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What is the evidence on technology supported learning?
This research note reports the international and domestic evidence on
technology in supporting learning in schools, including how technology is used
in learning and the impact that it has on students’ attainment.
Key findings
Young peoples use of digital technology
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In the UK, use of technology at home varies by age and gender;
younger people favour games and creative activities, older girls tend to
favour communication and older boys game-playing.
Research from the US has found that digital media allows a style of
learning that is more interactive and participatory and technology
enables young people to learn in peer driven groups.
The use of technology in schools
 Evidence suggests interactive white boards (IWBs) can foster a more
interactive style of whole class teaching through features that
encourage student participation in this setting, through the use of
touch-sensitive screens.
 Learning platforms are being used across schools to successfully
support or transform existing practice in a variety of ways including
enhancing data management and communication. For example,
tracking learners behaviour and attendance, enabling teachers to
share resources and keeping parents/carers informed and involved in
their child’s learning.
 Technology promotes school to school collaboration. In the ‘Dissolving
Boundaries’ programme schools use online programmes, wikis1 and
Moodle2 for between school collaboration. This has led to improved
literacy, oracy, ICT and communication skills.
 Evidence suggests that the use audience response systems (ARS)
generally improve student outcomes such as exam scores and student
comprehension. One of the main benefits of ARS is that it can deliver
frequent formative assessment in the classroom.
 Self- paced learning (SPL) with ARS allows able students to work at a
faster pace and does not pressure struggling students. Using SPL
with ARS has a significant impact on student’s scores.
 Information and communications technology (ICT) is utilised by
teachers for lesson planning, student assessment, recording student
progress and communicating with parents and delivering lessons.
 School- wide planning is improved with the use of ICT. This is
because ICT makes administration accessible to wider groups through
a web interface; school records are more easily maintained,
1
Wikis are online collaborative areas which allow anyone with access to contribute to and edit
the online-workspace
2 Moodle (abbreviation for Modular Object-Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment) is a free
source e-learning software platform, also known as a Course Management System
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exchanged and updated.
Emerging technologies
 Cloud computing, and collaborative environments have been adopted
in part in schools, but are not yet used to their full potential. It has
become common for schools to use cloud-based applications to
manage calendars, rosters, grade books, and communication between
school and home. Collaborative environments allow students who are
in separate locations to work together.
 Evidence suggests that video games support learning and increase
student motivation.
 The use of games and interactive simulations in teaching improves
cognitive outcomes in comparison to traditional methods. There is
some evidence to suggest that computer games improve learning.
The impact of ICT on attainment
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It is difficult to establish causality of ICT on attainment due to the
number of variables that are impossible to control for in a school
environment. However two of the largest studies in the UK looking at
ICT’s impact on attainment (the ImpaCT study and the Test bed
project) have found there are statistically significant positive
relationships between the use of ICT and achievement in
mathematics, English and science.
The availability of a computer at home is significantly positively
associated with Key Stage 4 (KS4) test scores.
The length of time students are taught with IWBs is a major factor in
student attainment across core subjects at KS2.
International evidence
 Evidence from the Programme for International Student Assessment
(PISA) shows that the length of time students have been using
computers is correlated with their performance in mathematics.
 A large-scale experimental study by the US Department of Education
found that the software packages studied had no effect on reading and
algebra skills.
 However, a number of studies have found positive effects for example
the use of ‘SimCalc Mathworlds’3 has a significant effect on student’s
scores, particularly on the knowledge of complex concepts and ebooks have been found to be effective in the development of reading.
Online learning
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Evidence from the US has found that online learning has positive
impact on learners in comparison to just face- to- face learning
Students who attend the Florida Virtual Learning School achieve
3
Simcalc is an application that allows students to manipulate relationships about time,
velocity, and position. The representation can be manipulated by its equation, or directly on a
graph.
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higher grades in comparison to students at traditional schools.
Wider benefits of using ICT in schools
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Eighty-six percent of teachers in 25 EU member states feel that
students are motivated and attentive when using ICT in class.
Evidence suggests that ICT helps to draw students into positive
modes of motivation.
How is technology used to support learning?
