DEBATE CLUB : TOPICS (IV year - 2nd term)
I HUMAN RIGHTS
Topic 1
Summary
Context
Human Rights: Imposition by Force?
Should force be used to protect human rights?
Topic 2
Summary
China Human Rights Abuses, U.S. Trade Barriers
Should the United States use trade barriers to decrease human rights abuses
in China?
Context
Since the end of the Cold War the trade versus human rights debate has been a major point
of disagreement between American and China, and even between policymakers in the USA.
Western politicians and NGOs such as Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International
allege that China engages in a host of systemic human rights abuses, including suppression
of religious freedom and free speech, censoring of the internet, the use of slave labor, the
torture of prisoners, and the forced relocation of millions of people for public works
projects. Policymakers in the USA are divided over whether the best approach to force
China to improve this situation is through trade, and with it general exposure to the West
and the international order, which it is argued will liberalize China and improve overall
living conditions there. Alternatively, is it preferable to use the threat of sanctions and
isolation to force China to improve in order to become a preferred trading partner? While
some of this debate has become less heated since China’s membership in the World Trade
Organization, it is still a matter of bilateral US-China relations.
Topic 3
Summary
Legalise vs Ban
How far should the government interfere in people’s private lives? Should
activities that many people think are wrong still be legal?
Context
Many policy debates come down to whether an activity should be legal, or whether the
government should ban it. Usually the activity is one that someone might wish to do, but
which society thinks is wrong.
Sometimes the activity in question is already illegal, and the debate is about whether it
should now be banned. Examples of this include banning tobacco, pornography, alcohol, the
smacking of children, abortion, gambling, the advertising of junk food and dangerous sports.
In other debates the activity is already against the law, and the arguments focus on whether
it should be allowed, or legalised. Examples of this would include the use of drugs such as
cannabis, cocaine and heroin, performance-boosting drugs in sport, assisted suicide and
hunting.
Topic 4
Summary
Internet, a force for Democracy?
Has the global spread of the internet aided democratisation, increased
freedom and reduced human rights abuses, or is it at best ineffective and at
worst a weapon in the hands of repressive governments?
Context
The internet itself is a neutral tool, but it is a tool which can be used to great effect by
different groups in society. The debate on whether the internet contributes to
democratisation was in part triggered by statistical research which shows a strong correlation
between levels of internet penetration and degrees of democracy, which proponents have
argued shows that the internet can contribute to democratization. Opponents claim this is
The sight of people being deprived of parts of their lives that we take for granted is one of
the most unsettling that can reach us. The cases that appear the most urgent are those that
command the headlines — Saddam’s treatment of Kurds, Milosovic’s treatment of Kosovar
Albanians — and they are the cases that command the most drastic action from the West.
But less prominent infringements of human rights can be as serious: “prisoners of
conscience” are held world-wide. Is there any moral difference between the urgent and the
ongoing, and how should they be tackled? Intervention, whether by all-out military force,
through peace-keeping forces, or by diplomatic means, can arguably curtail human rights
abuses, but it does pose practical and moral problems. What country has the right to
intervene? How can civilian casualties be curbed?
just a result of the fact that the USA and Europe, already democratic regions, have over half
of the internet users worldwide. A parallel debate also runs as to what type of democracy the
internet does encourage. There is also controversy internally over the democratisation of
content on the internet, with Wikipedia, often cited as evidence of the power of people on
the web, sometimes suppressing changes to articles. The aim of each side in the debate must,
therefore, be to prove the effects of the internet in the majority of cases, rather than arguing
about a few ‘bunker’ states such as North Korea, which restrict freedoms across the board.
Topic 5
Summary
Context
Prisoners, right to vote
Should people serving prison sentences be permitted to vote in elections?
Topic 6
Summary
Smoking
Should there be further restrictions on the advertising, selling, and smoking
of tobacco? Should it be banned? If yes, will it violate human rights?
