COMPARATIVE ADULT EDUCATION
AN OVERVIEW
MS 55
Syracuse University Publication in Continuing Education
Revised 4/2008
Alexander N. Charters
Professor Emeritus – Adult Education
Syracuse University
216 Lockwood Road Syracuse, NY 13214-2035 USA
1988
For further information regarding
The Charters Library of Resources for Adult and Continuing Education
Contact:
Special Collections Research Center
600 E.S. Bird Library
Syracuse University
Syracuse, NY 13244-1010
315-443-2697
E-mail: scrc@syr.edu
Or visit the Charters Library Website at
http://scrc.syr.edu/charterslibrary
(Author’s Note: A small number of bibliography references contain incomplete information.)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. PREFACE ..................................................................................................................................... 1
II. ADULT EDUCATION-- FIELD OF STUDY ............................................................................ 2
A. Purpose .................................................................................................................................... 2
B. Definition/Description ............................................................................................................. 3
C. Scope of Adult Education ........................................................................................................ 5
D. Adult Learners ......................................................................................................................... 6
E. Educators of Adults ................................................................................................................. 6
F. Agencies of Adult Education .................................................................................................. 7
G. Program Development............................................................................................................ 7
H. Declaration/Policies................................................................................................................. 8
III. COMPARATIVE ADULT EDUCATION .............................................................................. 10
A. Definition/Description ........................................................................................................... 10
B. History .................................................................................................................................. 12
C. Premises/Considerations/Assumptions................................................................................. 25
D. The Worth of Comparative Adult Education ....................................................................... 27
E. State of the Study of Comparative Adult Education............................................................. 29
F. Users...................................................................................................................................... 30
IV. LANGUAGE ........................................................................................................................... 31
V. STAGES OF A PROJECT ....................................................................................................... 33
A. Identification of the Problem ................................................................................................ 35
B. Selection of the Topic ........................................................................................................... 36
C. Determination of Scope ......................................................................................................... 37
D. Search of Literature .............................................................................................................. 38
E. Selection of Method .............................................................................................................. 45
F. Collection of Data ................................................................................................................. 45
G. Ordering of Data ................................................................................................................... 46
H. Comparison and Analysis of Data ........................................................................................ 47
I. Results and Conclusions ........................................................................................................ 47
J. Observations about Significance ........................................................................................... 47
K. Evaluation of the Project ...................................................................................................... 48
I. PREFACE
This monograph was developed for use in comparative adult education seminars in three cities in
Venezuela. It has been modified and expanded since the earlier presentations. Most of the
participants in the seminars had some experience in an adult education agency; some of them
participated in seminars or courses in adult education; some of them had attended adult education
conferences; and some of them had met in face to face situation with other educators of adults.
The resources for educators of adults available to the participants were limited and accordingly
this monograph repeats some information on adult education which seems necessary as a
background to the study of comparative adult education. The author focuses on adult education
but what is stated may be true of other areas of education.
Comparative adult education includes: a) statements about theory, principles, methodology and
other topics of comparative education that are related to adult education; b) studies that analyze
data to identify similarities and dissimilarities if an adult education topic in two or more situation.
(See III a., pp.13-14)
The purpose of this statement is to provide an overview of the field of comparative adult
education. It describes the field in the context of adult education, international education, and
comparative education, as well as the present status of comparative adult education.
The author recognizes that this monograph on Comparative Adult Education may be subjective in
that the author has a frame of reference and a point of view. All the relevant issues related to the
topic are considered and treated as a consistent philosophical and operational statement.
1
As critically as the factors have been examined for selection, it is recognized that there may be
interrelationships among the factors; that comparable data form the countries being studies may
not be available; and that the researcher may be making judgments including value judgments.
However the aim of this is to be as rational and scientific as possible. In this early state of
comparative adult education the ability of researchers to be rational may be difficult, but the
study must continue with the expectation that the criticisms will lead to more effective research.
Since comparative study as defined here involves two or more countries, the problem of different
mores, values and attitudes immediately becomes evident. They are factors that greatly influence
some studies and that influence may in turn be analyzed. There are many issues however that are
not influenced by cultural and other factors which are most evident in science, e.g., heart
transplants, the polio plus program of Rotary International. There are other cultural values and
attitudes that may exert as much influence within a country as between two countries—for
example, abortion and planned parenthood. There are of course some factors that have strong
influence from country to country, e.g., democratic principles, authoritarianism and human rights.
Religious beliefs are an illustration of influence that are strong both within countries and among
countries.
II. ADULT EDUCATION-- FIELD OF STUDY
It is useful to consider further the field of adult education because it gives the context for the
topics to be studied in Comparative Adult Education.
A. Purpose
The mission of adult education is to assist adults to obtain further control over their present
circumstances and future destinies.1 As people move along the lifespan, they are perhaps less
2
concerned with future destiny than with present circumstances. For example, a child at an early
age has almost entirely oriented to the future in terms of education while for a more mature and
older adult the emphasis is more likely to be on the present circumstances.
It is recognized that adults move toward being increasingly self-directed. It is often considered
that, in terms of learning, people are somewhere along a continuum between other-directed and
self-directed. Children when they are very young are very other directed. As they proceed, they
become, or should become, more self-directed. However, self-directedness should not be
confused with independence. People may chose to be dependent on others for learning and other
things but the key is that when they are self-directed that have the right to choose when to be
other-directed.
In addition adults are having more and different experiences than children. Another factor is
experience. It is normal that as adults age, they have more and different experiences. As
experience accumulates, it can be drawn upon as an increasing resource for one’s own learning.
Adult education is described by some educators of adults as a discipline or as a profession. The
author prefers to call adult education a field of study. There is a growing body of print and nonprint literature and research concerned with the theory and practice of the field. Educators of
adults should have an ethical and moral value scheme and a respect for the dignity of the
individual.
B. Definition/Description
A definition or description of adult education is important. All educators of adults should
develop their own definition consistent with the philosophy of adult education as well as
3
principles of practice. It is noted that some educators of adults prefer the term adult learning
because it puts the focus on the individual as a learner.
As already indicated many definitions of adult education have been put forward in recent times.
The following definition, approved by the 1976 General Conference of UNESCO, in one
probably most used on an international level:
The term ‘adult education’ denotes the entire body of organized educational processes,
whatever the content level and method, whether formal or otherwise, whether they
prolong or replace initial education in schools, colleges and universities as well as in
apprenticeship, whereby persons regarded as adult by the society to which they belong
develop their abilities, enrich their knowledge, improve their technical or professional
qualifications or turn them in a new direction and bring about changes in their attitudes or
behavior in the two-fold perspective of full personal development and participation in
balanced and independent social economic and cultural development.2
The following is from the First Conference on Comparative Adult Education, held in Exeter,
New Hampshire, USA, 1966:
Adult education is a process whereby persons who no longer attend school on a regular
and full-time basis (unless full-time programs are especially designed for adults)
undertake sequential and organized activities with the conscious intention of bringing
about changes in information, knowledge, understanding or skills, appreciation and
attitudes; or for the purpose of identifying and solving personal or community problems.3
The author’s definition of adult education is:
The identification, selection, provision, arrangement, and evaluation of learning activities
for adults who are physically mature; consciously learning in order to achieve their
selected goals; learning on a part-time basis or a full-time basis for only short periods of
time as part of their life pattern; learning on order to assume greater responsibility as
citizens, workers, family members, and social beings living in a particular environment.4
This definition is the one that is consistent with the conceptual framework of this overview. For
further information, the section on dictionaries/terminologies/thesauri/glossaries of the
International Handbook may be consulted for definitions of phrases and terms.5
4
While adult education is the term used in this statement, there are other terms such as continuing
education, extra-mural, extension, life-long, recurrent, which are in some cases considered as
synonymous. Other terms such as literacy and distance education are viewed as aspects of adult
education.6
It is noted that the definition of description of terms has particular significance in comparative
adult education study. The same content may be different works or terms in different countries
or in the same country. For example, Syracuse University refers to University College as the
adult education division of Syracuse University and yet the dean of University College was
named Vice President for Continuing Education and still it was the same person doing more of
the same thing. On the other hand, the same word or term may have different meanings in
different countries even with the same official language. For example, in England, adult
education generally refers to liberal studies, the arts and humanities. In the United States, adult
education generally refers to all education for adults. It is often useful to use the words or terms
of the country being studied but with a clear explanation that it corresponds to the stated words or
terms of other countries being compared in the same study. A study is additionally complex
when the data are in different languages.
