Compiled list of Instructional Strategies

INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES

Accretion

Accretion is the act of remembering information that "was instantiated within a schema as a result of text comprehension or understanding of some event" (Driscoll, 2000, p. 137). This can be supported through instruction.

Driscoll, M. (2000). Psychology of learning for instruction. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn &

Bacon.

Advance organizers

The use of advance organizers as an instructional strategy was first proposed by Ausubel

(Ausubel et al., 1978) to "bridge the gap between what the learner already knows and what he needs to know before he can meaningfully learn the task at hand" (pp. 171-172).

Advance organizers are materials presented before the actual learning materials are provided. They are presented at a higher level than the material to be learned and general enough to be useful for different types of learners (Driscoll, 2000). West et al. (1991) combined Ausubel's ideas with more recent research and developed the following procedures for creating advance organizers.

1.

Examine the new lesson or unit to discover necessary prerequisite knowledge. List.

2.

Reteach if necessary.

3.

Find out if students know this prerequisite material.

4.

List or summarize the major general principles or ideas in the new lesson or unit

(could be done first).

5.

Write a paragraph (the advance organizer) emphasizing the major general principles, similarities across old and new topics. Examine examples in this text. Use them as models.

6.

The main subtopics of the unit or lesson should be covered in the same sequence as they are presented in the advance organizer (p. 125).

Ausubel, D. P., Novak, J. d., & Hanesian, H. (1978). Educational psychology: A cognitive

view (2nd ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Driscoll, M. (2000). Psychology of learning for instruction. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn &

Bacon.

West, C. K., Farmer, J. A., & Wolff, P. M. (1991). Instructional design: Implications from

cognitive science. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Anchoring ideas

"Anchoring ideas are the specific, relevant ideas in the learner's cognitive structure that provide the entry points for new information to be connected" (Driscoll, 2000, p. 119).

Helping learners to anchor ideas allows them to construct meaning from new information and experiences.


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Articulation

Articulation involves students making tacit knowledge explicit by explaining to others what they know. As students articulate their knowledge to one another, they share multiple perspectives and generalize their knowledge so that it is applicable in different contexts

(Collins, 1991).

Authentic learning activities

Similar to problem-based learning, students are anchored in a realistic learning environment, where the focus is on solving a problem rather than learning a body of content. Students apply their current body of knowledge to adapt to new situations and problems, thereby extending their body of knowledge. Students learn process and adaptivity, rather than content. This way, students can apply what they've learned in the right situations and can see the direct implications of their actions (Wilson & Cole, 1996).

Authentic learning activities blend well with adult learning theory, which stipulates that in order for a student to want to learn something, it must be meaningful to them (Wilson &

Cole, 1996).

Building fluency

Certain types of prerequisite skills are more beneficial to students if they can quickly be applied without conscious effort. Hasselbring and Going (1993) referred to this process of practicing skills until they become automated as building fluency or proficiency. Examples of such rapid recall skills include simple math facts, grammar rules and spelling. Students might acquire fluency, or as Gagné (1982) and Bloom (1986) called it automaticity of skills through repeated use of the skills in practical situations or with isolated practice (drill and practice).

Roblyer, M.D., Edwards, J. & Havriluk, M.A. (1996). Learning Theories and Integration

Models (Chapter 3). In Roblyer, Edwards, & Havriluk, Integrating educational technology

into teaching. Prentice Hall.

Chaining

Chaining is used to teach complex behaviors comprised of discrete, simpler behaviors learners already know. Students learn in a step-by-step manner. Learning a new dance is one example of how chaining is used. After each individual dance step is learned (see shaping), all the steps are sequenced through either forward or backward chaining, until the entire dance is learned.


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Chunking information

Chunking information involved organizing learning tasks in a way that they can be easily

"chunked" by the learner (Driscoll, 2000). This might include breaking complex tasks into more manageable steps or perhaps organizing a computer-based training module into frames. The idea started with a digit-span test conducted by George Miller (1956), which required subjects to immediately repeat a list of numbers read to them. The results showed

that 7 plus or minus 2 numbers could be recalled. This discovery led to the idea that

"working memory capacity may be increased through creating larger bits, know as the process of chunking" (Driscoll, 2000, p. 89). Each chunk takes up an available slot in working memory. As new chunks are incorporated into memory, they take available spaces previously occupied by other chunks.


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Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number, seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. In G. A. Miller (1967). Psychological Review, 63, 81-97.