Context
Key questions for this debate are: Is it the proper role of government to legislate to protect
citizens from the harmful effects of their own lifestyle decisions? Does tobacco advertising
increase tobacco consumption? Do health warnings, however much of the cigarette packet
they cover, reduce consumption? What would be the effects of banning smoking in all
public places, or even completely?
Topic 7
Summary
Detention on the Ground of mental illness
Should the government have the power to detain people identified as having
dangerous personality disorders?
Context
Britain’s Labour government has announced its intention to introduce a Mental Health Bill to replace
the Mental Health Act 1983, which all acknowledge needs updating in the light of new psychiatric
knowledge and human rights legislation. The draft Bill contains much which is uncontroversial, but
there are a number of provisions which have led to serious and widespread opposition from mental
health professionals and service users. The Bill is probably too wide-ranging for all of its contentious
elements to be discussed in one debate. Perhaps the most controversial aspect of the Bill is the
proposal to allow the authorities to detain indefinitely people with mental disorders who they consider
a danger to the public. The Bill is opposed by the Mental Health Alliance, a coalition of more than 60
organisations including Mind, Maca, SANE, the Royal College of Psychiatrists, the Royal College of
Nursing and the Law Society.
Topic 8
Summary
Context
Animal Rights
Do non-human animals have rights?
Many countries restrict the right of those sentenced to imprisonment to vote in elections. For
example, convicted prisoners are automatically banned from voting in Armenia, Bulgaria,
the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Luxemburg, Romania, Russia and the United
Kingdom. In Australia, prisoners are only entitled to vote if they are serving a sentence of
less than three years. Only two US states (Maine and Vermont) permit prisoners to vote,
although Utah and Massachusetts also did so until 1998 and 2000 respectively. In France
and Germany, courts have the power to deprive people of voting rights as an additional
punishment, but this is not automatic. Eighteen European states, including Spain, the
Netherlands and the Republic of Ireland, place no formal prohibition on prisoners voting. In
practice, however, it is often difficult for prisoners in some of these countries to vote: in the
Republic of Ireland, prisoners have the right to be registered to vote in their home
constituency, but have no right to either a postal vote or to be released to cast a vote at a
ballot box.
The claim that animals have ‘rights’ was first put forward by the Australian philosopher
Peter Singer in the 1970s and has been the subject of heated and emotional debates ever
since. There are many contexts in which the question of ‘animal rights’ comes up. Should
we farm animals? If so by what techniques? Should we eat animals? Should we hunt and
fish them? Is it morally acceptable to use animals as sources of entertainment in the context
of zoos, circuses, horse racing etc.? Often the same organisations that campaign on
environmental issues (e.g. Greenpeace) are also concerned for the welfare of animals: both
sets of concerns derive from a commitment to the value of Nature and the Earth. The
question of animal rights might well come up in a debate on biodiversity, and is one with so
many political and social implications that it is also worth having in its own right. This
debate is about the ethical principles at issue; the separate debates on biodiversity,
vegetarianism, zoos, blood sports, and animal experimentation deal with more of the
concrete details.
Topic 9
Summary
Context
Lowering the voting age
Should the age at which people gain the right to vote be lowered to 16?
The right to vote is one of the most important human rights. It gives men and women the chance to
have a say in the way they are governed. It allows them to get rid of bad governments and makes sure
that any government listens to its people, for fear of being thrown out at the next election. It is one of
the most important ways in which other rights (e.g. free speech, the right to a fair trial) are protected.
Not every country in the world is a democracy, with free elections giving citizens a fair political
choice. But the right to vote is spreading and outright dictatorships are increasingly few on every
continent. Yet what should that right to vote mean? A century or so ago almost no countries allowed
women to vote, and it took decades of struggle for them to win political rights. Fifty years ago
countries such as South Africa and many states in the USA limited the rights of black people to vote,
but that too has changed for the better. Now every democracy accepts that all adult citizens should
have the right to vote. But what does adult mean?
II ENVIRONMENT
Topic 1
Summary
Context
Dealing with climate change - regulations versus market methods
Do market approaches have greater potential to reduce carbon emission than
regulatory approaches?
