often
used to promote products.
What is the
•
•
•
•
•
US
UR
Neutral stimulus
CS
CR
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USPS versus UPS
Which one are people more likely to feel better about?
Explain your answer
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How Can Classical Conditioning Explain the Feeling
people have about Haunted Houses?
UCS UCR
NS
CS CR
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Classical Conditioning and Visiting the Dentist
Most of us don’t like going to the dentist, and avoid going
to the dentist. Using classical conditioning, figure out and
identify the UCS, UCR, NS, CS and CR.
Why is knowing about classical conditioning in this
situation important?
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Phobias and Their Treatment
Phobia is an acquired fear that is out of proportion to the
real threat of an object or situation (page 235).
Phobias and fears can be explain and treated through
classical conditioning.
Development of fear and phobias (the basics):
People can develop a fear of Tuesdays, dentists, cars,
dogs, haunted houses, school, flying, cruise ships, the
postman, etc.
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Not all fears are acquired equally
Phobia disorders—An anxiety disorder that is
characterized by marked, persistent and excessive fear
and avoidance of specific objects, activities or situations.
The fear response is out of proportion to the stimulus and
the fear and avoidance significantly interferes with daily
life.
About 11% of people in the United States will develop a
specific phobia in their lifetime. Generally, phobics realize
their fears are irrational, but feel compelled to avoid the
feared situation or objects.
Specific phobias fall into five categories:
(1) animals (dogs, cats,
rats, snakes, spiders)
(2) natural environments
(heights, darkness,
water, storms)
(3) situations (bridges,
elevators, tunnels,
enclosed spaces)
(4) blood injections and
injury
(5) other phobias
including illness and
death.
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Fears, Phobias, and the Evolutionary Perspective
We are much more acquire (develop) fears of these
things,
Than these things (and psychologists have tried)
The evolutionary perspective suggests that we are
biologically more likely to become afraid of objects and
situations that have posed a threat to previous generations
(eg. snakes, spiders, heights, drowning, etc.). Those that
avoided these objects and situations were more likely to
survive and pass their genes to their offspring than those
who didn’t avoid these objects and situations and died.
The term for this is biological preparedness.
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Biological Preparedness
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Treating Phobias
Treatment of phobias: counterconditioning and systematic
desensitization
Counterconditioning: Replace the feared response with a
neutral or positive response.
Counterconditioning gradually exposes the person to
the fearful stimuli in a safe manner and gradually
increases the intensity.
• For those people who were at the Boston Marathon
when the bomb exploded, going back and having
fun there can counter the fear associated with it.
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Treating Phobias
Systematic desensitization is a procedure in which a
phobic person images a very weak form of the frightening
CS while relaxing.
Generally, there are three basic steps in systematic
desensitization.
• The patient learns progressive relaxation. This
involves successively relaxing one muscle group after
another until a deep state of relaxation is achieved.
• The behavior therapist helps the patient construct an
anxiety hierarchy which a list of anxiety-providing
images are associated with the feared situation
The patient also develops an image of a relaxing control
scene such as nice summer day
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Pavlovian Applications: Fear Reduction
• The last step involves the process of desensitization.
While deeply relaxed, the patient imagines the least
threatening scene in the hierarchy.
After the person can maintain relaxation while
imagining the scene, they move to the next scene. If
the person begins to feel anxious or tense, the
therapist helps the patient imagine the previous scene
or go to the control scene. If necessary, the therapist
helps the patient relax again using the progressive
relaxation technique.
• Current incarnations of systematic desensitization
omit the relaxation component and rely more on live
exposure than imaginary exposure (unless it is still to
threatening to directly experience).
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Pavlovian Applications: Fear Reduction
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Pavlovian Applications: Fear Reduction
A desensitization hierarchy involving test anxiety for those
who are prepared to take the exam:
In the hierarchy, the individual begins with the least feared
circumstance (a month before the exam) and moves
through each circumstance until reaching the most feared
circumstance (the exam paper face down in front of them).
At each step, the person replaces fear with deep
relaxation and successful visualizations.
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Classical Conditioning:
One Trial Learning & Taste aversions
Lithium and coyotes
Identify the
1. unconditioned
stimulus (UCS),
2. unconditioned
response (UCR),
3. neutral stimulus,
4. conditioned
stimulus (CS),
5. conditioned
response (CR).
How does the research on taste aversions violate two
basic principles of classical conditioning?