Young peoples use of digital technologies
Evidence suggests that learners across the age range and especially older
learners, regularly use digital technologies4 in the home for a range of
purposes (Davis and Good 2009). The authors explored ICT use in young
people across the UK, in particular, if they use the technology available to
them in the home for educational purposes and what else it is used for. They
conducted a survey of over 1000 young people aged 8,12, 14 and 17 in the
UK, as well as conducing case studies and interviews. They report that
approximately 82 per cent of learners nationally live in homes that are
connected to the internet, and 87 per cent live in homes that have at least one
computer. Uses vary according to gender and age: younger people favour
games and creative activities, older girls tend to favour communication and
older boys game playing. Learners that were interviewed were found to use
technologies for homework in ways that improved the appearance and
content of their work (Davis and Good 2009).
The MacArthur Foundation undertook the first ethnographic study of how
young people in the United States participate with digital media. Ito et al.
(2008) interviewed over 800 young people and conducted over 5000 hours of
online observations. They report that digital media allows a style of learning
that is less about consuming knowledge and more about interaction and
participation. Digital media is enabling learning environments to be assessed
anywhere at anytime, and young people are learning in peer driven groups.
The internet allows young people to interact and receive feedback from one
another. Fifty-one percent of students in the study said gaming technologies
made it easier for them to understand difficult concepts in learning. Roughly
one third of all teens who used the internet have shared the content they
produced. Middle school and high school students said they shared photos,
videos or music (38%); created new videos, music, audio or animation (32
percent); or even repackaged different pieces to create something entirely
4
Digital media is a form of electronic media where data is stored in digital (as opposed to
analog) form.
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different (23%). Students were increasingly contributing to blogs (18%) or
wikis (11 percent). Younger students (3rd – 5th grade) were also taking
advantage of the tools available to them. They shared videos, podcasts or
photos via the internet (32 percent) and also contributed to blogs, quite often
associated with the virtual reality environments (13 percent) (MacArthur et al.
2011).
The use of technology in schools
According to Becta (2009) schools have steadily become more ‘e-enabled’5
Underwood et al. (2010) report that the level of e-maturity in schools is related
to teacher reports about the impact of ICT. So in schools that were more eenabled ICT had more of an effect on teaching, learning and the outreach
work done by the school.
Interactive white boards (IWBs)
IWBs and other display technologies have been in wide use for some time in
schools. Becta’s (2009) Harnessing Technology Survey found that 86% of
primary school teachers use these at least once a day, compared to 73% of
secondary teachers. IWB’s can foster a more interactive style of whole class
teaching through features that encourage student participation in this setting,
through the use of touch-sensitve screen. IWBs can increase the pace of
teaching by making it easier to move between texts on screen as well as
revisit materials deployed earlier (Moss et al. 2007).
Learning platforms
Schools at primary and secondary level are now making increasing use of
‘institutional-level’ ICT to support and enhance their teaching, learning and
management activities (BESA, 2009). The nature and form of these
technologies varies from school to school, most often involving the use of
management information systems, virtual learning environments,
communications technologies and other information and resource sharing
technologies. In many schools these technologies are integrated into shared
online systems and environments referred to as ‘learning platforms’ (Jewitt et
al. 2010).
Learning platforms are being used across participating schools to successfully
support or transform existing practice in a variety of ways relating to learning,
teaching, communication and data management. Data management is
enhanced through integration or linking of data management systems with
learning platforms. Bringing all resources together in one place generates a
digital space for management and use of data and resources by different
users. One example of enhanced data management using learning platforms
is recording and tracking of learner data on attendance and behaviour.
Research has found that learning platforms encourage attendance and
The term ‘e-enablement’ indicates integration of technology across the school, and is in
effect a ‘low hurdle’ version of broader e-maturity
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positive behaviour for learning through this tracking and communication and
sharing of learner data between staff, parents and learners (Jewitt et al. 2010)
Whole-school communication is being transformed through the use of online
messaging systems and virtual staffrooms and notice boards. These changes,
in practice, are facilitating dialogue between staff, management and learners
at whole-school level. In terms of teaching, learning platforms encourage the
sharing of individual teacher’s resources with the whole school community.
Such sites include resources, quizzes, and revision material. Evidence
suggests that parents and carers are also being better informed about their
child’s learning(Jewitt et al. 2010).
Learning platforms have also been found to help personalise learning. In
some schools and teachers use their learning platforms to support learners’
self-assessment and peer-assessment through the use of surveys and open
questions. Discussion forums, blogging and chat facilities are used in some
cases to support learner discussion and dialogue with their teachers and
peers, as well as to encourage self-reflection.