Clarify subsumption

With subsumption, new ideas are attached in a subordinate fashion to more general and inclusive ideas already in memory (Driscoll, 2000). There are two types of subsumption.

Coaching

Coaching means observing students while completing a task and providing guidance and help when appropriate (Wilson & Cole, 1996). The purpose of coaching is to improve learners' performance. Hence, a good coach motivates learners, monitors and analyzes their performance, provides comments and feedback, and promotes reflection and articulation on new information learned (Jonassen, 2001).

Cognitive conflicts

Cognitive conflicts are surprising events that lead to discovery (Driscoll, 2000). For example, an unexpected outcome in a science experiment might help a student learn an important concept about gravity. According to Bruner (1973), in a discovery learning situation, "readiness to explore contrasts provides a choice among the alternatives that might be relevant" (p. 81). This strategy is similar to Piaget's focus on restructuring as the major developmental process.

Bruner, J. S. (1973). Some elements of discover. In J. A. Bruner, The relevance of

education. New York: Norton.


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Cognitive reflexivity

Cognitive reflexivity (known as metacognition by cognitive information-processing theorists) is defined by Cunningham (in Driscoll, 2000) as "the ability of students to be aware of their own role in the knowledge construction process" (p. 389). Beyond metacognition, reflexivity refers to the learner's attitude, which cues them to be knowledgeable about how and what structures create meaning. Self-awareness is an essential part of constructivist learning.


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Collaboration and social negotiation

Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of learning states that "individual cognitive gain occurs first through interpersonal (interaction with social environment), then intrapersonal

(internalization) interactions (Hsiao, 1996, p.1). Interaction with other people via online telecommunications technologies allow students to "distribute information and interact with information resources in a joint space... [prompting] conceptual progress" (Hsiao, 1996, p.4). In collaboration and social negotiation, the goal is to share different viewpoints and ideas and to collaborate on problem-solving and knowledge building activities. Groups are formed to provide variation in classroom activity (face-to-face or virtual), share workloads

(permitting larger projects), and promote peer tutoring (Duffy & Cunningham, 1996, p.187).

Comparative organizers

Comparative organizers, which were suggested by Ausubel, give learners a systematic way to compare and contrast concepts (Driscoll, 2000). They also help learners more easily discriminate between similar concepts.


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Make Comparisons examine significant similarities and differences between potentially confusable ideas in order to increase the discriminability of those ideas.(Driscoll, pp.131-132)

Comprehension monitoring strategies

Comprehension monitoring strategies, also referred to as metacognition, are "students' knowledge about their own cognitive processes and their ability to control these processes by organizing, monitoring, and modifying them as a function of learning outcomes"

(Weinstein & Mayer, 1986, p. 323). To monitor their own comprehension, students create learning goals for an instructional unit, evaluate the degree to which they will meet the established goals, and modify the strategies they use to meet these goals.

Weinstein, C. E. & Mayer, R. E. (1986) The teaching of learning strategies. In M. C. Wittrock

(Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching. New York: MacMillan.

Concept mapping

Concept mapping is a way to graphically represent relationships among ideas (Smith &

Ragan, 1999). Concept maps can be part of a presentation or created by the learners. For an example of a concept map and more information on concept mapping, visit http://chd.gse.gmu.edu/immersion/knowledgebase/strategies/cognitivism/conceptmap.htm

.

Smith, P. and Ragan, T. (1999). Instructional design (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley &

Sons, Inc.

Correlative subsumption

The "elaboration, extension, or modification of the previously learned concept or

preposition by the subsumption of the incoming idea" (pp. 120-121)


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Cultural diversity

The consideration of cultural diversity is an important instructional strategy because

"members of different cultures, because of specific and unique demands of living in their societies, make sense of their experiences in different ways" (Driscoll, 2000, p. 236). In other words, the application of concepts is determined by the cultural environment of the user. This is similar to the view expressed in the Knowledge as Tools theory promoted by situated learning theorists.


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Derivative subsumption - The "learning of new examples or cases that are illustrative of an established concept or previously learned proposition" (p. 120)

Drill and practice

Drill and practice uses repeated exercises and individual feedback to master a specified learning objective. Drill and practice is used to master basic skills and improve speed or accuracy. For example, using flashcards to help a student master basic multiplication facts.

A predominant use of Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) has been with drill and practice activities. Using a computer, the type and amount of practice can be tailored to students' individual needs. Visit funbrain.com

for examples of drill and practice type computer games.

