THE COLLAPSE OF THE AZTECS
Introduction
In 1521 a small force of Spanish soldiers, along with their native American allies, overthrew the
vast empire of the Aztecs in central Mexico. The collapse of the Aztec Empire has often been viewed as
the opening chapter in the rise of Europeans on the world stage. However, the victory of the Spanish in
central Mexico was not typical of the European encounters with civilized peoples in the 16th century.
Indeed the victory of Spanish arms may have had less to do with Spanish power and technology than with
the weakness of the Aztecs themselves.
Aztec History
The pre-Colombian (before Colombus "discovered" America) governments of Mexico ranged
from simple tribal systems to complicated empires like the Aztecs. Likewise, the societies of preColombian Mexico varied from simple extended-family groups to large civilizations rivaling their
contemporaries (civilizations existing at the same time) around the world. The Aztecs originally came
from either northern Mexico or from what is now Arizona or New Mexico. After a long period of
wandering the Aztec people saw an eagle on a cactus with a snake in its mouth. They saw this in the
middle of Lake Texcoco. This was the sign that the vision of Huitzilopochtli had told them to look for. It
meant that their many years of wandering were over and it was time for the Aztec empire to rise. So, the
Aztec began to construct their new capital city of Tenochtitlán in the center of Lake Texcoco.
Aztec Society
As it developed in and around Tenochtitlán, Aztec society became more rigidly divided into social
classes. Political power and control over the land came to rest in the hands of a few ruling families. Most
of the people were farmers. Although the aristocrats (nobles), priests, and rulers could not have survived
without the common people, the common people had little to say about just what the Aztec empire would
do or even what their lives would be like. Indeed, by 1519 the farmers had declined in status to the level of
serfs in medieval Europe. This meant that most people in Aztec society did not own land; instead, they
worked land owned by the upper class. Commoners were unable to act without the permission of the land
owner and, in fact, did not even own what they produced. Instead, the land owners took most of what the
commoners produced for themselves and left only enough for the commoners to survive.
Aztec Technology
When Hernán Cortés and his men entered Mexico it was almost as if they had stepped back in time
to ancient Egypt. In technological terms, the people of Mexico were in the earliest stages of the Bronze
Age. Although artisans knew how to use gold, silver, and copper, these metals were used only for
ornaments. All tools were made of stone, wood, and bone.
By the 16th century, the Mexican peoples had developed sophisticated agricultural technology which
included canals for irrigation and advanced planting techniques. Still, the Aztec had only a few
domesticated (tamed) animals, including dogs, turkeys, and bees. There were no horses in the Americas,
and the people of Mexico had no other beast of burden (animal used to till fields, carry loads, etc.).
While the Aztecs, and their predecessors (people who came before them) in Central America, had
constructed brilliant and complex civilizations, they had done so with virtually no mechanical help. The
Aztecs did not use the wheel for transportation. They had no labor-saving devices such as cranes,
watermills, windmills, or pulleys. They generally relied on human muscle power to do work and to
transport people and goods. This, in a way, makes their achievements even more impressive.
The Aztec Empire
The Aztec Empire covered much of central Mexico. Around 1400 AD, the Aztecs began to
conquer the peoples around them. The Aztec would make alliances (agreements to work together) with
weak neighbors against powerful enemies. After the defeat of those enemies, the Aztec would turn on
their allies and conquer them as well. By 1502 their empire stretched throughout central Mexico south to
the border of present-day Guatemala. Thus, when Europeans arrived in the New World, the Aztec Empire
was relatively young. Many of Mexico's peoples accepted Aztec rule only reluctantly. The Aztecs'
betrayal of their treaties left many of the tribes very upset.
Perhaps because it was relatively young, the empire of the Aztecs had only the most basic
administrative structure. The emperor, called "Great Speaker," was a semi-divine (better than human, but
not quite a God) ruler who lived in an elaborate palace complex surrounded by extraordinary wealth. The
palace housed the emperor's servants and the people who managed the everyday functions of the state.
Basically, everyone who made the Aztec Empire work.
The functions of the state included the collection of tribute, or payments, from subject peoples.
Once conquered, subject peoples had to pay tribute or suffer military retaliation. Garrisons (permanent
military posts) with governors were set up to insure the prompt collection of goods and their safe transport
to the capital. That was the extent of imperial administration. There were no standard laws, no concept of
citizenship. People simply paid tribute to a godlike Aztec emperor. Beyond the payment of tribute and
continued loyalty, the Aztec required nothing of the tribes they conquered.
