N13602-E1
The University of Nottingham
BUSINESS SCHOOL
A LEVEL 3 MODULE, AUTUMN SEMESTER 2010-2011
CULTURE, TOURISM AND THE MEDIA
(Saturday 22nd January 2011 at 4.30pm)
Time allowed ONE hour THIRTY minutes
__________________________________________________________________________
Candidates may complete the front cover of their answer book and sign their desk card but
must NOT write anything else until the start of the examination period is announced
Answer ALL Questions in Section A and ONE Question from Section B
Marks are evenly divided between the two sections
Dictionaries are not allowed with one exception. Those whose first language is not English
may use a standard translation dictionary to translate between that language and English
provided that neither language is the subject of this examination. Subject specific
translation dictionaries are not permitted.
No electronic devices capable of storing and retrieving text, including electronic dictionaries,
may be used.
DO NOT turn examination paper over until instructed to do so
ADDITIONAL MATERIAL: None
N13602-E1
Turn over
2
N13602-E1
SECTION A
Read the following passage (from Tourism for Development by Regina Scheyvens, adapted)
and answer all the questions.
Literature on globalisation draws our attention to the fact that peoples, places and countries
in our world are increasingly interdependent. Through the ‘shrinking of space’, distant and
unfamiliar lands are now no longer seen as so out of reach or so unfamiliar. Countries once
considered inaccessible to Western tourists because of geographical barriers such as distance
or remote locations, transport and communication barriers such as a lack of airstrips and
electronic booking mechanisms, or because of warfare or major cultural differences, are now
not only becoming accessible – their very remoteness in the past has made them increasingly
popular choices for travel today. Third World countries are also targeted by so many
travellers because they offer something ‘different’ and they can be cheap. This makes Third
World peoples and environments vulnerable to exploitation by international tourism:
Tourism seeks consciously and specifically to capitalise on differences between places and when
these include differences in levels of economic development then tourism becomes imbued with
all the elements of domination, exploitation and manipulation characteristic of colonialism
(Momsen 1994:106).
Globalisation has cultural, political and economic dimensions. Cultural globalisation is said to
be characterised by cultural homogenisation as Western consumption and lifestyle patterns
spread around the world, a process certainly facilitated by the flow of travellers from the
West to the Third World. Through the demonstration effect, for example, we can see trekking
guides in Nepal wearing Levi jeans and Rayban sunglasses. Political globalisation involves the
undermining of the roles and importance of nation states as borders are opened up to free
trade and investment. Economic globalisation, meanwhile, is multifaceted. A key aspect of
economic globalisation has been the increasing power in the hands of a small number of
travel and tourism companies with a high degree of vertical integration, leading to
oligopolistic control within the industry. These large companies can, for example, shift
thousands of clients from one destination to another if the conditions in a particular country
are seen as unsuitable. This is what happened in The Gambia, a country which recently
reversed its ban on all-inclusive holidays because of a large decline in the number of tourists.
In this case, tourist agencies simply directed their clients to all-inclusive resorts in other
countries. This may result in the collapse of a small Third World economy while the profit
margins of the tour company are maintained. Thus the espousal of free trade inherent in
globalisation discourse effectively limits the ability of individual countries to place conditions
upon investment by outside companies, conditions which could protect the country and its
people from exploitation. Trade liberalisation has further undermined the enterprises of
small-scale local producers.
continued on next page
N13602-E1
3
N13602-E1
An issue of grave concern with relation to increasing global interconnectedness is that the
players are not meeting on a level playing field: ‘Countries, cities and individuals having the
wherewithal to move with globalization have much to gain but many others not having the
infrastructure or investment to be tuned in are bypassed and marginalized.’ (Yeung 1998:
476). Thus while there are positive aspects to globalisation such as opportunities for sharing
information or technology and promoting cultural exchange, concerns have been raised that
the power hierarchies at play may see Third World economies and societies being
undermined. For example, Cater notes that relationships between local people and other
tourism stakeholders are ‘markedly skewed’ in favour of the latter (1995:207). Thus while
globalisation brings increasing opportunities for, say, fisher-people in the Philippines to
enhance their livelihood options though tourism enterprises, it also increases the chance of
their being exploited by a multinational hotel chain which wishes to build a five-star complex
adjacent to their fishing beach. Economic rewards which may be earned from such a venture
by the community in the short term may soon be overshadowed by the social dislocation and
disharmony which the community faces when local elites in collusion with the hotel company
gain the rewards of tourism while the rest of the people find that their primary livelihood
activity, fishing, is threatened. That is why Ringer suggests that tourism ‘is an industry that
satisfies the commercial imperatives of an international business, yet rarely addresses local
development needs.’ (Ringer 1998:9).