Tomei, L. (1998). Learning theories -- A primer exercise. Excerpts from Educational

Psychology, a course taught by Dr. Lawrence Tomei, Duquesne University and Applying

educational psychology in the classroom, a text by Myron H. Dembo, University of Southern

California. Retrieved August 18, 2002, from http://www.duq.edu/~tomei/ed711psy/b_cai.htm

Encourage curiosity

According to Keller (1987), "a deeper level of curiosity may be activated by creating a problem situation which can be resolved only knowledge-seeking behavior" (p. 2). The

Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt (CTGV) encourage curiosity throughout their instructional videos by presenting students with problems that are complex and characteristic to real life (Driscoll, 2000). Such problems enhance learners' motivation.


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Keller, J. M. (1987, October). Strategies for stimulating the motivation to learn.

Performance and Instruction Journal, 1-8.

Enhance relevance

Keller (1987) says "relevance, in its most general sense, refers to those things which we perceive as instrumental in meeting needs and satisfying personal desires, including the accomplishment of personal goals" (p. 3). Learners must realize that instruction in which they are engages has "personal utility" (Driscoll, 2000, p. 328) in order to be motivated.

Familiarity is an important component of relevance.


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Keller, J. M. (1987, October). Strategies for stimulating the motivation to learn.

Performance and Instruction Journal, 1-7.

Enrich the learning environment

Most constructivists agree that "simplifying tasks for learners will prevent them from learning how to solve the complex problems they will face in real life" (Driscoll, 2000, p.

383). Both the tools and the content of learning contribute to the complexity of a learning environment. To provide learners with tools for a rich learning environment, Perkins (1991) suggests the use of "construction kits" and "phenomenaria" in the classroom. Construction kits are tools that allow learners to assemble "not just things, such as TinkerToys, but more abstract entities, such as commands in a program language, creatures in a simulated

ecology, or equations in an environment supporting mathematical manipulations" (1991, p.

19). Phenomenaria provide students the opportunity "to observe various phenomena and to

manipulate concepts and assumptions within those phenomena" (Driscoll, 2000, p. 384).


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Perkins, D. N. (1991). Technology meets constructivism: Do they make a marriage?

Educational Technology, 31, 18-23.

Exploration

Exploration encourages "students to try out different strategies and hypotheses and observe their effects (Wilson & Cole, 1996, p. 606)." In exploratory learning there is limited instruction and guidance from an instructor and more student-generated learning through exploring and discovering information. Collins (1991) claims that through exploration, students learn how to set achievable goals and to manage the pursuit of those goals. They learn to define and try out hypotheses, and to seek knowledge independently. Real-world exploration is always an attractive option; however, constraints of cost, time, and safety sometimes prohibit exploratory learning in realistic settings. Simulations and hypermedia learning environments are two examples of how exploration can be implemented in technology-mediated instruction (Wilson & Cole, 1996).

Fading

Fading involves the gradual reduction of discriminative stimuli (cues) initially used to establish a desired behavior. For example, employees might use job aids in an industrial setting. As they learn their jobs, they rely less and less on the cues in the job aids until they no longer have to refer to them at all.


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Examples and matched nonexamples

"Discrimination is the ability to distinguish, on the basis of perceptual characteristics, one object from another, one feature from another, one symbol from another" (Driscoll, 2000, p. 351). Some difference can be detected even if the learner doesn't have the ability to name or explain the difference. For example, an infant can feel different textures without being able to express the words to describe them, such as smooth or rough. Learners must first master prerequisite discriminations before concept learning can occur.

A child learns to discriminate between examples of a concept and nonexamples that share the some of the same features as the concept, but not the characteristics required to make that instance a member of the same class (Smith & Ragan, 1999). For example, while a cow shares some of the same characteristics as other large four-legged animals, like a horse, the shape of their bodies and heads as well as their hooves and tails make them distinct. A teacher can reinforce these discriminations by offering illustrative representative instances of examples next to instances that are not representative of the category or situation of focus and instructing the child to look at the distinguishing features.


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Sons, Inc.

Gagné's events of instruction

According to Gagné (1985), the goal of instruction is to facilitate the activation of processes responsible for the transformation of information as it goes through the stages of memory, including attention, pattern recognition, retrieval, rehearsal, encoding, retention, etc. (in

Driscoll, 2000). The following are the events of instruction he proposed to do this (while this sequence of instruction is generally recommended, the order is not absolute).

1.