Tribute
The Aztecs collected such things as cacao beans, deer hides, conch shells, feathers and bolts of
cotton cloth as tribute from subject peoples. Some of the tribute was kept by the imperial court in
Tenochtitlán. The rest was used to pay the emperor's artisans and warriors. It was this tribute that kept the
empire operating.
But, the Aztecs demanded another form of tribute from subject people as well: subjects for their
human sacrifices. The Aztec gods needed human blood to maintain themselves. The Aztecs believed that
humans were created from a combination of corn, water, and the blood of Huitzilopochtli. To maintain
the gods it was necessary to sacrifice humans in order to return the pure corn/blood to the gods. It was
considered an honor to be sacrificed to the gods in Aztec culture. As such, families and individuals hoped
to be sacrificed. This explains why the most intelligent, strongest, and most beautiful Aztec citizens were
sacrificed. Because, however, the Aztec required daily sacrifice, generally the best of Aztec society were
reserved for the most powerful Gods or special occasions. For lower level gods and day to day sacrifices,
the Aztec used prisoners of war or members of tribes given as tribute. It was important that the heart of the
person being sacrificed was removed because the Aztec knew it was the source of blood for the body.
Key Religious Ideas
The Aztecs had a rich religious life. The Aztecs, like other Central American peoples, kept careful
observations and records of the calendar. Through observations of the stars, the Aztec knew that the year
consisted of 365 days. They divided those days into 18 months of 20 days each and one special ceremonial
month of five days. The Aztec believed that critical events occurred on certain days and in certain cycles
of years. Every day on the calendar has a specific god which it was tied to; it was important to honor the
correct god on the correct day. By keeping track of the calendar, the Aztec priests could plan regularly
occurring ceremonies and events, regulate planting times for agriculture, and foretell the future.
A key figure in Aztec religion was the god Quetzalcoatl (literally the "Feathered Serpent").
According to the Aztec religion, the white-skinned Quetzalcoatl was to return to earth in the form of a
man; Quetzalcoatl would come from the East. When he did, he would destroy the Aztec civilization.
Warfare
The key to keeping the tribute flowing into the Aztec capital was the army. Aztec warriors gloried
in war. Splendidly costumed and armed with spears, darts, and clubs set with razor-sharp stone blades,
Aztec troops were, generally, the best in ancient Mexico.
While powerful, Aztec armies and warfare were not designed to kill the enemy. Because of the
need for human sacrifices, Aztec soldiers routinely tried to capture their opponents. Rather than working as
a group to kill the enemy, the Aztec soldiers worked as individuals to capture individual enemies. To some
degree, warfare was driven not only by the desire for new land and resources, but by the need for prisoners
to sacrifice. This view of war and battle contrasted sharply with the Spanish soldiers who accompanied
Hernán Cortés. In Europe, the object of war was to kill the enemy. Europeans fought as groups aiming to
kill the enemy, not capture him. Cortés' men were hardened by long years of fighting in Europe. For
them, warfare was not a ritual event, but a job with a specific goal: kill the enemy on the field of battle.
The Spanish Arrive
Hernán Cortés was a soldier of fortune who had taken part in the conquest of Cuba. A clever and
resourceful leader, Cortés was chosen to lead an expedition to Mexico to investigate stories of a rich
civilization there. The Spanish hoped to take gold and spices from the mainland and return it to Spain.
On the day that the Aztec religion predicted Quetzalcoatl's return, Cortés and his army landed at
Vera Cruz on the eastern coast of Mexico. Cortés landed in Mexico in March, 1519 with some 600 men,
thirteen horses, and a few cannon and muskets. The sailing ships, iron tools, horses, steel armor and
gun-powder weapons of the Spanish immediately impressed the local people around Vera Cruz. They saw
the Spaniards as a way to break free from the hated Aztec rule. For his part, Cortés realized that these
people could be useful allies. An allied force of Spaniards and non-Aztec natives set out for the Aztec
capital. He relied on them throughout his campaign.
Meanwhile, messengers arrived at Tenochtitlán with news of strange events in the east. A
mountain was said to have moved on the water. From it there emerged men with white faces and long
beards. The emperor, Moctezuma, unlike any of his predecessors, was more interested in religion than in
war. In dreams he had seen the return of Quetzalcoatl. He had dreamed of strange men riding on the backs
of deer. The emperor Moctezuma believed Cortés to be the god returned to destroy Mexico.