This debate compares the two main ways that have been put forward for
cutting carbon emissions. Regulations would involve bringing in new
government rules which companies and families would have to follow.
Regulations could require companies and families to save energy by putting
in green technologies. The other proposal is to put a price on carbon, so that
it becomes expensive to release it into the air. These approaches are called
market mechanism. Pricing carbon would give people and companies a
strong reason to find ways of reducing their carbon emissions.
Topic 2
Summary
Global Warming: Is More Action Needed?
Although still a controversial subject, there is a growing consensus that
global climate changes are being caused by environmental pollution,
especially by greenhouse gases. Do we need to take more urgent action to
halt this trend?
Context
Since the 1980s, there has been a growing body of evidence to suggest that industrialisation
is having an effect on the climate of the planet. As concern has grown, a number of
international bodies have been set up to research the issue, and more recently a series of
treaties have been established to help curb the emission of so-called 'greenhouse gases'. The
most important of these was the 1997 Kyoto Protocol (see below for a link to the full text of
the agreement) as part of which the European Union, the USA and Japan agreed to reduce
their carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. The protocol has come under attack from both sides many environmentalists feel that it does not really address the threat of global warming,
while many in industry feel it is an unnecessary burden.Global warming is a particularly
difficult issue as it demands a world-wide response. Many developing nations are
understandably angered that a problem that seems to have been created by the rich,
developed nations will have most impact on them. A global consensus remains far off.
Topic 3
Summary
Environmentally Linked Aid
Should developed countries force developing countries to protect the
environment by making it a condition of aid?
Context
Currently aid is given to developing countries via organs such as the World Bank and the
International Monetary Fund. This debate is about whether that aid should be conditional on
the countries in question meeting certain environmental standards governing, for example,
emissions of carbon dioxide and Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Central to this debate are
fundamental issues of principle and practice regarding the developing areas of the world; it
is a debate that highlights the complex inter-relations of environment, politics, and
economics. Should the priorities of developing nations be economic growth, prosperity, and
a higher standard of living above all else? Or should they give priority to discovering
environmentally-friendly, 'sustainable' ways of developing? What role should the
economically and politically powerful nations of the developed world, and international
institutions such as the World Bank and the IMF play in shaping the route that is taken?
Topic 4
Summary
Greenhouse Gas: Trading of Quotas
Should countries be allowed to buy greenhouse gas quotas from other
countries and so, in effect, pay for the right to pollute more? Or should
polluters simply be heavily taxed if they exceed their own quotas?
Context
It is generally, although not universally, accepted that the planet is under severe threat from
climate change. A number of methods have been proposed in order to reduce the emissions
of so-called greenhouse gases, which lead to global warming. The European Union has
always favoured a 'carbon tax' (a tax on heavy polluters) whereas the United States has
supported Tradable Pollution Quotas (TPQs). Each country in the TPQ scheme is initially
permitted to produce a certain maximum amount of each polluting gas. Consequently,
countries which wish to exceed their quotas can buy the right to do so from other countries
which have produced less than their quota of polluting gases. In 1997, at the Kyoto
environmental summit, the European Union conceded and the subsequent Kyoto protocol
laid the foundations for TPQs. Under this protocol developing countries are exempt from the
emission standards and cannot take part directly in pollution trading. Furthermore, countries
can also 'sink' carbon (e.g. by planting forests to remove carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere) to offset some of their pollution against their quota. The definition for this
debate is simply that the TPQ system, as agreed upon in Kyoto, will be an effective way of
averting global warming. There are two distinct subsets of opposition arguments. The
industrial lobby claims that TPQs go too far and that such stringent regulation is
unnecessary. The environmentalists claim that TPQs are too lax.
Topic 5
Summary
International taxation of Aviation
Should aviation fuel for domestic and international flights be taxed to combat
climate change? Could such a tax be used to fund development aid? Are
there viable alternatives?