While the definition of adult education in the two or more countries being studied must be
understood, it is also important that the definition of the topic in adult education being studied be
clearly defined.
C. Scope of Adult Education
The field may be viewed by looking at the scope or contemporary status as viewed by educators
of adults or by other people.
5
Today, in many respects, adult education has come of age. It is recognized as a distinct
branch of education, constantly developing as the concept of learning itself evolves.
Increasingly it is becoming an identifiable and integral part of adult life and the social and
cultural environment. Many adults are only minimally involved but the numbers actually
participating are substantial, predominately among those who have had some previous
education. Moreover, it is world-wide, extending into hitherto educationally deprived
regions. That the provision of adult education is expanding is shown by the increasing
number of adult participants, the proliferation of the range of learning opportunities
offered, and the mounting investment of time, effort, finance and other resources by
providers and learners.7
D. Adult Learners
It is ordinarily considered that the stages of life include children, teenagers, youth and adults.
However, it is not sufficient to consider two-thirds of the lifespan called adulthood as one stage
without some sub-stages. For example, in terms of family it might be dependence- then moving
toward independence- toward career and then perhaps toward retirement. Likewise, in terms of
career it may be considered preparation for a career, rise in the administrative or intellectual
hierarchy, the leveling off and then retirement. These and other sub-stages are not discrete but
suggest a more adequate framework for the development of adult education.
Consideration is given to normal adults. That is, those adults who are not handicapped physically
or mentally, are not confined to some institution or for some reason are out of the mainstream of
society. It does not mean that there should not be or are not adult education programs for these
people but here normal adults are being considered. Of course much of what is stated here
applies to all adults.
E. Educators of Adults
The field of adult education may be viewed from the perspective of these educators of adults who
operate in the field or who influence it. People involved in the education of adults may be paid
employees or volunteers and may even be unaware that, through their activities, they are engaged
in the field of adult education. Thus, some identify with the field and some do not. Moreover,
they may not be recognized by peers as performing a role in adult education.
6
Educators of adults may be: administrators; supervisors; deans; directors; advisors and
counselors; members of the clergy; librarians, media specialists and other support
personnel; tutors; facilitators and teachers; faculty and students in the field of adult
education; community developers and community consultants; policy makers; elected
officials; and board members of adult education agencies. In fact, the importance of what
they do may be tied as much to their activities as individual persons as to the tasks and
functions they officially perform.8
F. Agencies of Adult Education
The broadening of concern for involvement in and the commitment to the education of
adults is evident in the expansion in the numbers and types of agencies involved in the
education of adults. They included: business and industry, communication enterprises,
galleries and museums, government agencies, international organizations, labor
institutions, religious bodies, school, correctional facilities, special groups (elderly,
handicapped, minorities, illiterates), sports and recreational organizations, vocational and
professional associations, and voluntary (not for profit) bodies. The sponsors may be
public, private or proprietary.9
G. Program Development
Program development or curriculum construction results in programs for adults which constitute
another way of viewing the field of adult education.
Within the economic, socio-cultural, logistic and political constraints, five essential components
of program development operate. These highly interrelated components are: adult learners,
needs, objectives, learning opportunities and evaluation.
7
Economic Constraints
Adult Learners
Political Constraints
Needs
Learning
Opportunities
Sociocultural Constraints
Evaluation
Objectives
Programmes should constantly be adapted to needs on the basis of experience, evaluation
and changing circumstances. The model and principles of programme construction for
adult education are the same as for all education and should be considered in the total
context of lifelong education. In a broad sense a program for adults could consist of the
total educational experience or learning of an adult. In practice, however, each planned
programme constitutes a part of the total educational or learning pattern of adult
students.10
H. Declaration/Policies
Declarations and policies about adult education are important to the field of adult education
because they indicate the intent of the signers or adherents to some plan of action.
Implementation of policy indicates commitment to them.
The statement that perhaps best sets the challenge for comparative adult education is in the
Constitution of UNESCO. It begins:
The Governments of the States Parties to this Constitution of behalf of their
peoples declare: That since wars begin in the minds of men, it is in the minds of
men that the defenses of peace must be constructed; That ignorance of each
other’s ways and lives has been a common cause throughout the history of
8
mankind, of that suspicion and mistrust between the peoples of the world through
which their differences have all too often broken into war. 11
There have been two major declarations of policy approved at two International Conferences on
Adult Education sponsored by UNESCO. The one approved at the second UNESCO Conference
in Montreal in 1960 was called Adult Education.
The declaration approved at the fourth UNESCO Conference in Paris in 1985 was called the
Right to Learn and within the background of 1948 Declaration of Human Rights. It begins:
Recognition of the right to learn is now more than ever a major challenge for
humanity. The right to learn is:
the right to read and write;
the right to question and analyze
the right to imagine and create;
the right to read one’s own world and write history;
the right to have access to educational resources;
the right to develop individual and collective skills. 12
The 1985 declaration, as compared to the 1960 declaration, more implicitly reflects and explicitly
states the movement from the emphasis on general education to the focus on the individual
learners and citizens everywhere in the world. The comparisons of the two examples from
UNESCO indicates how policies can change to reflect not only what has or is taking place but
also to give a sense of direction for the future.
9
III. COMPARATIVE ADULT EDUCATION
The terms comparative and international education and particularly as related to adult education
are often linked implying one concept. Although in the past and even now, they are linked—they
are distinct. From a content point of view, comparative adult education grew out of international
adult education. One example is that the International Congress of University Adult Education
(ICUAE) was founded with a focus on international adult education but after a few years
identified comparative as a special concern and set up the Exeter Conference which is known as
the first international conference on the comparative study of adult education. 13
A. Definition/Description
In the Preface it was stated that comparative adult education is defined as: a) statements about the
theory, principles, methodology and other topics of continuing education related to adult
education, and b) comparative study of the topic in adult education in two or more situations.
Intra-national is the comparison of a topic in two or more situations within one country and
international is comparison of the topic in two or more situations in different countries. A
comparative adult education study extends beyond descriptions of adult education and/or the
juxtaposition of adult education data. There is analysis and comparison to identify similarities
and dissimilarities. The focus of this monograph is in the international area.
The stages of the study are describes later as: identifying a problem; determining the scope of the
topic; conducting a search for the literature; selecting the method; collecting data about the topic
from two or more countries; ordering of data; analyzing the data; studying the results, drawing
conclusions, stating the significance to adult education; and evaluating the project. (See V, pp.
41-49.)
10
The literature on comparative adult education may be classified as studies made within a country
which John Mallea refers to as intra-national; 14 or between or among two or more countries
which are generally referred to as comparative at an international level. In many cases the
authors use the term comparative to mean comparative only at the international level.
International studies have content from various countries but are not limited to the international
level. The literature also shows that many studies labeled comparative descriptors of, or
juxtaposition of data about adult education are limited to comparison. There is growing interest
in comparative adult education at both the intra-national and international levels.