Gaining Attention - Accomplished through a stimulus change and can be repeated in different forms throughout a lesson to regain attention

2.

Informing the Learner of the Objective - Informing learners with what is expected of them so they are aware and prepared to learn certain information. This is usually

3.

accomplished through the statement of instructional goals

Stimulating Recall of Prior Learning - Preparing learners for encoding or transfer by helping them recall relevant and prerequisite information. This can be done with a quick review or some sort of practice activity

4.

Presenting the Stimulus - Depending on what is to be learned, the stimulus presented might be a textbook chapter; a lecture; an explanation of a concept or rule; a demonstration of a desired outcome,action or choice; or verbal directions

5.

Providing Learning Guidance - Using instructional activities to facilitate the entry of

6.

what is to be learned into long-term memory in a meaningful way

Eliciting Performance - Giving the learners an opportunity to confirm their learning to themselves, their teachers and others without penalty. At this point progress is gauged, and it is assumed that performance is still being improved

7.

Providing Feedback- Supplying learners with informative feedback about their

performance. Feedback gives offers the learners informative critique on their performance to show them how to prove current skills and/or detects and corrects misconceptions or errors

8.

Assessing Performance - Formally assessing learners after they have had a chance to demonstrate and refine their knowledge

9.

Enhancing Retention and Transfer - Using instructional activities to promote the retention of what was learned and generalization from one context to another similar

(but not identical) context


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Gagné, E. D. (1985). The cognitive psychology of school learning. Boston: Little, Brown.

Gain/Sustain Attention

As a state - a learner's maintenance of an attitude of expectation, alert to information and heedless of distractions

As a resource - a learner's capability to selectively allocate more focus to one of several simultaneously occurring events.

As a process - a learner's selection of particular information for further analysis and interpretation over other available information. (Driscoll, p. 263)

Hypothesis generation

Hypothesis generation is a learning strategy in which learners acquire concepts by setting forth tentative hypotheses about the attributes that seem to define a concept and then testing specific instances against these hypotheses (Bruner, Goodnow, & Austin, 1965).

Testing and exploration offer learners an opportunity to refine their hypotheses.

Imagery

Imagery is the use of pictures, illustrations, graphics or simply instructions to form images related to text material (Driscoll, 2000). Imagery is usually easiest with concrete concepts, but can be useful for learners in developing a visual to concretely represent a more abstract concept (Smith & Ragan, 1999).


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Instructional cues

Instructional cues are used when a learned behavior is not exhibited by a student, and is therefore not available for reinforcement. Driscoll (2000) offers the following example to illustrate this strategy. An office manager reads all her email, but never sends any, therefore the desired behavior of sending email cannot be reinforced. To elicit the desired behavior, the department manager sends the office manager a message that requires an immediate reply. Without an alternative way to respond, the office manager is forced send a return message via email. The department chair immediate replies with a pleasant thank-

you message, providing the needed reinforcement for the learned behavior.


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Learning by discovery

To promote learning by discovery allow for, "rearranging or transforming evidence in such a way that one is enabled to go beyond the evidence so assembled to additional new insights"

(Bruner, 1961, p. 22). Bruner believed discovery could only be learned through problem solving (Driscoll, 2000). Furthermore, discovery is not a random event. Expectations are set for "finding regularities and relationships in the environments" (2000, p. 229).


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Bruner, J. S. (1961). The act of discovery. Harvard Educational Review, 31, 21-32.

Logical sequencing of content

Logical sequencing of content refers to the appropriate order of information delivery.

According to Wilson and Cole (1996), teachers should "present instruction in an ordering from simple to complex, with increasing diversity, and global before local skills" (p. 606). In other words, "instruction should take steps to control the complexity of assigned tasks," use

"variety in examples and practice contexts," and help "learners acquire a mental model of the problem space at very early stages of learning" (p. 607).

Wilson, B. G. & Cole, P. (1996). Cognitive teaching models. In D. H. Jonassen (ed.),

Handbook of research for educational communications and technology. New York: Simon and Schuster MacMillan.

Metaphoric devices

Metaphoric devices can provide a link between the known and the unknown as well as provide intellectual stimulation and interest through the figural use of concrete images"

(Smith & Ragan, 1999, p. 164). Metaphoric devices include the use of metaphors and analogies. Metaphors create an identity between a known vehicle and a new topic. For example "the white blood cells (new topic) are soldiers (vehicle)" (1999, p. 164). Analogies introduce a new topic using a relationship between pairs. For example "white blood cells attack infections just as soldiers attack their enemy" (1999, p. 164).