• Learning of an association does not require repeated
pairings of the stimulus and response.
• The time delay is in hours and not seconds.
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Compensatory Responses
When people use drugs, the body and brain attempts to
maintain homeostasis by counteracting the effects of the
drug and produces reactions that are opposite to that of
the drug.
Compensatory
responses:
A reaction by the body to drugs in an
attempt to maintain a state of
homeostasis.
Homeostasis
Image source: unknown
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Compensatory Responses
This biological effect to counteract the effect of the drug is
called the compensatory response. Compensatory
response can be triggered biologically by taking the drug
or triggered psychologically through environmental cues
that signal that drug taking behavior is about to take place.
Drug effect
Slows the
body down
Compensatory Responses
Stimulates the body to
restore homeostasis
Stimulates the Slows the body down to
body
restore homeostasis
Image source: Carpenter and Huffman
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Compensatory Responses
Compensatory responses can help explain phenomena
that most people are familiar with such as:
Drug tolerance:
A tendency for larger doses of a drug to
be required over time to achieve the
same effect.
Drug withdrawal: The experience of strong reactions
opposite to those produced by the drug
The withdrawal symptoms may be
thought of the body’s compensating
response still becoming active in the
absence of the drug.
The compensatory response can not only explain drug
tolerance and drug withdrawal symptoms, but an
unexpected observation that
• experienced drug users die of a drug overdose
• without increasing their normal dose
• while consuming drugs in a different (geographical)
location.
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Drug Tolerance
Tolerance:
A decreased responsiveness to a drug
(usually you need to increase the
dosage to get the same effects)
Tolerance
Dosage
January
February
March
April
Effect
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Drug Tolerance
Tolerance:
A decreased responsiveness to a drug
(usually you need to increase the
dosage to get the same effects)
Tolerance
Dosage
January
February
March
April
Effect
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Compensatory Responses
Compensatory
responses:
A reaction by the body to drugs in an
attempt to maintain a state of
homeostasis.
When people use drugs, the body and brain attempts to
counteract the effects of the drug and produces reactions
that are opposite to that of the drug.
Dosage +
Drug
January
+
Compensatory
Response
= Drug
Effect
- Counteracts drug
↑
↑
February
↑
↑
↑
↓
March
↑
↑
↑
↑
↓
↓
April
↑
↑
↑
↑
↓
↓
↓
↑
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Withdrawal Effects
Withdrawal:
The experience of strong reactions
opposite to those produced by the drug
The withdrawal symptoms may be
thought of the body’s compensating
response still becoming active in the
absence of the drug.
Dosage +
Drug
January
+
Compensatory
Response
Drug
Effect
Withdrawal
- Counteracts drug
↑
↑
February
↑
↑
↑
↓
March
↑
↑
↑
↑
↓
↓
April
↑
↑
↑
↑
↓
↓
↓
May
↓
↓
↓
↑
Withdrawal
effects
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Withdrawal Effects
Not only can the compensatory response become
triggered biologically through the use of a drug, it can be
triggered by environmental cues.
If you want to reduce drug use, you may need to change
environments. According to the principle of reciprocal
determinism, beliefs, environment and behavior are
intertwined.
Cognitive factor
I think I need to use
drugs
Behavior
factor
I use drugs
Environmental
factor
I associate with other
drugs uses
In order to understand the problems of drug abuse, you
need to understand
• the process of reciprocal determinism,
• as well as the neurochemical basis of addiction (the
neurotransmitter dopamine) and
• learning (classical conditioning and operant
conditioning).
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You can easily replace this with criminal behavior. This
helps explain some programs to help disrupt the cycle of
criminal behavior and drug use.
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Classically Conditioned Compensatory Responses
Dosage +
Drug
January
+
Compensatory
Response
Drug
Effect
Withdrawal
- Counteracts drug
↑
↑
February
↑
↑
↑
↓
March
↑
↑
↑
↑
↓
↓
April
↑
↑
↑
↑
↓
↓
↓
↑
Withdrawal
effects
May 1
↓
↓
↓
May 2
↑
↑
↑
↑
↑
↑
↑
↓
Drug
over
dose
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Classical Conditioning
Other terms associated with Classical Conditioning:
• Extinction
• Spontaneous recovery
• Generalization (stimulus generalization)
• Discrimination (stimulus discrimination)
• Food aversions: one trial learning
• Biological preparedness