Audience response systems
An audience response system (ARS) (also know as voting systems, clickers
and zappers) permits students to respond to multiple-choice questions using a
remote control device. All responses are instantly displayed, usually in chart
form, and subsequently reviewed and discussed by the instructor and the
class. The key advantage of using an ARS is that it can give feedback to both
students and instructors on how well the entire class understands concepts
presented (Kay and LeSage 2009). Most of the research evidence on ARS is
on the higher education (HE) sector.
The evidence suggests that ARS generally improve student outcomes such
as exam scores and student comprehension however it is not known what
causes these benefits (Roschelle et al 2004; Simpson and Oliver 2006 cited in
Caldwell 2007). Studies from HE have reported that there are dramatic
increases in attendance when 15% of a student’s grade is linked to ARS
participation (Burnstein & Lederman, 2001; Greer & Heany, 2004 cited in
Caldwell 2007).
One of the main benefits is that the ARS can deliver frequent formative
assessment in the classroom (Roschelle et al 2004). Unlike traditional
classrooms, students can respond without judgement of their peers or tutor. A
new development in the use of handheld learner response devices allows
students to answer questions at their own pace, providing instant feedback to
the students and their teachers about the students’ understanding of the
concepts just taught. In this self-paced learning innovation (SPL), questions
are delivered to students on the screen of their learner response device. As
soon as they answer a question, the next one appears on the screen. An
evolving graph showing how each child is answering each question and
depicting the rate at which they are responding immediately appears on the
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teacher’s computer. The SPL strategy allows the students who are more able
to work more quickly and those who need more time to feel less pressured. It
also allows teachers to see which children are struggling so they can
intervene and provide additional support. A small- scale randomised
evaluation of SPL was conducted in seven primary schools to determine if this
form of technology-supported formative feedback increased student learning.
Year 56 classes were randomly assigned to use SPL alongside Learning Clip 7
or just Learning Clip for 12 weeks. The results of the statistical analysis show
a significant advantage of SPL with Learning Clip interactive whiteboard
curriculum in comparison to the Learning Clip programme alone in promoting
Year 5 students mathematics learning. The analysis produced an effect size
of +0.39 which was considered a reasonably large effect (Shread and
Chambers 2011).
School to school collaboration
Technology enables schools to collaborate together. One established
example of this is ‘The Dissolving Boundaries’ programme which uses ICT to
enable schools in Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland to work
together on agreed aspects of the curriculum. This cross-border programme
has three key aims:
 The integration of technology in a meaningful way into curricular work
 Educationally valuable collaborative work done in schools
 Cross-border links promoting mutual understanding.
The programme began with 50 schools and has now reached a total of 370
schools,740 teachers and some 26,600 students. Although the technology
tools used have changed over time, research reports have consistently shown
that teachers have embedded technology in almost every aspect of the
curriculum. When ‘Moodle’ was introduced in 2006 ‘wikis’ were able to be
utilised. Wikis are online collaborative areas and in ‘Dissolving Boundaries’
projects they have allowed both schools in a given partnership to contribute to
and edit a shared on-line workspace, and have given teachers the opportunity
to more easily monitor the contributions from both sets of student (Austin et
al.2009).
Data both from students and teachers have found that students are motivated
by working with students from different schools. This has led to improved
literacy, oracy, ICT and communication skills. These positive outcomes have
been especially noticeable in special schools (Austin et al 2009).
There were 221 students in total, 109 in the experimental condition and 112 in the
control condition. Control schools were trained to use SPL after the experiment was
finished.
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7
Learning Clip is an online resource for teaching primary maths. It includes interactive
activities, video clips and work sheets cover mathematical topics.
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Benefits of ICT for teachers and the school
The Empirica survey (2006) found that 90% of teachers use ICT to prepare
their lessons (cited in Balaskat et al. 2006). Another common use of ICT is
reporting and recording student progress (Becta 2009). Becta (2010) found
that technology was used for reporting to parents and used for assessment
tasks. School-wide planning has also improved with the help of ICT. This
because ICT makes administration accessible to wider groups through a web
interface; school records are more easily maintained, exchanged and updated
(Balanskat 2009). Holligworth et al. (2008) report that ICT is used in school
improvement particularly in relation to monitoring student assessment and
progress.