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Modeling and explaining

Modeling and explaining are time tested learning strategies made most evident in trade apprenticeships. Traditional modeling and explaining consists of "integrating both the demonstration and explanation during instruction" including false starts, mistakes, and dead ends, so that students can truly see how a process is handled (Wilson & Cole, 1996).

Explaining the thought processes is key in modeling expert performance. In an electronic

environment, modeling can entail providing work samples and modeling appropriate communication behaviors (Khan, 1997). A cognitive apprenticeship is an example of a pedagogical model that provides modeling and explaining of cognitive skills and processes.

Mnemonics

Mnemonics are "associational techniques in processing information for learning of facts and lists" (Smith & Ragan, 1999, p. 168). One type of mnemonic device, single-use coding, uses letters in words or the first letters in sentences to learn a list. For example, the word face can be used to remember the notes on the spaces of a treble clef and the first letter of each word in the sentence "Every good boy does fine" can be used to remember the notes on the lines. Mnemonics should only be used when more meaningful associations cannot be made.


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Multiple perspectives and case-based reasoning

Multiple perspectives and case-based reasoning both emphasize flexible knowledge

(cognitive flexibility). By exposing students to multiple points of view of understanding or judging things or events, learners rearrange information to construct new knowledge, acquiring flexible and meaningful knowledge structures (Duffy & Cunningham, 1996, p.

178). Additionally, by taking the experiential approach to problem-solving, or learning by doing through case-based instruction, students are learning how to reason through multiple, authentic cases, much like actual practitioners do, building a repertoire of knowledge that prepares them to think and reason like experts (acquiring structural knowledge).

Negative reinforcement

With negative reinforcement, an aversive stimulus is removed when a student provides a correct response. This response is strengthened by the aversive stimulus being removed.

For example, a student does not have to take weekly quizzes if he or she does well on daily homework.


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Positive reinforcement

Positive reinforcement involves presenting students with a reinforcer, which is some type of satisfying stimulus, for providing a correct response. This response is strengthened by the reinforcer. For example, rewarding students with stickers for spelling words correctly on a test.


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Punishment

With punishment, students are presented with an aversive stimulus when they provide an

incorrect or undesirable response. The aversive stimulus weakens the rate of the incorrect response. For example, a teacher yells at a student for talking during class. While punishment may stop the undesirable behavior, it also has some negative side effects.

Undesirable emotional responses can be conditioned if punishment uses a very aversive stimulus or causes pain. Punishment can cause aggression, physical or psychological harm, and even learned helplessness. Therefore, punishment is most appropriately used when there is an immediate need to stop a behavior. For example, slapping a child on the wrist when he is about to touch a hot stove.


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Organizational techniques

Organizational techniques assist the learner in organizing information to be learned (Smith

& Ragan, 1999). Clustering and chunking by categories, using graphic organizers, generating expository and narrative structures, and using advance organizers are all organizational techniques.


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Outlining

Outlining is a notetaking system designed to allows learners to distinguish between superordinate and subordinate information, abbreviate words and paraphrase in their own words using an outline format (Weinstein & Mayer, 1986). For more information on developing an outline, visit http://muskingum.edu/~cal/database/writing.html#Outline .



Pattern recognition

Pattern recognition is "the process whereby environmental stimuli are recognized as exemplars of concepts and principles already in memory" (Driscoll, 2000, p. 84). Identifying familiar patterns is essential for information processing to go beyond attention.


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Problem-solving activities

Problem-solving activities place more emphasis on learning how to learn, rather than specific content. In problem-solving activities, the process of problem solving becomes more important, such as the learner's ability to form a hypothesis, find and sort information, think critically about information, ask questions, and reach a resolution or solution (Roblyer,

Edwards, & Havriluk, 1996). When problem-solving activities are placed in an authentic context, learners learn how to apply their knowledge under appropriate conditions. Learners see the implications of new knowledge and are more likely to retrieve the newly acquired knowledge in similar, real-world, problem-based situation (Wilson & Cole, 1996).

Reflection

Reflection involves students reviewing what they have done, analyzing their performance, and comparing it to that of experts and peers (Collins, 1991).

Reinforcement removal

With reinforcement removal, reinforcement is taken away from students when they provide an incorrect or undesirable response. Extinction, response cost, and time-out are techniques that might be used in reinforcement removal. Extinction involves stopping a reinforcement that has been maintaining the undesirable behavior, like a when a teacher stops paying attention to a student calling out in class. With response cost, a reinforcement is removed contingent upon behavior by forcing the student to give back a previously earned reinforcer.