In The Primer of Adult Education there is a heading on adult education, “A Confusing
Terminology.” 15 The same exercise may be useful for the term international. The reader may
find in the literature terms such as trans-national, multi-cultural, and inter-cultural. There are
some differences in meaning but in this monograph international is used to include these terms.
Comparative adult education draws on the strengths of both comparative education and of adult
education. Adult education may be considered a discipline, a subject, a profession, a body of
knowledge or an area of practice. As indicated earlier, in this monograph it is referred to as a
field of study considering both theory and practice. It may be useful to the reader to review other
ways of categorizing adult education. It may provide a framework for the selection of a topic for
study or for identifying where a selected topic fits into the larger context.
Adult education is usually and properly considered a part of lifelong education in that it is
concerned with the part of the life span known as adulthood. It is cautioned, however, that it is
sometimes used as a synonym for lifelong education, e.g. the so called Mondale Lifelong
Education bill in the United States which relates to adult education.
11
The field of adult education may be viewed in several ways. Each view may set parameters; or
views taken together as a matrix may set the parameters. The definitions cited reflect a broad and
philosophical base. It is evident however that for specific purposes the definition may be limited
to a designated adult clientele. Two examples from Federal legislation in the United States are:
Adult Education - Services of instruction below the college level, for adults who 1) do
not have a certificate of graduation from a school providing secondary
education and
who have not achieved an equivalent level of education, and 2) are not currently required
to be enrolled in schools. 16
Continuing Education - Postsecondary instruction designed to meet the educational needs
and interests of adults, including the expansion of available learning opportunities for
adults who are not adequately served by current educational offerings in their
communities. 17
In other cases a number of types of adult education activities may be enumerated. An example
from Federal legislation in the United States is:
Lifelong Learning: Includes, but is not limited to, adult basic education, continuing
education, independent study, agricultural education, business education and labor
education, occupational education and job training programs, parent education,
postsecondary education, pre-retirement and education for older and retired people,
remedial education, special education programs for groups or for individuals with special
needs, and also educational activities designed to upgrade occupational and professional
skills, to assist business, public agencies and other organizations in the use of innovation
and research results and to serve family needs and personal development. 18
B. History
Since history has a powerful influence, it is important to know what history tells of the past so
that it can be used in the present situation in planning for the future. As previously stated,
comparative adult education is a recent field of study. It does however have antecedents in both
comparative education and adult education.
The history of comparative education is perceptively described by William W. Brickman in A
Historical Introduction to Comparative Education. 19 The following quotations give a glimpse
into the past that reflect some historical context for this statement.
12
It is customary to begin the history of comparative education with the publication of
Marc-Antoine Jullien’s “Esquisse et vues preliminaries d’un ouvrage sur l’education
comparee” (Place and Preliminary Views for Work of Comparative Education), which
was issued in the form of a pamphlet in 1817 in Paris. That this is considered the Year
One of comparative education is evident from such writings as Pedro Rosello’s…(p. 6).
In this essay the writer would like to venture the view that the roots of comparative
education lie deeper in history. Little has been done, thus far, to explore….(p. 7).
One may argue that comparative education is as old as the practice of visiting foreign
countries. Travelers in all historical periods must have brought back facts and
impressions concerning the cultures of the countries they had visited. Included in their
reports must have been comments regarding the young and their upbringing. They may
also have made some remarks regarding the similarities and differences in the ways of
educating children. Some, indeed, may have arrived at conclusions involving the
expression of value judgements. The general lack of precise data in the earlier ages of
history makes it necessary to rely upon inference until such time as information will
become available through research….(p. 7).
We are on more solid ground when we approach modern times. The publication of
Rousseau’s “Emile” in 1762 and subsequent implementation of its educational ideas by
J.B. Basedow, C.G. Salzmann, and others caused considerable consternation to the
scholars in the well-established disciplines. In the new pedagogy they saw a direct threat
to the integrity of the traditional pattern of education. Accordingly, they attempted to
discredit the movement by pointing up its limitations in the light of the chain of
educational values and content which stretched back to ancient history (p.7).
This selected series of quotations from Brickman close with a reference to Benjamin Franklin
whom many regard as a pioneer educator of adults in the United States.
Instances of a feeling for comparative culture and education may be found in the writings
of eighteenth-century literary figures who studied the life of other peoples. Benjamin
Franklin, for example, in “The Savages of North America” (1784), wrote about
examining “the manners of different nations with impartiality.” He quotes an American
Indian speaker as having said in 1744 to the Virginia commissioners with whom the
Indians had concluded a treaty, “You, who are wise, must know that different nations
have different conceptions of things; and you will therefore not take it amiss, if our ideas
of this kind of education happen not to be the same with yours.” This was in response to
an offer to educate half a dozen young Indians at no cost at the College of William and
Mary.20
In the literature of comparative education there are studies of many aspects of the field. Some of
this material is useful to provide background for the study of comparative adult education.
13
Dusan Savicevic of Yugoslavia is one of the first educators of adults to study the theoretical and
philosophical basis of comparative adult education. In relation to the base in comparative
education, he states:
Comparative education is one discipline in the system of the science of Education. It is a
component and inseparable part of the science of Education. It is a component and
inseparable part of the science of Education. Its subject matter is studying the laws that
govern Education in all forms in which they appear on a comparative basis. The scientific
identity of comparative education needs a stronger science of Education in all its
constitutional elements.21
Comparative adult education has not developed as early as some critics have suggested. Part of
the reason is due to the fact that the field of adult education was not identified as a
comprehensive independent field until about the time the Coalition of Adult Education (CAEO)
was established in 1964.
There have been four international conferences organized specifically for comparative adult
education. The first was sponsored by the International Congress of University Adult Education
(ICUAE) and held in Exeter, USA in 1966.22 A report known as the Exeter Papers was published.
The second was sponsored by the Danish Commission for UNESCO and was held in Nordberg,
Denmark in 1972 and a report was published as Agenda for Comparative Studies in Adult
Education.23 The third was sponsored by the Open University and held at Oxford University in
1987. The papers are not being published but the set is in the Adult Education collection in Bird
Library at Syracuse University. The fourth followed in the next year, 1988. It was sponsored by
Centro Europeo Dell Educazione (CEDE) and held at the Villa Falconie in Frascati (Rome). It is
expected that the papers will be published.
References to comparative adult education were made at the four International Conferences on
Adult Education sponsored by UNESCO held in Elsinore 1945, Montreal 1960, Tokyo 1972 and
14
Paris 1983. Following each Conference, reports were issued by UNESCO. Kidd, in this book
titled Tale of Three Cities, compares the first three conferences.24
Likewise discussions on continuing adult education have been held; for example, the meetings of
international adult education organizations such as International Congress of University
Education (ICUAE) founded in 1960, and International Council of Adult Education (ICAE)
founded in 1973.
In addition there have been many conferences and seminars on resources for educators of adults
which have included specific attention to resources for the study of comparative adult education.
These and other resources are identified in the International Handbook of Resources for
Educators of Adults. 25
It is quite clear that in general the field of adult education has moved well beyond literacy, even
in some of the less developed countries. In an opening address to the Fourth International
Conference on Adult Education, M’bow, the Director General of UNESCO, stated “the new
tendency to offer educational opportunities to different socioeconomic categories or different
groups raised the question of the criteria to be applied in assigning priorities where resources
were limited and that of the measures that might be taken to reconcile decisions to give priority to
certain groups with the need to respect the principle of equal access to education for all.”26
The development of adult education has progressed from a traditional stage to an institutionalized
one and now into a knowledge-based stage.
The author has stated it, in part, as follows:
My second perspective provides a linear view, both backward and forward, of education.
The evolution of education in our society might be viewed as passing through three stages
– traditional, institutionalized, and knowledge-based. We are currently in the transition
between stages two and three.