How technology makes a difference
Crook et al. (2010) explored the way that ICT supports learning in the
classroom. The study reported an analysis of 85 lesson logs in which teachers
recorded their use of space, digital technology and student outcomes in
relation to student engagement and learning. They found that ICT makes new
forms of classroom practice possible. This is apparent in three ways:
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the reconfiguration of space such that new patterns of mobility, flexible
working and activity management can occur
new ways in which class activities can be triggered, orchestrated and
monitored
new experiences associated with the virtualisation of established and
routine practices – such as using multiple documents in parallel or
manipulating spatial representations.
They report that ICT creates the possibility of a wide variety of learning
practices. Three activities were significantly aided by technology these were:
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exposition which is animated by the opportunity to invoke rich shared
images, video and plans
independent research which is extended by the availability of internet
search opportunities
construction which is made possible by ready-to-hand ICT-based tools.
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Emerging technologies
Cloud computing and collaborative environments
Evidence from the US suggests that cloud computing8, and collaborative
environments have been adopted in part in schools but are not yet used to
their full potential. Cloud computing was viewed in 2009 as two to three years
away from mainstream adoption, however it has seen dramatic uptake by
schools over the past twelve months. Cloud computing has transformed the
way that data can be stored and accessed. It has become common for
schools to use cloud-based applications to manage calendars, rosters, grade
books, and communication between school and home. However what remains
to be developed is for cloud to help students engage in real research.
Similarly, collaborative environments which are online spaces where the focus
is on making it easy to collaborate and work in groups, no matter where the
participants may be have been adopted in part. Teachers are finding that
collaborative environments are an efficient way for students to work together,
whether the groups are composed of students in the same physical class or
not. Collaborative environments give students opportunities to interact with
peers and mentors and experience other worldviews (Johnson et al. 2010).
Mobile devices are potentially useful in reaching students and for bridging the
gap between the learning that happens in school and the learning that
happens out in the world. Researchers note that if a mobile device has the
ability to send text, mobiles can become personal responses systems,
enabling teachers to quiz students and assess their understanding before,
during and after a lesson. Some mobiles are able to store and display full
length books which makes it easy for students to carry a library of literature
around with them. The fact they are portable and can access the internet will
make them useful in a school setting (Johnson et al. 2010).
Game -based learning
According to Felicia (2011) video games are ideal to support teaching and
increase motivation. Johnson et al. (2010) predict that in a few years gamebased learning and mobiles will be utilised frequently in classrooms. The
greatest potential of games for learning lies in their ability to foster
collaboration and engage students deeply in the process of learning. Different
modes of uses of games identified include games: as metaphors for
supporting higher cognition, in microworlds and open ended spaces for
experimentation, and as tools for therapy and for the rehearsal of skills
(Freitas 2006).
An Ipsos MORI poll of teachers9 found that while 32% of teachers have used
‘games designed for entertainment’ in their lessons and 59% would consider
8
Cloud computing is a computing technology that uses the internet and central remote
servers to maintain data and applications. Cloud computing allows students and teachers to
use applications without installing them on their computers and also allows access to saved
files from any computer with an internet connection.
9 The Ipsos MORI Teachers’ Omnibus questioned a representative sample of 924
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using them in the future (Sandford, 2006). Their study found that 63% thought
players learn higher order thinking skills and 62% thought players learnt
specific content knowledge. Although many did think that games teach
stereotypical views (62%) and anti-social behaviour (71%). The main barrier
to using games in school was cited as a lack of access to equipment and
availability of up-to-date graphics / video cards – making it difficult for
teachers to run games on their own PCs (Sandford 2006).
Impact of games for learning
Although it understood that computer games are motivating for children there
is little direct evidence on their effect on teaching and learning. Miller and
Robertson (2010) investigated this in a relatively small sample of primary
school children. They looked at the effects of a commercial off-the-shelf
computer game on children's mental computation skills and on aspects of selfperceptions.
The participants were 71 primary school children aged 10 and 11 from three
classes. In school one, children used a games console for 20 minutes each
day for ten weeks, running a "brain training" game. Available on the Nintendo
DS Lite system, Dr Kawashima’s Brain Training game comprises a variety of
puzzles that primarily involve mental calculations and memorisation. At
regular intervals players complete a ‘brain-age check’, which provides
feedback to the individual about his or her speed and accuracy in tasks similar
to those practised. Two comparison classes were identified. In school two, a
comparison group participated in Brain-Gym sessions on a schedule similar to
that of the computer-based group. Finally, a class of children in a third school
acted as non treatment controls. In order to measure children’s mental
computation, a 100-item test (the ‘Number Challenge’) was devised.
