Structure and Techniques used in `The Crucible’ (cxo)
Space: Public vs Private
A) Play begins inside Parris’ house with a crowd outside. Symbolises the idea of a society
attempting to hide its sins; a hypocritical society where even the priest has secrets that must be
hidden. Represents social repression; the public encroaches on the private. There is nowhere to
hide. The individual is suffocated by and the victim of a dominant social ideology. In this scene it
is ironic that it is Parris one of the principal advocates of these values who is at the mercy of his
own beliefs. He preaches terror, fire and brimstone every Sunday and is himself now terrified.
There is a sense of claustrophobia. The idea of a totalitarian society encroaching on private
space is also seen in Act Two when Proctor who is a symbol of individuality is talking to Elizabeth
Proctor about his adulterous relationship with Abigail Williams. Hale destroys this intimate
moment by walking into their home unannounced much to the surprise and shock of both
characters. We as an audience feel uncomfortable and Miller seems to be asking questions
about how far the state has a right to interfere, involve itself or make judgements about the
private lives of individuals.
Space is also very important in the sense that the witchcraft takes place outside of the
community in the woods home of the much feared Native American Indians. This is the place of
the OTHER- ie anything that does not reflect the colonizers’ values and their way of life. It
cannot be allowed to infiltrate Salem society and threaten the social order and challenge those
who wield power. It is interesting to note that the girls who make the allegations of witchcraft
seem to enjoy the power it gives them to upset the social order and to destroy those who are
more powerful. See Mary Warren’s reaction to John Proctor in Act 2. “I only hope that you’ll not
be so sarcastical no more. Four judges and the King’s deputy sat to dinner with us but an hour
ago. I-I would have you speak civilly to me from this out.”
Miller’s use of space to explore the idea of other and the claustrophobic nature of the Salem
community is also explored through the character of Proctor. It is symbolic that Proctor’s fields
lie on the border between the community and the woods. Proctor operates on the boundaries
of society. Through his blunt questioning and the importance that he attaches to being true to
himself and his own moral values he sets himself in opposition to the institutions which govern
everyday life in Salem (ie. The Church and the legal system). The governing authorities feel
threatened by him; he is challenging the social order and those that prosper and are made
powerful through unquestioning obedience to the social hierarchy. It is interesting to note that
Parris and Danforth are more interested in preserving the reputation of the court rather than
the search for truth and justice. Parris in Act Three appeals to Danforth with the words: “They
have come to overthrow the court, sir!”
B) It is perhaps significant that the play opens with Thomas Putnam and his wife present at Parris’
home. They are the ones who suggest witchcraft! Like the witches who appear at the very
beginning of Macbeth they are the architects of what happens controlling the lives and destinies
of many of Salem’s inhabitants. This might also be an exploration of the idea that society
benefits the wealthy. It is interesting to note that the first two characters to be found guilty of
witchcraft are Tituba (a slave) and Sarah Good (a tramp). There is a form of class struggle going
on in the play. Giles Corey learns that George Jacobs has been accused of witchcraft by
Putnam’s daughter and says:
“My proof is there! [pointing to the paper.] If Jacobs hangs for a witch he forfeit up his propertythat’s law! And there is none but Putnam with the coin to buy so great a piece. This man is
killing his neighbours for their land.” Act Three
C Stage directions:
The Overture at the beginning of the play is very important. It was not intended to be read out
to the audience but is a very prescriptive set of instructions about character and the purpose of
the play. Miller does not want the actors to interpret or for there to be any ambiguity in the way
the audience responds to the characters on stage. The political message of the play is not open
to interpretation (compare this with Macbeth where there are a number of often contradictory
messages which the audience can take away from the play). Look at Miller’s description of
Parris:
“At the time of these events Parris was in his middle forties. In history he cut a villainous path,
and there is little good to be said for him….”
See also Miller’s interjections about Hale near the end of Act 1.
Language The language used by the characters is very straightforward. There is a noticeable lack of
imagery. (compare with Macbeth). This might fit in with Miller’s socialist conception of art. Art from a
socialist perspective, has a primary function to educate, inform and encourage social change. It must
reach out to the common man. The message in socialist art is all important. The use of too much poetic
language could lead to ambiguity of interpretation and distort and dilute the playwright’s message.
Complex language might also mean that a play becomes elitist and bourgeois in terms of its audience
and alienates the common man. It is not an accident that Miller who was heavily influenced by Greek
tragedy deviates from the Greek tradition of the tragic hero being of noble birth (compare The Crucible
with Macbeth) - just like in Death Of A Salesman and View From The Bridge, Proctor represents the
common man. Miller wanted the audience to see themselves in John Proctor. Proctor’s dilemma should
mirror their own. The idea that the audience should identify Proctor’s situation in the play with their
own is clearly seen in the OVERTURE at the beginning of Act One. Throughout the Overture Miller makes
links between what happened in Salem with what was happening politically in 1950s America. Those
that questioned, challenged or expressed unorthodox views were labeled communists, persecuted,
imprisoned and put in jail. Miller seems to be suggesting that since 1692 and the Salem witch trials,
America has learnt nothing and that history is repeating itself.