Context
The debate over whether international aviation should somehow be taxed brings together
two global problems. How to control emissions which lead to climate change, and how to
find additional funding for development aid - for example to help meet the Millennium
Development Goals. Aviation is now estimated to produce 3% of all global CO2 emissions,
but this is rising fast with the increasing affordability of flights for hundreds of millions of
people worldwide. It is estimated that air travel will produce 15% of all CO2 emissions by
2050. The problem is made worse by studies which suggest that aviation is much more
damaging to the climate than its level of CO2 output would suggest - the other gases it emits
are even more damaging and the fact that emissions occur at high altitudes probably
increases their impact. At present aviation is largely exempt from fuel taxes, although a few
countries (including America and Japan) levy a tax on fuel used only on domestic flights.
Topic 6
Summary
Energy Crisis: Nuclear vs Renewable Sources
Is nuclear power the best way to meet the ever-increasing energy needs of
the planet, or do alternative energy sources provide a viable alternative?
Context
In recent years this has been a hugely contentious debate. There is much public fear about
nuclear energy, fuelled by accidents such as Chernobyl and Three Mile Island. It is,
however, an issue which is becoming more important as we approach a time when fossil fuel
resources may run out, making it necessary to find other power sources. An interesting
recent development in Europe was the German government's announcement in June 2000
that they will be closing down their 19 nuclear power stations by 2020.
Topic 7
Summary
Context
Biodiversity and Endangered Species
Should we be trying to prevent species becoming extinct? If so, why?
Topic 8
Summary
Genetically Modified Food
Are there environmental, moral, or health issues associated with genetically
modified food? Should it be banned?
Context
For the last year genetically modified (GM) food has been in the news almost every day! It
is an issue on which everyone has an opinion. This is a difficult debate because a basic grasp
on the scientific issues is necessary to take the debate beyond the level of media headlines.
There are an enormous number of changes that can be made to organisms with genetic
modification. These range from the introduction of fish genes into plants to lead to better
frost resistance to modifications leading to rice plants producing more vitamin A. In the past
varieties of crops and their seeds have not been owned by anyone. There is an increasing
trend for biotechnology companies to patent GM crop varieties and thus own the exclusive
right to produce and sell their seeds. This means that farmers in developing (and developed)
countries will become dependent on these multinational seed-producing firms who will be
able to charge high prices for patented varieties.
Topic 9
Summary
Human Cloning
Should human cloning be banned ? Should reproductive human cloning
always be prohibited?
Context
The cloning of ‘Dolly’ the sheep in 1997 by Ian Wilmut and his colleagues at the Roslin
Institute in Edinburgh generated a spontaneous worldwide reaction. The United States has
imposed a moratorium on human cloning and a ban on federal funding of cloning research,
that will be reviewed every five years. The British government claimed that existing
legislation regulating embryo research banned human cloning, but a strict interpretation of
the statute would suggest that cloning remains lawful in Britain. Germany, Switzerland and
several American states have passed laws expressly forbidding human cloning, whereas
Canada and Ireland have no relevant legislation at present. The opposition of international
organisations towards human cloning seems clear. The European Parliament, the Council of
Europe, UNESCO and the WHO have all passed resolutions asserting that human cloning is
both morally and legally wrong. There is a clear distinction between ‘reproductive cloning’
and ‘therapeutic cloning’.
Topic 10
Summary
Animal Experimentation
Is it morally acceptable to experiment on non-human animals to develop
products and medicines that benefit human beings?
Context
For many centuries people have experimented on animals. There are two main reasons for
doing this: first, to find out more about the animals themselves, and, secondly, to test
substances and procedures to see if they are harmful (with a view to deciding whether or not
they can be used on human beings). In the second category fall cosmetic products as well as
medicines and surgical techniques. There is a growing consensus that it is not acceptable to
test cosmetic products on animals. This debate is about whether we should experiment on
animals for scientific and medical purposes. The debate about the pros and cons of animal
experimentation (or 'vivisection') is one that elicits very strong emotions: animal rights
activists have resorted to trespass, violence, death threats, and hunger strikes in their singleminded (and sometimes illegal) mission to end this practice.