15
The first stage is called the traditional stage. In the traditional stage which extends over
many centuries, all the components of the society were educative—families; occupations;
religious, social and cultural activities—the entire community. It was indigenous to the
people and society…..
The second stage might be called the institutionalized stage. A special institution for
educating young people was established—the school—and gradually most educative
functions were stripped from the other components of society and transferred to the
school….
The third stage of education into which the work is now moving, might be called the
knowledge-based stage. It is not to consider knowledge as a product but knowledge as the
basis for knowing. Knowledge is all encompassing to all aspects of learning and it
behooves all adults to continue to learn in areas and at levels appropriate for them. As in
the traditional stage, all of the components of society are once again considered to be
educative.27
As indicated above, it is becoming increasingly clear that some aspects of adult education are
moving from the institutionalized stage to one where it is now largely de-schooled. The emphasis
in adult education is no longer focused on the public schools and the universities and other forms
of institutionalized education but has expanded to include a broad spectrum of agencies and
people. It is now in the stage where adult education is pervading the whole life of individuals and
the structure and fabric of society.
In some respects comparative adult education had its roots in international adult education
organizations. The first adult education organization, the World Association for Adult Education
was founded in 1919 with its headquarters in London. With a hiatus during World War II and the
emergence of UNESCO, the World Association had its demise in 1947. This and other
international organizations are described by Hutchinson.28 The World Association published the
International Handbook of Adult Education in 1929.29
Over a period of time UNESCO expressed interest in comparative adult education and expressed
this interest through attendance at meetings of individual groups and organizations with similar
interests. Some of its publications, e.g., “Terminology of Adult Education” and “Thesaurus…”
are basic to the study of comparative adult education.
16
These conferences on adult education were significant events involving preparation of working
papers, the conference agenda and program and follow up reports and activities. They also
provided adult education with a strong identity as a field of study and with substantial support
literature. In addition they drew the attention of educators worldwide to this emerging field and
at least passing recognition of other persons associated with UNESCO. Attendance at the
Conferences were to be educators of adults but other people, often high in national, political and
governmental roles, were named delegates. It provided them with learning experiences about
adult education and perhaps even the opportunity to visit counterparts in cities in developed
lands.
Divisions of UNESCO have made important contributions to the field. For example, the
International Bureau of Education held a conference on documentation in Geneva in 1973. This
was the first conference relating to adult education and recognized documentation as an
important resource for study in comparative adult education.30 The UNESCO Institute on
Pedagogy in Hamburg has expressed interest in the study of lifelong education of which adult
education is a part. 31
In 1960 immediately following the INESCO Conference in Montreal, William McCallion,
Canadian Association of Deans of Extension and Summer Sessions (CADESS), A. A. Liveright.
Center for the Study of Liberal Education of Adults (CSLEA) and Alexander N. Charters,
Syracuse University, convened a meeting at Sagamore (Syracuse University conference center)
for the purpose of providing an opportunity for some delegates to the UNESCO Conference to
meet with some Canadian and American educators of adults who were not delegates. The
purpose was simply to have face-to-face discussion with educators of adults from other countries
and to hear presentations about adult education in various countries. Although without prior
thought or intention toward the conclusion of this meeting, it was decided to form an
17
international association focusing on university adult education. Some of the participants were
not associated with universities, but it was agreed to accept them as founding members. It was
named International Congress of University Adult Education (ICUAE).
The secretariat for ICUAE was the CSLEA under A. A. Liveright. Upon his death in 1973, the
secretariat moved with the elected secretary. The secretary, Dr. John Morris, University of New
Brunswick is now providing the leadership. In the early days the financial and other support for
ICUAE was primarily from CSLEA (A.A. Liveright), McMaster University (William
McCallion), and Syracuse University (Alexander N. Charters).
The ICUAE moved forward to make its Executive Committee international in scope. This
resulted in 1965 in UNESCO granting it consultative status category B. Funded by a grant from
the Carnegie Corporation, the University of Ghana and ICUAE held a conference in Accra,
Ghana. A representative of and each African nation and ten educator of adults from Canada and
the United States met for several days around New Year’s, in 1961. Following this conference
each Canadian and American returned to visit an African counterpart for about a week.
A major international conference of non-governmental educators of adults was sponsored by
ICUAE and held in the Krogerup Folk High School, Denmark. Prior to the conference there was
a study group that met in England and following the conference another group that met in
England and following the conference another group went to Yugoslavia. It was the ICUAE who
later sponsored the first Comparative Adult Education Conference held in Exeter, New
Hampshire in 1966. The ICUAE over the years continuously published the International Journal
of University Adult Education. At the latest UNESCO International Conference on Adult
Education held in Paris in 1983, the ICUAE held another meeting. In 1985, at the time of the
18
ICAE Conference in Buenos Aires, the ICAUE held a meeting and elected a new slate of officers
and generally signaled a vigorous reactivation.
The delegates to the UNESCO Conference in Tokyo were designated by their respective
governments. It seemed important to have an international organization whose membership was
non-governmental. Dr. J. Roby Kidd took the initiative to form such a body. The ground work
for the ICAE was done in the lobbies and other places outside of the official meetings at the
UNESCO Conference in Tokyo, 1972. It was officially incorporated in Toronto, Canada in 1973.
UNESCO granted in consultative status C, then status B, and status A in 1982. Dr. J. Roby Kidd
was Executive Secretary from its founding in 1972 until his death in 1981. Dr. Budd Hall was
appointed as his successor.
The ICAE, which now has representation from national non-governmental organization in 72
countries, has held many international and regional meetings and produced a substantial number
of publications. The publication Convergence, which had been published by OISE since 1968,
was taken over as an official publication of ICAE.
In 1987 a Committee for Study and Research in Comparative Adult Education was designated
jointly by ICUAE and ICAE. The Chair is Alexander N. Charters who was a founding board
member of both organizations.
In addition to organizations, there were individuals and institutions that made expression of
interest in international and comparative adult education. Syracuse University may be typical of
many institutions that give considerable support to a number of adult education activities at the
international level. Some examples are cited to indicate range and activities. There is no
implication that these Syracuse University programs are necessarily unique in the field of adult
19
and continuing education but are cited only as examples. These programs were administered by
the Dean of University College and/or the Vice President for Continuing Education.
In 1950 the Foreign Studies Program was begun as summer tours to Europe and a workshop in
Mexico to give adults an experience in another country and obtain university credit if desired.
This Program was expanded to include programs designed for undergraduate students. In some
cases counterparts from other countries were brought to Syracuse University. In most cases the
undergraduate students live with foreign families. These programs provide face-to-face
communication with nationals of other countries and also provide challenging academic and
cultural experiences.
A similar project was the International Management Development Department, administered for
many years in the Office of Vice President for Continuing Education, where the prime purpose
was to bring business and management people to Syracuse University. Again, the purpose was to
provide an opportunity for personal communication as well as for the development of
management expertise. The programs were supported by the agency for International
Development (AID), business and other organizations.
Another program in the Office of the Vice President for Continuing Education was the
International Broadcasters. Support from AID enabled selected individuals working in the
communications field to come for study to Syracuse University, as well as visits to other places.
Most of these broadcasters stayed in homes and this academic experience was supplemented by
living experiences by both the participants and the host families.
20
The East European Language Program was sponsored by the US Air Force to train military
personnel in oral and written foreign languages. Except as provided by special arrangements,
these participants did not have extensive contact with university people.
These programs which operated for many years in the aggregate provided hundreds of adults and
university students with an enriching international experience. Discussion by Syracuse
University educators of adults with their colleagues in other institutions with similar experiences
have resulted in significant learning from each other and this has enhanced the study of both
international and comparative adult education.