The games console group and the no treatment group showed significant
gains in the numbers of correct answers. However the gains for the games
console group were twice those in the no treatment group. There were slight
gains found in the Brain-Gym group but these were not significant. There
were significant reductions in time taken by the students to complete the
number challenge in the games console group and the Brain-Gym group. The
improvement of the games console group was twice that of the control
groups.
Case studies
In one primary school in Bristol the leisure game Myst which is a fantasy
game has been used to support literacy amongst 9-11 year olds. The game is
projected through the interactive whiteboard, the teacher narrates and sets
tasks for the students. Each student records their own reflections, good
examples of writing from the game and phrases from other students into their
journals. Level four literacy attainment for the school has risen from 75% in
primary and secondary school teachers in England9.
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2000, to 93% in 2004, and for boys attainment is now 100% as compared with
a national average that has remained at 70% between 2000 and 2004,
however this could be due to other variables (Freitas 2006).
‘Supercharged!’ is a game for teaching high-level conceptual physics (Barnett
et al., 2004; Jenkins et al., 2004). The game allows learners to pilot a
spaceship around a three dimensional environment by using the electric
charge of the spaceship and charged particles within the space. This game
develops a practical understanding of how participants behave. Barnett et al.
(cited in Squire 2006), found that students who participated in a module that
used Supercharged! performed better than students who had learned physics
through hands-on experiments, demonstrations and watching simulations.
The most dramatic results came from students who were unsuccessful in
school, suggesting that game-based formats may make complex science
thinking accessible to a broader range of students (Squire,
2006 cited in Freitas 2006).
The impact of ICT on student attainment
Evidence from the UK suggests that ICT can positively impact on student
attainment. Two of the largest studies in the UK looking at ICT’s impact on
attainment (the ImpaCT study and the Test bed project) have found there are
statistically significant positive relationships between the use of ICT and
achievement in mathematics, English and science.
ImpaCT2 (Harrison et al 2002) was the first large - scale study in the UK to
assess the effect of ICT on individual student attainment. ImpaCT2
established how well students had performed compared to what was
predicted of them. Statistically positive relationships between relative gain
score and level of ICT use were found in English at Key Stage 2, Science at
KS3 and Key Stage 4. A second UK project that investigates how the
sustained and embedded use of ICT in learning can improve learner
outcomes is the Test Bed project conducted from 2002 to 2006. The
evaluation of the project (Somekh et al. 2007) confirms that technology use
may lead to an improvement in test performance relative to matched
comparative schools. At primary level the national test outcomes improved
more rapidly in Test Bed schools on KS2 English, Maths and Science. At
secondary level, numbers of students achieving 5 or more A*-C grades were
significantly higher in Test Bed schools than in comparator schools in 2006.
Research that has considered strategies to improve learning estimates the
maximum approximate advantage gain over the course of a school year that
an ‘average’ student might expect if they use ICT is four months (Higgins et
al. 2011). It should be noted that it is not possible to control for all the
variables in schools environment so the research does not allow unequivocal
conclusions to be drawn regarding the impact of technology on attainment
(Underwood 2009). The research is often correlational so cause and effect
can not be implied.
The Institute of Fiscal Studies (IFS) looked at both attainment and behaviour
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differences between socioeconomic groups using data from the Longitudinal
Survey of Young People in England (LSYPE) of 15,000 teenagers born in
1989 and 1990 (Chowdry 2009). They established that computer and internet
access at home is important in explaining the achievement gap, and plays a
role in other behavioural outcomes. Findings include:
 After controlling for KS3 results, the availability of a computer at home
is significantly positively associated with KS4 test scores. This
association amounts to around 14 GCSE points (equivalent to 2 GCSE
grades).
 Young people with a computer at home are less likely to play truant at
ages 14 and 16 than those without computer access. For example,
having access to a computer at home is associated with a 5.8 per cent
reduction in the likelihood of playing truant at age 16.
 Gaining access to a computer is associated with a 4.3 per cent
reduction in the probability of playing truant at age 16, while losing
computer access is associated with a 5.3 per cent increase in the
probability of playing truant at age 16.
 Gaining access to the internet is associated with 10 GCSE points,
again controlling for achievement at KS3.
 Losing access to a computer is associated with a reduction of 20
GCSE points, even after controlling for prior attainment. (Becta
2009b).