'Biodiversity' means the variety of bacteria, plants, and animals that live on our planet. This
includes the unique behavioural patterns and activities of each species. Biodiversity is an
ecological concept discussed in many scientific circles. Many debates about biodiversity will
ultimately boil down to how important this diversity is, either for its own sake, or for some
specific human benefits. International agreements such as the Convention on International
Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) aim to protect biodiversity.
III POPULATION ISSUES
Topic 1
Summary
Relaxation of Immigration Laws
Should governments in rich countries relax the laws controlling
immigration?
Context
This is a debate primarily centred on developed countries into which many (often poor)
people wish to immigrate. At the moment the countries are only obliged to accept migrants
who the United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) rule have a genuine ‘fear
of persecution’ in their own country. Most rich countries tend to only accept immigrants
who can provide either specific skills or substantial investment. In fact red tape reduces even
the number of those who enter. Proposition tends to focus on both the moral case for
improving people’s lives and an advantage to the recipient country. Opposition can use
either mainly right wing arguments about the dangers for the recipient or take a more liberal
line centred on the exploitation of the immigrants. Policy can be aimed either at individual
governments or at the UN.
Topic 2
Summary
Overpopulation and Contraception
Is there a global crisis of overpopulation? If so, is increased use of
contraception the solution?
Context
It has long been accepted that natural resources are limited. Despite the efforts of scientists to find
more efficient ways of using what is already available, it has become clear that no amount of
technology will completely solve the problem of limited resources. Attention has therefore turned to
the question of population growth – it is far easier to preserve the environment if our natural resources
are shared among fewer people. Environmental degradation will accelerate if the increase in the global
human population is not slowed down. Over the years, there has been a great deal of debate about
whether large-scale contraception is the solution to the population explosion in the developing world.
Debates about birth control can exist on two levels; on one level, there can be debate about whether the
problem is serious enough to merit some form of action. On the second level, the debate can discuss
whether contraception is an appropriate solution.
Topic 3
Summary
Migration
Is large-scale migration, especially from the developing world to developed
countries, a force for good? Should it be encouraged or do both developed
and developing countries have an interest in restricting the flow of migrants?
Context
International migration can take place for economic as well as non-economic (e.g. political, religious)
reasons. Since the end of World War II most international migration has been motivated by economic
reasons - by the prospect of earning higher real wages and income abroad. The costs and benefits of
foreign labor is one of the most controversial issues in international economics. Floods of asylum
seekers created by wars are also a very pressing issue, particularly for the United States, Australia and
the European Union. These governments have committed to ensuring the human rights of refugees
through the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Convention Relating to the Status of
Refugees, the Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War and
through other international agreements. However, today it appears that although bound by international
conventions, governments find themselves unable to cope with more and more immigrants for
economic and social reasons. Governments generally seek to make a distinction between welcoming
asylum seekers fleeing war or persecution, and turning away economic migrants seeking better
opportunities abroad, unless they are especially skilled or wealthy already. The attitude of the countries
of origin for migrants varies. Some see it as an issue of political and social control and seek to prevent,
or at least severely restrict, any emigration. Others allow it but have policies which, intentionally or
otherwise, create disincentives for potential migrants, for example by making it illegal for nonresidents to own property, making it hard for migrants to later return. Still others rely heavily upon the
income generated by emigrants sending remittances back home.
Topic 4
Summary
Vaccines Market
Should the United States invest in the “Making Markets for Vaccines”
strategy to help reduce poverty and disease in Africa?
Context
The primary challenge to vaccine development is economic. Vaccines do not provide more than 6% of
the total revenue at any of the major pharmaceutical companies still making and selling them.
Pharmaceutical companies are businesses, not public-health agencies, and vaccines are not a lucrative
business. Unfortunately, the diseases that are most in need of a vaccine, such as HIV, malaria and
tuberculosis, exist mainly in poor African countries.