The language used by the characters is very unadorned. The language used in the play is very stark.
Miller in all his plays was interested in attempting to capture realistic dialogue. Miller was very much
into the idea of realist theatre. The audience is made to feel voyeuristic, witnessing moments of great
intimacy on stage. The playwright shies away from using techniques such as monologues and soliloquies
(compare with Macbeth) to show the psychological workings of his characters because it would feel
false and contrived. To convey Proctor’s guilt, Miller uses symbolism. Proctor can remember all of the
Ten Commandments except the one states that ‘Thou shalt not commit adultery’. Symbolism is also
used to further the idea of Proctor as representing the concept of the free individual when he assents to
his wife being taken away but will not allow her to be chained. He is horrified by the chains and what
they represent.
We know that Miller spent a lot of time reading witness accounts and documents from the period
before he wrote the play and the language used by the characters mirrors the archaic and biblical style
of speech used in 17th Century America. When figurative language is used it is often very biblical in style.
This helps to remind the audience of the power of this theocracy and how religion permeates every
aspect of an individual’s life, shaping not only how characters speak but how they think. It is almost as if
religion is being used to indoctrinate. When figurative language is employed by Miller, it is used to great
effect. This is particularly true for the character of Abigail Williams. Miller uses imagery to convey her
rebellious, unrestricted and savage nature to the audience and her loss of innocence. This is particularly
clear when she is talking to Proctor:
Abigail: “I know how you clutched my back behind your house and sweated like a stallion whenever I
come near……..
Proctor: Abby, that’s a wild thing to say”
(Act One)
Language is also used to great effect at the beginning of Act Two to show the uneasiness and difficulties
in the relationship between Proctor and Elizabeth. Lines are abrupt and underdeveloped and some
sentences are almost completely made up of monosyllabic words.
Miller also uses religious references in an ironic way. It is ironic that the characters accused of heresy
and consorting with the devil (Proctor, Corey and Rebecca) make constant references to scripture and
ideas deeply rooted in Christianity to defend their views and express their emotions in court. It is
significant that Parris, a priest and supposedly a messenger for God, does not do this in the court
scenes!! We see Proctor’s piety in the courthouse when he encourages May Warren to speak the truth:
“You cannot weep, Mary. Remember the angel, what he say to the boy. Hold to it, now; there is your
rock.”
Proctor is a religious man but simply rejects the authority of the church. Faith is a matter for the
individual.
Proctor at the end of Act Three quotes Friedrich Nietzche when he says:
“I say- I say-I say God is dead!”
This comes from Nietzche’s `The Gay Science’:
Have you not heard of that madman who lit a lantern in the bright morning hours, ran to the marketplace, and cried incessantly: "I am looking for God! I am looking for God!"
As many of those who did not believe in God were standing together there, he excited considerable
laughter. Have you lost him, then? said one. Did he lose his way like a child? said another. Or is he
hiding? Is he afraid of us? Has he gone on a voyage? or emigrated? Thus they shouted and laughed. The
madman
sprang
into
their
midst
and
pierced
them
with
his
glances.
"Where has God gone?" he cried. "I shall tell you. We have killed him - you and I. We are his
murderers. But how have we done this? How were we able to drink up the sea? Who gave us the sponge
to wipe away the entire horizon? What did we do when we unchained the earth from its sun? Whither is
it moving now? Whither are we moving now? Away from all suns? Are we not perpetually falling?
Backward, sideward, forward, in all directions? Is there any up or down left? Are we not straying as
through an infinite nothing? Do we not feel the breath of empty space? Has it not become colder? Is it
not more and more night coming on all the time? Must not lanterns be lit in the morning? Do we not
hear anything yet of the noise of the gravediggers who are burying God? Do we not smell anything yet
of God's decomposition? Gods too decompose. God is dead. God remains dead. And we have killed him.
How shall we, murderers of all murderers, console ourselves? That which was the holiest and mightiest
of all that the world has yet possessed has bled to death under our knives. Who will wipe this blood off
us? With what water could we purify ourselves? What festivals of atonement, what sacred games shall
we need to invent? Is not the greatness of this deed too great for us? Must we not ourselves become
gods simply to be worthy of it? There has never been a greater deed; and whosoever shall be born after
us - for the sake of this deed he shall be part of a higher history than all history hitherto."
Here the madman fell silent and again regarded his listeners; and they too were silent and stared at
him in astonishment. At last he threw his lantern to the ground, and it broke and went out. "I have come
too early," he said then; "my time has not come yet. The tremendous event is still on its way, still
travelling - it has not yet reached the ears of men. Lightning and thunder require time, the light of the
stars requires time, deeds require time even after they are done, before they can be seen and heard.