The evidence also suggests that the use of interactive white boards in schools
also increases attainment. The evaluation of the Primary School Whiteboard
Expansion project (SWEEP) (Somekh et al. 2007) found that the length of
time students were taught with IWBs was a major factor in student attainment
across core subjects at KS2. There were positive impacts on literacy and
mathematics at KS1 and 2 once teachers had experienced sustained use
(around two years) and the technology had become embedded in pedagogical
practice. Where teachers had been teaching with an interactive whiteboard for
two years, there was evidence that all children, including those with SEN, had
made exceptional progress in attainment in national tests.
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In KS2 mathematics increased progress ranged from 2.5 months for
girls of average prior attainment to 5 months for boys of high prior
attainment.
In KS2 science the most marked effect was for low attainment boys
who made some 7.5 months additional progress when they had two
years of exposure to IWB’s as compared to no exposure. There was
no effect for high attaining girls, this was thought to be because of a
‘ceiling effect’ as the highest possible score is fixed.
In KS2 there was a positive trend was found in boys with low prior
attainment who made some 2.5 months additional progress after two
years of being taught with an IWB although this was not statistically
significant (Somekh et al. 2007).
In Key Stage 1 maths high attaining girls made gains of 4.75 months,
enabling them to catch up with high attaining boys.
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In Key Stage 1 science there was improved progress for girls of all
attainment levels, and for average and high attaining boys.
In Key Stage 1 English average and high attaining students benefited
from increased exposure to IWBs (Underwood 2009).
International evidence
On an international level the evidence further indicates that there is an
association between ICT and attainment. The 2006 OECD study PISA10
(Programme for International Student Assessment) findings show that the
length of time students have been using computers and their performance in
mathematics were correlated. By comparing computer access and frequency
of usage to students’ performance in mathematics, the study concluded that
the longer students have used computers the better they performed (up to a
certain point). For example, students who have used computers for less than
one year, score well below the OECD average, performing only the simplest
mathematics tasks, whereas students with more than five-year experience
score well above the OECD average. Yet, the PISA data do not demonstrate
causation; they only point to important interrelationships worth closer
investigation.
The ‘e-learning Nordic 2006’ study conducted in Finland, Denmark, Norway
and Sweden presents teachers’, students’ and parents’ views about the
consequences of using ICT in schools. More than 8000 people in 224 primary
and secondary schools participated in the survey. The study shows that
students, teachers and parents consider that ICT has a positive impact on
students’ learning. In the question ‘does ICT improve student performance’,
two in three teachers report that there has been an improvement in their
students’ subject-related performance and their basic skills (calculation,
reading and writing). In addition, teachers consider that academically strong
students benefit more from ICT use and ICT is seen by teachers to be a
valuable tool to support differentiation. Only the Finnish teachers’ experiences
are less positive and many think that ICT has no impact. With regard to writing
skills, most teachers reported that they experienced a moderate or high
degree of positive impact. This was also confirmed by the students
themselves as well as their parents. Yet, the students appear more critical
than the adults and in some countries (Finland, Denmark) and their responses
were divided. Only in Norway were students clearly convinced that they learn
more when they use ICT (Balanskat 2006).
The impact technology on numeracy and literacy skills
A large-scale experimental US study by the Department of Education
(Dunarksi et al. 2007) suggested that the reading and mathematics software
studied did not significantly increase test scores. Test scores in treatment
classrooms that were randomly assigned to use software products did not
10
PISA is the most comprehensive and rigorous international programme that assesses student performance and
collects data on characteristics of students and the institutions where they study. PISA 2003 assessed student
performance in mathematics, reading and science, as well as in cross curricular problem-solving skills.
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differ significantly from test scores in control classrooms. For first and fourth
grade reading products, the study found several school and classroom
characteristics that were correlated with effectiveness, including studentteacher ratios (for first grade) and the amount of time products were used (for
fourth grade). The study did not find characteristics related to effectiveness for
sixth grade math or algebra. The results reported were based on schools and
teachers who were not using the products in the previous school year. A
follow-up study assessed whether an additional year of teacher experience
using the selected products would result in a greater impact on student
outcomes. Again, there was no significant evidence of additional improvement
in test scores as a result of the additional year of experience with the
technology (Campuzano et al. 2009).