Cortés Arrives In Tenochtitlán
When Cortés and his men first saw the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán they were amazed by the
sight. The city that lay before them contained about a quarter of a million people (250,000), more than
double the largest city in Europe. Built on artificial islands in Lake Texcoco, the city covered almost five
square miles. In the city the Spanish could see huge markets into which goods from all over Mexico
flowed. Even more impressive were the massive stone pyramid temples, the largest of which was 120 feet
tall. Temples, palaces, ceremonial ballcourts, and other public buildings, each covered with elaborate
carvings of gods and heroes, dominated the city's center.
When the Spanish arrived outside his capital, Moctezuma welcomed them. He showered Cortés
with rich gifts. Moctezuma believed he was welcoming Quetzalcoatl's return. As a result of this believe,
Moctezuma gave Cortés anything he asked for. At first, this was mostly gold and food, but as time passed
Moctezuma also gave Cortés Aztec citizens.
The Collapse Of The Aztecs
It did not take Moctezuma and other Aztec leaders long, however, to realize that the Spaniards
were not mighty gods; it was clear that Cortés was not Quetzalcoatl returning to earth. When it became
clear that the Spanish were, in fact, nothing more than treasure hunters the Aztec made plans to resist.
Gathering their forces, the Aztecs attacked the Spanish, killing about one-third of the handful of men
Cortés had brought to Tenochtitlán. Cortés, and the rest of his force, barely escaped from the city; during
the time they were there, however, they managed to take thousands of pounds of gold. Moctezuma was
killed in the fighting.
In the summer of 1521 Cortés returned to the Aztec capital with a force of 600 Spaniards newly
arrived from Cuba and about 25,000 non-Aztec natives. Cortés built small ships, mounted cannon on them,
and sent them out into the lake to surround the city. This prevented Tenochtitlán from being re-supplied,
leaving the residence to starve. Meanwhile, while the city was surrounded, smallpox broke out within
Tenochtitlán and killed several thousand citizens. With no escape, the starving defenders fought their final
battle on August 13, 1521. The Spanish and their native allies defeated the Aztec decisively. The
conquerors tore down what remained of the broken city.
The Result
While Tenochtitlán fell within three years of the arrival of the Spanish, the overall conquest of
Mexico itself would be along process. It took the Spanish another 60 years to actually take over all of
modern Mexico. During that time, much of the damage to native cultures was done not by Spanish armies,
but by disease. Smallpox, in particular, proved particularly devastating to native peoples. It is estimated
that of the 15 to 20 million natives in Mexico at the time of the Spanish arrival, only 2 to 4 million
remained by 1550. Today Mexico City stands on the ruins of the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán. The city's
main cathedral is located next to the original site of the main Aztec temple.
Name __________________________________________
Date _________
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THE COLLAPSE OF THE AZTECS CHART
Directions: As you read each section, choose the three most important pieces of information and
write them in the box provided. Then, create a symbol to represent that section. Afterward,
answer the questions on the back of this sheet.
Topic
Aztec History
Aztec Society
Aztec Technology
The Aztec Empire
Tribute
Key Religious Ideas
Warfare
The Spanish Arrive
Cortés Arrives
In Tenochtitlán
The Collapse
Of The Aztecs
The Result
Key Information
Symbol
THE COLLAPSE OF THE AZTECS QUESTIONS
1. Explain the social class structure of Aztec society, paying attention to the level of equality
between the various classes.
2. Compare the level of technology that existed between the Aztecs and the Spanish.
3. Describe the Aztec administrative and legal system for ruling their empire?
4. Describe Aztec relations with their subject peoples?
5. What was the Quetzalcoatl myth? How did it influence events in Mexico's history?
6. Why was warfare a "ritual event" for the Aztecs?
7. How did Moctezuma treat Cortés and the Spaniards when they appeared at the Aztec capital?
8. Decide the extent to which each factor contributed to the collapse of the Aztecs. Do this by
reordering the list below from 1 to 7 with 1 being the factor that contributed most to the collapse
and 7 being the factor that contributed the least. Be prepared to defend your ranking in class.
a. Social Inequality
b. Level of Technology
c. Limited Imperial Government
d. Relations with Subject Peoples
e. Quetzalcoatl Myth
f. Approach to War
g. Moctezuma's Attitude Toward Cortés