Out of the field of international adult education there emerged some meeting and conferences
specifically related to comparative adult education. As previously mentioned, the first
conference on comparative adult education was held at Exeter, New Hampshire in 1966. It was
attended by participants from nine countries. This conference was significant because it was
indeed the first; identified comparative adult education as a field of study; and did provide in the
report 32 some material of substance.
In 1969 a conference was convened and funded by Syracuse University. It was scheduled so that
participants to the Galaxy Conference of Adult Education Organizations in Washington, DC
could proceed directly to the Conference Center for Syracuse University and continue the agenda
of the Exeter Conference in 1966. There were participants form seven countries. The
proceedings were published as: Essays on the future of Continuing Education Worldwide . 33
This conference and the publication of the proceedings provided further foundation for the study
of international adult education and to comparative adult education.
21
In 1970 a meeting was scheduled to follow the UNESCO Conference in Montreal so that
participants could continue on to Pinebrook, a residential center of Syracuse University. The
theme was “The New Environment: Question for Adult Educators.” This conference attended by
educators of adults form 12 countries, focused on general questions and was another contribution
to the study of international education and to comparative adult education. A report was
published by SUPCE.34
Another comparative adult education conference was convened in Norberg, Denmark. The
theme was “Directions on Comparative Adult Education.” The collaboration was broader than
for the other three conferences in indication wider interest: European Centre for Leisure and
Education (Czechoslovakia) Ontario Insitute for Studies in Education, (Canada), and Syracuse
University (United States). It was supported by the Danish commissions for UNESCO with a
grant from UNESCO. This meeting of experts from 15 countries was to advance the emerging
discipline of comparative studies in adult education. This report was published by SUPCE. 35
A fifth conference was held at Oxford,, England in 1987. The Comparative Adult Education
Conference was sponsored by the Open University and had participants form sixteen countries.
All of the presentations at this Conference were on the topic of comparative adult education. The
presentations have not been published but most of them are in the Pamphlet File of Syracuse
University Resources for Educators of Adults (SUREA).
A sixth conference—the fourth on comparative adult education—was held in Frascati (Rome) in
1988. It was sponsored by Centro Europeo Dell Educazione (CEDE) who intends to publish the
paper.
22
Another conference, the third in a series of international education funded by Syracuse
University, was on “Publication in Continuing Education.” The conference was held at
Minnowbrook, a conference center of Syracuse University. Although participants were from
only four countries, the presented papers were of topics and scope that was international. It was
published by SUPCE as International Seminar on Publications in Continuing Education, English
Language
36
This conference and published report are significant resources for the study of
comparative adult education.
In 1958 Peers published a book, Adult Education: A Comparative Study.37 This first book on
comparative adult education and titled as such still serves as a resource. It is largely a description
of adult education in several countries: Great Britain, United States, Germany, and
underdeveloped countries, and includes some generalization about adult education.
A second book by Ulrich was published in 1965 as Patterns of Adult Education: A Comparative
Study.38 It contains description of adult education in Denmark, England, Germany and United
States of America. In the conclusion there are some comparisons and generalizations.
A third book with the term comparative in the title is Comparing Adult Education—Worldwide,
published in 1981. There is a series of eight chapters, each one comparing g some aspect of adult
education in two or more countries. The editor in turn compares aspects of adult education from
the chapters. There is an introduction to the field of comparative adult education. 39
Landmark Programs in Adult Education: A Comparative Analysis is scheduled to be published in
1988. Eight authors describe programs in as many countries under eight specific topics. The
books authors make comparison of the programs under each of the topics. There is an analysis to
23
determine similarities and differences under each of the topics. The introduction describes the
book in the context of the field of adult education and comparative education. 40
Another indication for the identification for comparative adult education as a field for study is
that graduate courses are being offered. One of the first in this field was Ontario Institute for
Studies in Education in 1968. Since then many courses have been offered at several universities.
Some two or three day conference have also been developed. Even now most offerings are titled
as comparative and international adult education.
Comparative Studies in Adult Education: An Anthology is a collection of essays with a
bibliography of 292 listings.41 These essays concern many of the issues in comparative education
by well-known authors in comparative education and adult education. Some of the essays relate
comparative studies to adult education.
A Bibliography of Comparative Adult Education: A Source Book was compiled by Peter G.
Haygood.42
There is a significant series of bibliographies, which provides an important
resource for the study of comparative adult education. These were compiled by Jindra Kulich
and included materials of adult education in Continental Europe.43
As mentioned previously, comparative education is generally considered to have begun with a
proposal in 1817 by M. A. Julien of Paris. However some scholars referred to earlier work.
Julien's proposal was called "Plan and Preliminary Views for Work of Comparative Education."
It consisted of "series of questions on education destined to furnish material for Comparative
Observation tables, for the usage of persons who, wishing to study the present state of education
and of public instruction, in the different countries of Europe .....”44
24
It is interesting to note that the Council of Europe in 1984 in "Learning for Life" indicates that
some of the Council's education work is directed toward improving training of teachers of
migrant programs in an increasingly multicultural Europe.45 This statement made about 170 years
after the statement by Julien, indicates the hiatus there has been in the study of comparative
education.
C. Premises/Considerations/Assumptions
There are a number of considerations which may be worldwide in scope that provide a basis for
this monograph on comparative adult education.
1. Adult education is based on some premises such as: all adults have the right and capacity to
learn throughout life; faith complemented by evidence that adult education does make a
difference in changing adults; and a commitment to the necessity and urgency for adult education
for individuals and society.
These premises are reflected in the expansion of adult education country by country - world wide.
The expansion is observed in: the number and types of sponsoring agencies; a wider range of
subject matter and knowledge; development of additional methods utilizing developing
technology; increase in programs and learning opportunities; and commitment of all types of
adults from the illiterate to the highly proficient to learn.
2. Learning takes place when a given potential learner responds to a potential learning
opportunity. If some reaction takes place, then there is learning. It is realized that only the
individual learns. They may learn in and with groups and from the same learning opportunities
but learning is unique to the individual.
25
3. Pedagogy is defined by some as being synonymous with education and therefore when one
talks about education for adults, one must talk about it as adult pedagogy as, for example. Knoll
describes it. If on the other hand pedagogy is defined as the education for children, it follows that
a term such as andragogy is education for adults. Some educators of adults, for example Dusan
Savicevic, Felix, Adams and Malcolm Knowles, hold that there is a theory of education
concerning children, called pedagogy and likewise another field of study called andragogy. The
theory is often called methodology which should not be confused with methods used for
instruction or research. The author considers that the principles of education are the same but the
emphasis varies according to time, place and circumstance. It also varies in terms of those
factors previously mentioned including: self and other directedness; extent and nature of
experiences; stage in life span; and orientation.
4. For an experience to be educational, it must be by design a plan which has intention,
commitment and a plan leading to the achievement of an objective of an adult. It is not
incidental.
5. Education is normally thought of as a division of the social sciences and accordingly it is one
of the sub-parts which may be considered a science. Adult education is a part of education and
therefore the philosophy or perspective of adult education held by educators of adults should be
consistent with their view of education.
6. It is apparent that at times educators of adults are inclined to compare the practice of
elementary, secondary, and tertiary education with the principles of adult education. Accordingly,
adult education often looks superior. Similarly elementary, secondary or tertiary education might
appear better if its principles were compared with the practice of adult education. Further, a
comparison of andragogy and pedagogy that does not compare principles with principles and
practice with practice confuses the issue. Likewise, comparative adult education must compare
the same topic whether principles or practice in two or more countries.
26
7. There is a body of literature in adult education that is expanding. The resources of Syracuse
University, Syracuse University Resources for Educators of Adults (SUREA) and Educational
Resources Informational Center (ERIC) are examples of major resources.