For example, a teacher might use a token system in class where students can earn tokens for good behavior, but must give up tokens if they act out. Time-out involves removing the learner from the environment reinforcing the undesired behavior for a specified amount of time. A teacher requiring a student to sit in the hall alone for ten minutes after disrupting class is an example of time-out.


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Repetition

Repetition is an instructional strategy used to maintain information in working memory

(Driscoll, 2000). With maintenance rehearsal, repetition is used to retain information for a certain period of time. For example, memorizing a phone number until you make the call and no longer needing it in short-term storage. However, for information to reach long-term memory, maintenance rehearsal is insufficient. While repetition may lead to successfully retaining overlearned material such as math facts or spelling words, it cannot ensure that more complex and meaningful information will be stored into long-term memory.


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Role-playing

Role-playing allows learners to bring their own experiences into the role-playing situation and consequently gain "ownership" of the learning process. Often the learning environment is fictitious or metaphorical but also engaging enough that it captivates the learner's attention. Role-playing strategies encourage students to gain the accompanying knowledge and skills in order to survive in their "role" within the learning environment. Such skills could include social skills such as communication, and interpersonal skills, which are key to effective participation in an online learning environment.

Scaffolding

Scaffolding involves supporting novice learners by limiting the complexities of the context and gradually removing those limits as learners gain the knowledge, skills, and confidence

to cope with the full complexity of the context (Young, 1993). Accommodating novice students and students who already have a significant knowledge base is a challenge.

Scaffolding allows for a layered learning experience: novice learners get enough support and information they need, without slowing down advanced students, who can skip the novice support and go right to what they need. This structure is designed to support all learner levels for a particular piece of instruction.

Self-directed learning

Self-directed learning is a process in which learners take the initiative, with or without help from others, to analyze their learning needs, state learning goals, identify resources for learning, choose and implement learning strategies, and evaluate learning outcomes

(Lowry, 1989).

Self-questioning

Self-questioning provides learners with a way to "encode information they hear in lectures or read in printed instructional materials" (Driscoll, 2000, p. 92). Some questions can also help learners incorporate new information with what they have already learned.


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Shaping

Shaping is similar to positive reinforcement in that it involves presenting a reinforcer based on performance of desired behavior. With shaping, however, the desired behavior might only approximate the ultimate target behavior. Each time the reinforcer is provided, the desired behavior is required to be successively closer to the target behavior until that target behavior is performed.


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Summarization

Summarization is the paraphrasing of a definition or criterial attributes of a concept (Smith

& Ragan, 1999). It is important to paraphrase rather than restate verbatim so that the learners will pay attention to the meaning rather than the precise wording used.

Summarization might be done by the teacher or the learner. However, a study by Doctorow,

Wittrock & Marks (1978, in Weinstein & Mayer, 1986) showed that students who were asked to write summary sentences for each paragraph after they finished reading it outperformed students who did not receive instructions to generate summary sentences. For more information on summarizing and notetaking, visit http://www.ascd.org/readingroom/books/marzano2001_section2.html

.

Doctorow, M., Wittrock, M. C. & Marks, C. (1978). Generative processes in reading comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 70, 109-118.


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Synthesis vs. Singling out

By definition in Bloom's taxonomy (Bloom et al., 1956), synthesis is "combining elements, pieces, or parts to form a whole or constitute a new pattern or structure" (in Driscoll, 2000, p. 348). As a strategy for instruction, "synthesis expands the current focus to include what was previously its context" (Arvidson, 1999, Singling-out and Synthesis, para. 2). Whereas

"Singling-out instruction selects an item for the current focus, segregating and consolidating it in relation to its context" (Singling-out and Synthesis, para. 1).

Arvidson, P. A.. (1999). Seven attention shifts in instructional design. Retrieved September

7, 2002, from San Diego State University, Encyclopedia of Educational Technology Web site: http://coe.sdsu.edu/eet/

Bloom, B. S., Engelhart, M. D., Furst, E. J., Hill, W. H. & Krathwohl, D. R. (1956). Taxonomy

of educational objectives, handbook I: Cognitive domain. New York: McKay.


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Tuning

Presenting learners with new exemplars of concepts and principles promotes tuning, which occurs "when existing schemata evolve to become more consistent with experience"

(Driscoll, 2000, p. 137).


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