Similarly, Hutnyk (1996:211) reveals some of the contradictions which signify the inequality
between travellers and local people in Third World destinations such as Calcutta: ‘The ISD
stall near the Modern Lodge offers instant phone connections home – it is run by an Orissa
man who has not seen his family in four months.’
Hutnyk is particularly critical of
backpackers who, he suggests, think they are involved in an ethical form of travel when in
fact they are exploiting the fact that exchange rates allow them to live ‘like Rajas in Indian
towns’:
Budget travellers can visit the ‘Third World’ because it is cheap; because there are developed
systems of transnational transportation and communication; and because they have the ability
– even, perhaps, the need – to leave their usual domestic circumstances in order to travel and
‘see the world’ (Hutnyk 1996:214).
Such examples of the relative lack of power of local communities compared to tourists and
outside companies whom they come into contact with show that while ‘Globalisation opens
new doors of opportunity and affluence….its pernicious effects have to be fully tackled before
it can be accepted as a benign influence that propels the world and its peoples forward’
(Yeung 1998:477). Furthermore, there are concerns that global trading agreements which
epitomise the sorts of economic relationships globalisation seeks to establish, may undermine
the ability of states to protect the interests of local people involved in tourism development.
The World Trade Organisation has sought to liberalise the trade in services so that member
countries would have to allow foreign-owned companies free access to their markets, and no
favouritism could be shown to domestic investors. Such a policy is more likely to benefit
large companies and investors, while thwarting the opportunities open to small investors and
informal sector actors which require support to be able to compete with larger interests and
protection from the state to avoid being bought out by larger companies.
Continued on next page
N13602-E1
Turn over
4
N13602-E1
QUESTIONS:
1.
The phrase ‘shrinking of space’ refers to the effect of improved means of transport in
making it possible to travel around the world very quickly. Does the author of the
passage regard this as a positive outcome of modern technology, and do you agree
with her? Give reasons for your answer.
[10%]
2.
Throughout the passage, the author refers to the Third World. Suggest an alternative
word or phrase for ‘Third World’ and explain what you understand by the concept of
‘Third World countries’.
[10%]
3.
The author refers to ‘the demonstration effect’ in the second long paragraph and gives
examples of Levi jeans and Rayban sunglasses being worn by Nepalese guides. From
your reading and the lectures give at least one more example of this effect and discuss
whether it should always be deplored; the key to the argument is the phrase ‘cultural
homogenisation’ in the second sentence of the paragraph.
[10%]
4.
In cultural terms, what is the main drawback of all-inclusive resorts? Why do you think
The Gambia tried to ban them?
[10%]
5.
The criticism of backpackers made by Hutnyk in the second indented quotation and just
before it seems harsh. What does he mean by “… even, perhaps, the need – to leave
their usual domestic circumstances in order to travel and ‘see the world’”? Justify the
popularity of backpacking with reference to your reading.
[10%]
N13602-E1
5
N13602-E1
SECTION B
Answer ONLY ONE of the following questions
1.
The Walt Disney Company is active in many aspects of modern leisure. It is not
without its critics. EITHER: justify Disney’s cultural significance in globalised society;
OR: explain why you think Disney’s success is a threat to the cultural life of any
specific country or countries.
2.
Bourdieu’s conception of ‘cultural capital’ suggests that we may use tourism for
purposes other than simply relaxation. Choose a destination and suggest ways in
which it might be used for the acquisition of ‘cultural capital’. Refer to the work of John
Urry in your answer.
3.
The commodification of cultural practices is an inevitable consequence of tourism.
Discuss this statement with reference to your reading, and propose some ways in
which the issues can be addressed.
4.
‘Staged authenticity’ is a concept developed by Dean McCannell.
Describe and
evaluate its relevance to cultural tourists, with reference to Baudrillard’s concept of
‘hyper-reality’.
5.
World Heritage Site inscription is often regarded as a desirable marketing tool. How
would you justify the decision NOT to apply for inscription, for an attraction or
destination of your choice?
6.
Give some examples of postmodernism in the consumption of tourism. How helpful is
the concept in explaining the behaviour of cultural tourists?
N13602-E1
End