D. The Worth of Comparative Adult Education
At the outset the mission of adult education should again be stated. "The mission of adult
education is to assist adults to acquire further control of their current circumstances and their
future destinies. Control enables adults to participate more intelligently and responsibly in their
political, working, social, cultural, family and religious environments and in effect to improve the
quality of their lives."46
The worth of the study of comparative adult education rests in the proposition that an analysis of
the past provides information, insight and understanding on which to plan and function in the
present and future. It is to know and interpret the past for planning and functioning in the present
and so discern something of the future.
The study of comparative adult education enables educators of adults to find answers or at least
responses to questions and hypotheses about why within similar societies certain aspects of adult
education turn out to be different and why in dissimilar societies adult education aspects turn out
to be the same. By comparing issues and problems, objectives, needs, programs, evaluation and
other items in one's own country with the same items in other countries, one can identify new
ideas or approaches that may assist the educators of adults. Knowledge of this kind is useful in
making rational decisions about what may be modified or adapted in a new situation. It may also
be useful in contributing to theory building and to the identification and testing of principles and
concepts.
27
Comparative study may suggest alternative ways of providing opportunities to increase, improve
and create learning opportunities for adults everywhere. Properly conducted, these studies can
alleviate to some extent, ignorance, discrimination, provincialism and nationalism. It should also
provide a better understanding of one's self, one's own society, as well as other people and
societies. Adult education helps adults enlarge their private and public concerns and become
more effective in their roles as participating citizens which in turn makes a contribution to
improving the environment and to the achieving of desired goals such as peace.
Learning from each other internationally is a major way that educators of adults may improve
their professional competence so that in turn the field of adult and continuing education may
be enhanced.
Learning is an individual process. All people must learn by themselves—there is no substitution
or delegation. Accordingly, learning is unique to each individual. Individuals can learn with
other individuals in a learning environment which may facilitate individual learning. Like other
adults, educators of adults may learn from each other as individuals, as members of adult
education agencies, and as members of society. They may learn through face to face meeting,
print, computer, television as well as other methods and media.
It is evident that scope and extent of adult education are increasing at a rapid if not accelerating
pace in most countries of the world. To keep pace with the new knowledge in what the author
has described as the knowledge based stage and to reach the hitherto unreached adults, new kinds
of learning opportunities must be designed and developed.
Opportunities for learning may be available in various forms of activities which may be loosely
formed networks or along a continuum to highly structured situations. One of the goals of
educators of adults is to continue to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of learning
28
opportunities for themselves as well as other adults. Learning from each other in different
countries and cultures is becoming an increasingly viable option in the development of adult and
continuing education, accordingly the study of comparative adult education is becoming a
significant resource.
E. State of the Study of Comparative Adult Education
Publications of the project "Organization and Structure of Adult Education in Europe," initiated
by UNESCO and the European Centre for Leisure and Education, provide discussions of many
aspects of comparative adult education.47
The studies of comparative adult education are beginning to be of sufficient number and quality
to be recognized as resource for the improvement of theory and practice in adult education. They
are variously classified as basic, applied, participating and action and sometimes as quantitative
or qualitative.
Charters and Siddiqui are compiling Comparative Adult Education; An Annotated Resource
Guide. Over 250 studies have been identified—albeit of varying quality, rigor, and significance.48
There remains a sense, however, among the researchers in adult education, that there are too
many variables and unknowns to conduct rigorous research. They may be inclined to despair
because of the number of issues or factors that are not controllable. The position of the author is
to proceed with studies establishing controls where possible and then identifying, speculating
upon, and describing factors which are not currently controllable. The task is to define and refine
continuously the variables and influences and the components of the topic. The study may have
flaws but each provides a broader base of experience for subsequent studies. In fact this may be
the only contribution of some studies because the flaws and limitations may make a study
virtually ungeneralizable.
29
By carefully developing projects and clearly identifying variables and unknown items, each study
can build upon previous ones. In this way the research in comparative adult education may
become more valid. The findings and generalizations from each study must be carefully
scrutinized. While recognizing the limitations, some findings are useful and even significant in
these early stages.
The author is aware that the approach to the study of comparative adult education is itself worthy
of comparative study. Comparison is a recent stage in the development of international study.
Nevertheless it is appropriate from a pragmatic point of view, if no other, to proceed with the
development of this monograph on the assumption that it is reasonable.
F. Users
The study of comparative adult education may be given direction by considering the users of the
study including practitioners, researchers and policy makers. The following quote is from
Comparing Adult Education Worldwide, where the subject of users is treated more fully.
Comparative (international) adult education may be useful in meeting needs if it
helps individual educators of adults to improve their competencies; helps
institutions, organizations, and agencies to achieve their objectives more effectively;
and helps the sponsors, including governments, to accomplish their missions. 49
30
IV. LANGUAGE
The influence of language is a consideration in the study of comparative adult education as it is in
studies within one country. For example, in a comparative study of adult education in Hispanic
areas of New York City with an area in Appalachia, one should consider the influence of
differences in the use of the English language.
It is noted also that some countries have more than one official language, e.g., in Canada, French
and English; and in Switzerland, French, English and Italian. International organizations often
have two or more official languages, e.g., UNESCO uses Arabic, English, Chinese and French.
Likewise consideration needs to be given to language in countries such as Australia and United
States where English phrases, terms and traditions may be different. Glossaries of terms and
thesauri are useful tools in making literal translations, Examples are Terminology of Adult
Education-UNESCO and International Bureau of Education (IBE) Thesaurus.
Some books and others published for sale to an international market may be translated. How
Adults Learn, J. Roby Kidd, was translated into over 10 languages.50
In general, however,
materials are published in one language and because of the expense for translation and
publication, second language publications are limited.
Practically all international conferences on adult education have English as one language. The
celebration honoring N.F.S. Grundtvig, held in Copenhagen in 1983, was only in English (not
even Danish). The International Council of Adult Education Conference, held in Nairobi in 1973
was only in English. At other international conferences there is simultaneous translation. The
report and proceedings conference of the World Council for Comparative Education is published
in English and French.51
31
With increased communication among many peoples in many nations, language is becoming a
concern of all. Not just the diplomats, international business people, and the intellectuals. It also
seems to be increasingly true that in nations where second languages are taught, one is usually
English.
It may be stated that speakers of English can communicate effectively (oral) at face to face
meetings and in obtaining access to information. Unfortunately many speakers of English do not
have the capability to get access to materials in other languages. It means that they do not have
access to the substance of the field of adult education. It may also be humiliating to speakers of
other languages.
The influence of television via satellite and other forms of communication internationally is
substantial in developing almost a new way of communication; while difficult to evaluate this
influence must be positive and increasing. Automatic machine translation is at present in early
stages and as with other technological developments, a refinement of the process may be
expected in the near future.
The influence of language in comparative adult education is yet to be evaluated. It is important
that researchers control the influence or at least describe it as specifically as possible.
Fortunately, the state of the -art is that educators of adults from many countries are able to
communicate effectively even at in-depth levels. The development of terminologies and thesauri
is also useful.
It is usually advantageous to visit the countries that are being studied. The institution of the
researchers often provides leaves of absence and funds to complement personal funds.
32
There are many other potential sponsors of programs that provide some type of financial and
other support. The support may include exchanges, study/travel opportunities, grants,
fellowships, study-work scholarships, consultancies and awards. One of the publications listing
some opportunities especially available to scholars in United States is the July 1987 issue of a
memorandum put out by the Center for Multinational and Comparative Education.52
V. STAGES OF A PROJECT
This section considers the stages of a research study in comparative adult education. The
purposes are to assist educators of adults to select topics, to conduct studies and to make critical
reviews of studies in the field. Merriam has reviewed studies of learning theories which are
useful background in thinking about comparative adult education.53
The stages discussed below were identified from the literature in comparative adult education.