This deed is still more distant from them than the distant stars - and yet they have done it themselves."
It has been further related that on that same day the madman entered divers churches and there sang
a requiem. Led out and quietened, he is said to have retorted each time: "what are these churches now
if they are not the tombs and sepulchres of God?"
For Nietzche there was a point when religion which he saw as an artificial construct created by
humankind to achieve some sense of social order and to help people to cope with life had to die.
Nietzche was not denying the existence of God in a metaphysical sense but when suggesting that God is
dead was questioning the idea of the God created by organized religion. He saw the death of organized
religion (God) as something to be celebrated as then human beings would have to take total
responsibility for their own actions. They could not hide behind the views of others or blindly follow
commandments- they would have to make up their own minds; human beings could not hide behind
excuses- they would be empowered and freed through the death of God. It would only be through the
acceptance of the death of God that humans could embark on the path of true individuality. Proctor in
many senses embodies this idea of the true individual. He listens to his own conscience and does not
blindly follow the will of others. His name at the end of the play is important to him because it is what
gives him his own unique identity and sense of self. He rejects the tyranny of the majority and the
theocratic state.
Proctor: “Because it is my name! Because I cannot have another in my life……How may I live without my
name?”
Proctor feels a sense of release at the end of the play. The moment of cartharsis at the end of the play is
the moment when he is able to shed the guilt that he feels because of the affair that he had with Abigail
Williams. By going to his death, Proctor makes a choice between the importance of individual identity
over the collective identity of the community. Catharsis means to purify and Proctor in the final pages is
pure. He makes the ultimate choice about whether to live or die and must listen to his own conscience
and his own innate sense of morality. Salem society will not tell him how to feel or think and he will not
be used as a tool to serve the needs of others. He will be true to himself. The private wins over the
public. The carthartic moment takes place when Hale says:
Hale: “Man you will hang! You cannot!
Proctor {His eyes full of tears}: I can. And there’s your first marvel, that I can. You have made your magic
now, for now I do think I see some shred of goodness in John Proctor. Not enough to weave a banner
with, but it is white enough to keep it from such dogs.”
It is interesting and ironic to note that Proctor talks of Hale making magic. It is the religion of the
community with its repressive and intolerant doctrines that is equated with witchcraft and sorcery. It is
also interesting to compare Proctor with one of the minor characters called Herrick.
We are never really sure if Herrick believes that Proctor is guilty. He blindly follows the orders of the
court. He does not listen to his own voice. He unquestioningly accepts and upholds the values of Salem
society. We see this when Giles Corey demands to be heard in the court-house.
Herrick: “Giles! Giles!
Giles: Out of my way, Herrick! I bring evidenceHerrick: You cannot go in there, Giles; it is a court!”
Herrick is not interested in evidence, justice or the truth being uncovered but ensuring that correct
protocol and procedures are followed. There is irony in his line! It is perhaps significant that in Act
Three of the play when he comes to take the prisoners to the site of their execution he is described as
“drunk” and “heavy footed”. He is trying to block out the voice of his own conscience through drink. His
heavy-footedness suggests a reluctance to carry out the sentence but nevertheless he obeys.
Use of light
Light is used to create tension in the play as well as being used symbolically. The final Act begins in
darkness with moonlight pouring into one of the prison cells. As the Act progresses, the light increases
reminding us that time is running out for Proctor and that he will be executed in the morning; this
creates tension for the audience. Proctor’s execution in the full light of the morning with his carthartic
moment represents his rebirth; the darkness previously hidden within his soul being purged by the light
of day. It also represents the hope of a new beginning.
Proctor as Christ
Symbolic parallels can be drawn between Christ and Proctor. Proctor’s iconic Christ-like appearance
(unkempt, bearded look (see stage directions) as well as the idea of him being chained, subjected to
temptation and martyred for the sins of others might suggest this reading. Hale’s reaction to Proctor’s
execution fits in with a Christian reading of the crucifixion. Hale feels guilty by what he witnesses and his
faith shaken in the God preached by the institutions of Salem. He is changed and reborn. At the end of
the play he says:
“ I denounce these proceedings, I quit this court!”
Through the complex and ever changing character of Hale, Miller seems to be suggesting that humans
can learn from their mistakes. There is hope!
Importance of the title
Crucible can mean a trial or can refer to a pot used to heat substances to extreme temperatures. It is
very interesting to note that it can be used to distil/purify or fuse chemicals together. This ties in with
the struggle between the individual struggling not to become fused with or struggling to break free from
the public clutches of the community.
Criticism of Miller
Miller has been criticized for under developing the female characters. They remain pretty static in terms
of character development (compare with Hale and Proctor). We hardly see their anguish or any
psychological trauma in spite of the horrors that envelop them. The female characters almost seem
peripheral. We do not see them tortured by self-doubt or entertaining conflicting ideas.