However studies have found more positive results regarding the impact of
mathematics software on learning. In a large randomised control trial of three
urban school districts in the US, Barrow et al. (2009) tested a popular
instructional computer program designed to improve pre-algebra and algebra
skills. They found that students randomly assigned to classes using the
computer lab score at least 0.17 of a standard deviation higher on a test of
pre-algebra and algebra achievement relative to students assigned to
traditional classrooms. This meant that students learning pre-algebra and
algebra through computer aided instruction (CAI) were 27% of a school year
ahead of their classmates in traditional classrooms after one year. It was
noted that the outcomes were measured soon after the intervention and it was
not clear if these would last. Also this represents only one use of computers
for teaching pre-algebra and algebra and not all CAI hardware and software
may be equally effective. Similarly Rochelle et al. (2007) report that using
SimCalc mathematics improves student’s knowledge of mathematics. Ninetyfive teachers and more than 1,600 of their seventh grade students in eight
regions of Texas participated in the study. Students who used SimCalc
Mathworlds™ had a better understanding of rate and proportionality than
similar students who used the standard curriculum. SimCalc Mathworlds™
had a statistically significant effect on students’ scores, particularly on
knowledge of complex concepts. The estimated effect size was 0.84,
equivalent to moving a student from the 50th to the 80th percentile.
A number of studies have also found that software programmes have a
positive impact on literacy at all ages. The types of technology that have been
shown by research to support reading development are multimedia e-books
and activity-based software. These are typically aimed at Foundation Stage,
KS1 and KS2 aged students. O’karat and Shamir (2007) compared the
progress of students reading books with an adult with students reading ebooks individually and students in a control group. One hundred and twentyeight students were randomly assigned to a condition. They found that in
both intervention conditions, compared with the control group, the student’s
vocabulary scores improved following reading activity (cited in Becta 2010b).
Savage et al (2009) (cited in Becta 2010b) conducted an RCT of grade one
students in Canada who received 20 minutes four times a week training on
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December 2011
ABRACADABRA11 a programme of synthetic phonics intervention. Students
in the intervention group improved significantly more than controls who
received regular classroom tuition on measures of phoneme blending, reading
comprehension and listening comprehension. This effect continued post
intervention.
A Norwegian study, Fasting et al. (2005) (cited in Becta 2010b) examined the
impact of software which imported text they wanted to read onto an interface
for 9-12 year olds that had literacy difficulties. It enabled the user to request
text-to-speech feedback on specific words or sentences which they found
difficult to read; and included a text editor which enabled the students to
summarise the text if they wished, or compose their own writing. They found
that students in the intervention group who used the software daily for 20
minutes for 7 weeks significantly improved in reading and spelling and these
gains were maintained 11 weeks later
READ 180 is a reading program designed for students in elementary through
to high school whose reading achievement is below the proficient level. The
goal of READ 180 is to address gaps in students’ skills through the use of a
computer programme, literature, and direct instruction in reading skills. The
What Works Clearing House reviewed the evidence on READ 180 and found
seven studies that met their evidence standards. The seven studies included
10,638 students, ranging from grade 4 to grade 9. They found positive effects
in comprehension and general literacy achievement for adolescent learners
who used READ 180. The average improvement index for comprehension
was +4 percentile points across six studies. The average improvement index
for general literacy achievement across two studies was +12 percentile points.
(What Works Clearing House 2009).
Online learning
Virtual schools offer an organized set of courses leading to the completion of
various grades, using the internet as the primary means of communication.
Many terms are used to describe online courses such as e-learning, web
based learning and asynchronous learning. Specific definitions have been
developed to explain the different types of courses:



Online: where most or all of the content is delivered online. At least
80% of seat time is replaced by online activity.
Blended/hybrid: blends online and face-to-face delivery. Between 30
and 79% of the content is delivered online.
Web-facilitated: uses Web-based technology to facilitate a face-toface course. Between 1 and 29% of the content is delivered online
(Allen and Seaman 2006 cited in Archambault and Crippen 2009).
11
This Canadian resource is a suite of copyright-free multimedia e-books and associated
literacy activities which support word reading, phonics, reading comprehension, listening
comprehension and reading fluency.
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December 2011
Various examples of online education can be found under each of these
models particularly in the US. For example, Arizona Virtual Academy, now,
offers a completely online learning experience for students from grades K–
1212. For the 2006–2007 school year, Arizona Virtual Academy served 3,046
students from across the state of Arizona (Arizona Department of Education,
2008 cited in Archambault and Crippen 2009).