They are: identification of the problem; selection of topic; determination of scope; search of
literature; selection of method; collection of data; ordering of data; comparison and analysis of
data; results and conclusion; observations about significance; and evaluation of the project.
For the basic principles of research design the reader may refer to other sources such as A Guide
to Research for Educators and Trainers of Adults.54
Accordingly some statements may be
related to theory and/or practice. Researchers in the field may develop their own designs but they
may wish to follow an existing one. The stages listed below do not follow any one outline but
seem, to the author, to be particularly relevant. The intent of this section is to make comments on
each stage that focuses particularly on comparative adult education at the international level.
33
The stages are not discrete but are highly interrelated. In designing and planning a study, the
researcher will continuously move back and forth from one stage to another because in the early
stages certain assumptions are made about later stages. However in practice some of the
assumptions may not be valid and therefore one has to modify the earlier stages. Therefore it may
be desirable and practical to make modifications as the conduct of the study proceeds and, in a
sense, the design is not finalized until the study is complete. As the study develops or is
modified, clarity of statement is important.
As a study develops, the research elements of objectivity, reliability and validity should be kept
in mind. In other ways it is important to maintain accuracy, consistency, and rationality. It may
be useful in developing the study to keep in mind that the study may be subject to peer review
and may need sponsorship and therefore the study needs justification. Throughout this
monograph it is emphasized that specificity and rigor are crucial. It is also important to be aware
that constant observation is necessary to identify unanticipated items. Finally, it is crucial that
researchers should identify their blinders and remove them and thus keep open and flexible.
There is often discussion about whether a comparative project is conducted better by a team
rather than one person. If the team consists of researchers from more than one country there
might be some advantage in perspective especially if they are from the countries being
studied. It might be more advantageous to have the project critiqued by a team of experts
either during or at the completion of the problem.55
34
A. Identification of the Problem
A problem in adult education results from a need of an educator of adults, an agency or in some
cases, a sponsor. When a problem has been identified it should then be considered if it can best
be resolved by a comparative study. While it may be resolved by a comparative study, it may not
be the best way from the point of view of design and practicability and accordingly it is
recognized that all research is not problem-oriented.
The problem may be in any area suggested in the section on adult education as a field of study.
The problem may be very narrow or specific but generally it is broad and requires further
refinement and limitation as the topic is selected. There is a difference in judgment by researchers
as to whether at this stage of development studies should be at the micro or macro level. In final
analysis this must be left to the researcher to decide. The statement of the problem should not be
vague but done with clarity and precision.
In deciding about the problem, some guidelines in the form of questions may be useful: 1) Will it
lead to new ways of thinking about adult education? 2) Will it suggest alternative modes of
program operation? 3) Will it help to test the objectivity of the researcher's view? 4) Will it help
to assess the benefits? 5) Will it suggest new themes or directions? 6) Will it contribute to a
theoretical base?
The researcher may have identified a problem which is strictly personal but usually a problem is
based on a need related to a practical or theoretical aspect of adult education at the international
level. As the study is designed it may be influenced by some observations or preconceived
notions held by the researcher and hence it may be difficult for the researcher to be objective.
Care must be taken so that these factors do not warp the design of the study.
35
At times researchers may be advocates of a position or be part of a proactive political or other
organization. Again caution must be exerted to retain the objectivity and validity of the study.
B. Selection of the Topic
The selection of the topic to be studied is based on the problem which is the context for the topic.
The topics or subjects of comparative adult education are extensive and may be at the micro or
macro level. The topic may also relate to or have context in other fields such as legislation,
philosophy, psychology and sociology and anthropology. The topic may be broad and general
but should clearly be defined and not vague. The selection must be appropriate to each of the
two or more countries being studied.
There should be a justification for the study. There are lots of important topics but since they
cannot all be studied, priority must be given so that in terms of the researcher, the field of adult
education and the sponsor, the topic must be recognized as significant. In addition, it must have
credibility to sponsors in each of the countries participating in the study.
It must be significant and creditable from a practical point of view as well as having financial
sponsorship by an employer, agency, government, or an individual. It is expeditious to keep the
sponsor in mind as the topic is developed but of course it should not warp the integrity of the
study.
The topic could be stated clearly and explicitly; it may be in the form of a statement, proposition
or question, or a hypothesis, but in any case it should be significant. At this stage, a definition of
the various terms might be included, particularly since they have to be understandable to people
in two or more countries.
36
C. Determination of Scope
After the topic has been selected it is then necessary to determine the scope of the study in order
to decide the nature of the data to be collected. Since adult education is not clearly defined or
delineated as a comprehensive field or system, it is generally not possible to make macro studies.
In addition on the realistic side, it is virtually impossible at the present time to obtain the required
data. The scope of the topic probably should, at the present state of the field, be of micro scale.
Some considerations of the scope of the study will have been made during the selection of the
topic. To obtain comparable data is more involved because two or more countries are
participating. The most discriminating data are to be collected to insure validity and credibility.
If comparable data are not available from each country then the study must be modified. If it
cannot be appropriately modified then the study should be discontinued. Any concession such as
substitution of data on these concerns will directly affect the validity of the study. It is a waste of
time and effort to collect data irrelevant to the study. On the other hand, the scope of the data
should perhaps be on the side of comprehensiveness because unforeseen relevance may be
observed when the data are analyzed. Some concerns are noted:

First, it is necessary to obtain comparable data about the topic and related
factors from each of the countries or regions.

Second, the data on each item and from each country are to be for the same time
period.

Third, the appropriate depth of probing into each item for each country is to be at
the same level.

Fourth, the data may be qualitative or quantitative. It may be appropriate to make
qualitative judgments about the otherwise quantitative data.
37
As critically as the factors are examined for selection, it must be recognized that there may be
interrelations among the factors, and that the researcher may be making judgments. However, the
aim is to be as rational and as scientific as possible. In this early state of comparative adult
education, the ability of researchers to be rational may be difficult, but the study must continue
with the expectation that the criticisms will lead to more effective research.
Another consideration of particular importance at the international level is to determine whether
the study is to be longitudinal or horizontal. Two countries may be at different stages of
development related to the topic being studied.
As stated in the literature search stage, data may be in two or more countries but the comparison
has not been made. In other studies comparison may have been done on part of the study. In that
case only complementary data will need to be collected.
Also as stated in the previous stage, all relevant data are collected but at times there are other
factors that influence the topic. In the design of the study these factors should be controlled. If
the factors cannot be controlled, then they should be clearly identified, stated and analyzed to
indicate their influence. The nature of the influence may limit the usefulness or generalizability
of the findings.
D. Search of Literature
The conduct of a literature search on the problem as well as on the data to be collected is the next
stage. As with all research this stage is to enable building on the past. Thus the strengths and
weaknesses of previous studies can be identified and considered in the project.
Specificity in the previous stages is important in order to eliminate the unrelated items from
the increasing volume of information. In practice at least a preliminary search will have been
38
made during the development of the topic. This screening is necessary to ascertain if a
previous study has been made on the same topic. The identification of a study on-, the same
topic in the same two or more countries is unlikely. However, there may be studies that are
closely related to the topic and include two or more countries. Accordingly, it may be
possible to build on this research by making modifications in the design of the new project.
The review of research and writing in comparative adult education and related fields clearly
indicates that the number of rigorous studies in terms of the stated issues is indeed limited. There
are variations in all aspects of the studies including design and quality. Fortunately a start has
been made and the task must be further engaged in order to add to the knowledge base to
facilitate learning from each other. Comparative Adult Education: An Annotated Resource
Guide—English Language Materials, Charters and Siddiqui, has been prepared. It includes an
analysis of the materials.56 Educational Resources Informational Center (ERIC) with manual
and computer capabilities was used to search the literature for An Annotated Resource Guide. In
doing the search the basic descriptors are: Comparative; International; Adult Education; and
Continuing Education.