In the past, most vaccine development has relied on ‘push’ funding by government agencies,
universities and non-profit organizations. Today, based on a plan first proposed by Harvard scholar
Michael Kremer, many researchers and policymakers are arguing for a different approach; a ‘pull’
mechanism to motivate industry. Under this approach, the United States and other rich countries would
promise in advance to buy millions of doses of a new vaccine for use in the developing world, thereby
creating an incentive for private companies to invest in research and development (R&D), testing, and
production. A recent Center for Global Development report concluded that an advance market
commitment of about $3 billion per disease would be enough to prompt private biotech and
pharmaceutical firms to invest in R&D and production of vaccines for developing countries.
It is an open question whether world leaders are getting good advice on how best to fund the
development and delivery of new vaccines. The United States has not taken a firm stand on whether to
participate in an advance market commitment.
Topic 5
Summary
Reparations for slavery
Should countries that benefited from slavery compensate the descendents of
slaves?
Context
Slavery is the use or the threat of violence to make another do work without compensation, and usually
involves the ownership of one person by another. It was abolished in the USA in 1865 and was
universally abolished by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, although it has persisted
in some countries down to the present.
The debate that commonly takes place is United States-specific: should government and/or industry be
made to make reparations for slavery? Undoubtedly, there are arguments to be had about slavery
outside the USA – especially as it undoubtedly still occurs today – as debt bondage (where an
individual is used as collateral on a debt), forced prostitution, forced labour and chattel slavery.
However, this article covers the USA debate on compensation for historic slavery, as it is the one that
is held and discussed most frequently, and because the level of support for reparations is high enough
there for it to be a possibility.
Some proponents of reparations advocate payment into a fund aimed at assisting blacks today (for
example, a fund to help attend college). Others favour direct payment to descendants.
Topic 6
Summary
Context
Workfare
Should unemployed people be made to work for their welfare money?
Topic 7
Summary
Context
People Power
Is ‘people power’ a legitimate and valuable means of shaping public policy?
Traditionally in developed countries, the unemployed have been given state welfare benefits until they
find new jobs. They have not been required to do anything in exchange for this “dole money”, other
than be actively seeking and available for work (although this can be hard for the government to
ensure). Workfare was originally developed by some U.S. states as an alternative to this traditional
model; instead the unemployed have to work on government-approved schemes or lose their welfare
benefits. Now widely applied in the USA as a result of federal legislation in the mid-1990s, workfare is
being increasingly introduced, or at least considered, by other developed countries (for example,
Canada and the UK). Models vary widely in their approach, but in many schemes welfare recipients
are offered the alternatives of training courses or government-subsidised workfare schemes. Usually an
unemployed person is paid benefit for a specified number of months, and only if they fail to find a job
at the end of this period does workfare apply.
The history of western democracy is littered with examples of protest and political dissent with people
attempting to make governments listen by taking to the streets. The protests of the 1960’s were a
change from earlier decades where protests were confined to disenfranchised and disadvantaged
groups. Instead mass protest became an adjunct to the democratic protest and an acceptable form of
activity for a wide range of political groups. The number of protests has since grown but now the
objective of most protesters is reform rather than revolution. The demonstrations of February 2003 saw
some 5 million people in 600 cities taking to the streets to campaign against a war against Iraq. A
disparate group of citizens united in their belief that the democratic governments were not heeding
their views. The rise of mass protests arguably demonstrates a loss of faith in the ballot box and the
political party as a means of political expression. People power is about trying to persuade government
or international bodies by force of numbers and headlines rather than by physical force. Other recent
examples of protests are Argentina and Venezuela where the populace took to the streets armed with
saucepans and wooden spoons, beating them incessantly to make their opposition to government
policies heard. People power is just one part of the spectrum of political participation, lying
somewhere between voting at one end and illegal political acts towards the other. Social scientists in
the developed world now argue that we live in ‘post-democracies’, with the falling engagement of
citizens in the process of electoral democracy. Despite the decline in membership of political parties,
turnout at elections across Europe and America and a loss of trust in politicians, some commentators
are more optimistic about the state of democracy. While the traditional political party is in decline,
people are finding new ways to participate in the democratic process.