Florida Virtual school (FLVS) is an online school for K-12 students that can be
used as a complement to traditional public, charter, private and home
schooling, or as the sole use of schooling. FLVS served more than 97,000
students in 213,926 half-credit enrolments in the academic year 2009-10.
The Florida Virtual School Stakeholder Survey 2009-10 suggests that 53
percent of parents believe their child learns more in the FLVS class than in a
traditional classroom format, 31 percent indicate that the level of learning is
the same in both learning environments, while just three percent consider that
their child learned less in the FLVS course.
Fifty-eight percent of students said their course was better or much better
than traditional classroom experiences, while only seven percent considered it
worse. Thirty-five percent of students who did not complete their courses
considered the FLVS course to be better or much better than the traditional
equivalent, with 48 percent saying it is the same and 18 percent rating their
online course as worse or much worse that their traditional classroom
experience. On average, both parents and students consider that the students
spend similar amounts of time on their courses whether the course is FLVS or
traditional (Cisco 2011).
The impact of online learning
Evidence from the US has found that online learning has a positive impact on
learners in comparison to just face-to-face learning. Florida Taxwatch
compared the attainment of students in the FLVS with their performance at
traditional public high school. The final grades of FLVS students were
compiled for the 2005-06 school year. These were compared with the grades
that those same students had earned in that subject area the year before at a
traditional public high school. FLVS students earned higher grades in their
online courses than they had earned in courses in that same subject area in
the traditional public school setting13. It was also found that when comparing
the FLVS students with those students taking courses in the traditional public
high school setting, in the 2005-06 school year, the grades earned in high
school courses taken by students via FLVS were again consistently higher 14.
FLVS students outperformed their traditional school counterparts in nine out
of ten subject areas. Florida Taxwatch concluded that FLVS produced
students who earned higher grades and made higher test scores than their
public school counterparts in return for decreased expenditures (Flordia
12
13
K-12 - kindergarten to twelfth grade
However this could be due to other variables that meant they left traditional schooling
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December 2011
Taxwatch
Means et al. (2010) performed a rigorous meta-analysis on the effects of
online learning. The analysis was mainly made up of learners older than
school age, i.e. higher education. Only a small number of rigorous studies
were found for school age learners, therefore caution is required when
generalising the findings to this population. The review only included
literature on web based instruction, and only included studies with randomassignment or controlled quasi-experimental designs. The overall finding of
the meta-analysis is that classes with online learning (whether taught
completely online or blended) on average produce stronger student learning
outcomes than classes with solely face-to-face instruction. The mean effect
size for all 50 comparisons was +0.20, p< .001. Blends of online and face-toface instruction, on average, had stronger learning outcomes than did face-toface instruction alone. However it was noted that blended conditions often
included additional learning time and instructional elements. Effects were
also larger when students in the online condition were engaged in instructorled or collaborative instruction rather than independent learning; and when the
curricular materials and instruction varied between the online and face-to-face
conditions.
Wider benefits of using ICT in schools
ICT and student motivation
ICT is seen as increasing students’ confidence and motivation by making
school work more enjoyable. Student’s attitudes and involvement in learning
change and it is considered as fun and not as regular education. The
Eurobarometer Benchmarking Survey was carried out in spring 2006 in 25 EU
Member States, Norway, and Iceland found that 86% of teachers state that
students are more motivated and attentive when computers and the internet
are used in class (Empirica, 2006 cited in Balanskat et al. 2006). The most
significant research on the motivational effect of ICT on students is by Passey
et al. (2004). They aimed to establish systematically the impact of ICT use in
school on student motivation, including quantification of this where possible,
and to relate impacts to aspects such as learning outcomes, behaviour,
school attendance, truancy and wider issues such as crime and anti-social
behaviour. The study was intended to consider the ways in which teachers
could enhance motivational impacts for students, especially for those
disaffected with traditional forms of learning. Lessons were observed and
1,206 student questionnaires administered. Motivation was conceived for this
study by considering eight different measures. These measures drew upon
existing motivational theory.
The motivational profiles obtained from the quantitative survey demonstrated
the existence of a highly positive set of motivational characteristics. In
summary, students were characterised, when focusing on working with ICT,
by relatively high levels of ‘learning goals’ and ‘performance approach goals’.
The findings suggested that ICT was helping to draw students into more
positive modes of motivation. ICT appeared to be offering a means by which
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December 2011
students could envisage success. It enabled students to see possible endpoints for their work, and to recognise that they could work towards these in
order to complete work (Passey et al. 2004).
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