Search flexibility and experimentation are needed to identify related terms. Sometimes the
researchers use their own words and phrases as descriptors. In the early stages of a search an
item that appears doubtful should be included, and after further examination some may be
deleted. A word processor facilitates the entry of additional items as well as additional
information about items as the search continues.
The types of resources searched for other appropriate items included: Books; ERIC; Audio
and Video Cassettes; Pamphlets; Periodicals and Newsletters; Country Studies;
Comparative Education Organizations; International Adult Education Networks;
Bibliographies; Programs/Learning Opportunities; and Conferences.
39
It is again noted that this search was of English language materials. It would be appropriate and
indeed necessary to search for the same type of resources in the language of the researcher.
1. Books
Books may be identified by selecting Library of Congress subject Headings related to the
search. In this case, subject headings other than in the topic were used, e.g., continuing was
used for adult; comparative education alone; comparative adult education alone; and
international. Syracuse University Library has an automated catalogue (Syracuse University
Libraries Information Retrieval System) SULIRS, and hence a search was made and a printout
obtained. If titles or authors are known, they may also be searched in SULIRS.
2. ERIC
The words and concepts in the topic may be identified in the Thesaurus of Descriptors
(Educational Resources Informational Center - ERIC). In this case adult and continuing
education were identified. Since comparative is not listed as a descriptor, it was used as free text.
Other descriptors and free text were used. Search may also be conducted by author and subject.
The same research strategy holds for both Research in Education (RIE) and Cumulative Index to
Journals of Education (CUE) which make up the ERIC data base.
Other data bases may be searched. Some of them are listed in International Handbook of
Resources for Educators of Adults.57
3. Audio and Video Cassettes
At Syracuse University, audio and video cassettes are catalogued in the Library of Congress
catalogue.58 Search may be made through Syracuse University Library Information Retrieval
Service (SULIRS). Each item has to be examined manually. A separate directory is Adult
Education Audio and Video Recordings.59
40
4. Pamphlet
The Pamphlet file contains adult education items in the English language that are not included in
the Library of Congress classification, i.e., books, audio and video cassettes, government
documents. The items in the Pamphlet file are classified under the Descriptive Subject Headings
and Sub-headings which was developed at Syracuse University. Two headings, Comparative and
International, are being searched manually. Items are listed in Adult Education Acquisition List
Pamphlet File.60 This publication is being updated. The files for Comparative and International
are updated.
5. Periodicals and Newsletters
Items on comparative adult education are found in periodicals. Indexes may be searched but in
most cases the articles have to be examined manually. Some references are made to studies in
comparative adult education in Newsletters. A list of periodicals in the English language at
Syracuse University are in: Periodicals, Newsletters, & Indexes, in E.S. Bird Library.61
In most
cases, the series are complete.
6. The International Handbook of Resources for Educators of Adults
The International Handbook of Resources for Educators of Adults (English Language materials)
contains information about all aspects of resources including comparative studies in adult
education from many countries and international bodies. All of the items, except data-based
systems, are held in Syracuse University Bird Library.62
7. Country Studies
Country studies have been developed on adult education topics. After a topic and countries have
been selected, these publications may be examined to see if pertinent data are available in the
countries being studied. The data may be used in the study although it is usually necessary to
collect additional data. Examples of country studies are in the series Studies and Documents
41
published by European Centre for Leisure and Education.63 Reports from members of UNESCO
were collected by UNESCO preceding each of the four World Conferences on Adult Education.
The European Bureau of Adult Education keeps an up-dated collection on legislation.
8. Comparative Education Organizations
There are publications of comparative adult education organizations which include some items
on comparative adult education.
1. World Congress of Comparative Education Pubn: Abstracts of Papers64
2. Comparative and International Education Society Pubn: Comparative Education
Review65
3. European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training. Single countries same
syntheses.66
9. International Organizations
Some international organizations include within their scope items on education. There are some
items on comparative adult education in them. They include: United Nations Educational,
Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO); Council of Europe; World Bank; United
Nations University International Centre for Distance Learning; Organization for Economic
Cooperation Development (OECD); and Commonwealth Education Secretariat.
10. Adult Education Associations
There are a number of adult education organizations that function at the international and
regional level. The major publications are listed. Conference materials and proceedings are
usually available. In the publications there are some comparative adult education items.
1. World Association for Adult Education (WAAE).
Pubn: World Association for Adult Education Bulletin - now defunct.
2. International Congress of University Adult Education (ICUAE).67
42
Pubn: International Journal of University Adult Education.
3. International Council of Adult Education (ICAE).
Pubn: Convergence.68
4. United Nations University International Centre for Distance Learning. Pubn: Distance
Education. News and Views.69
5. Asian-South Pacific Bureau of Adult Education (ASPBAE) Pubn: Courier. 11.70
11. International Adult Education Networks
Networks may also have some concern for comparative adult education. The International
Associates Newsletter71 lists the following:
1. Adult Education for Worker Self-Managements, Wesley Hare, President, Twin
Streams Educational Center, 243 Flemington Street, Chapel Hill, NL 27514, USA.
2. Adult Education and the Handicapped, William R. Langner, Coalition of Adult
Education Organizations, 201 Eye Street, SW, Washington, DC 20024, USA.
3. The Education of Adults in Prisons, Alan Thomas, Department of Adult Education,
O.I.S.E., 252 Bloor Street, W., Toronto, Canada M5S 1V6.
4. Historical Studies of Adult Education, Ingelise
Udjus, Norwegian Museums Council, Dronningensgt- 11, Oslo 1, Norway.
5. Workers in Popular Culture and Popular Education,
Reromy Rikken, Philippine Education Theatre Association, P.O. Box 463, Manila,
Philippines.
12. Bibliographies
Bibliographies may include references to items on comparative adult education. They include:
Alexander N. Charters and Dilnawaz Siddiqui. Comparative (international) Adult
Education: An Annotated Resource Guide.72
43
Jindra Kulich. Adult Education in Continental Europe:
An Annotated Bibliography of English-Language Materials 1983-1985, compiled
1987; also Annotated Bibliography 1980-1982, compiled 1984; also Annotated
Bibliography 1975-1979, compiled 1982.73
13. Programs/Learning Opportunities
Descriptions of programs or areas of study sometime include references to comparative adult
education. In addition as with Country Studies (see p. 51), there is often data which may be
useful when complemented with additional comparable data on a topic from other countries.
Some examples are:
Colin Titmus. Strategies for Adult Education, Practice in Western Europe.74
Cyril O. Houle. Continuing Learning in the Professions.75
14. Conferences
The first comparative adult education conference was held in Exeter, USA, in 1963. It is the
landmark for the field. While it may appear that adult education is a belated entry into the field, it
must be realized that the sponsor, International Congress of University Adult Education (ICUAE)
was founded only six years earlier. The proceedings were published in the Exeter Papers:
Report of the first international conference on the comparative study of adult education.76
Since 1970 there have been meetings of the World Council of Comparative Education Societies.
Concurrently there were some meetings of a group on comparative adult education. These few
educators of adults were keeping the idea of Exeter alive. The Conference at Nordberg, Norway
in 1977 developed an agenda for comparative adult education. Again the proceedings were
published.77 There were new sponsors, the Danish Ministry of Education and UNESCO.
44
The IBE took an initiative in sponsoring a meeting in Geneva, 1972, on resources for
comparative adult education. It continued the momentum and began the production of
resources and abstracts.
E. Selection of Method
This stage is about methods used to collect the data that have been identified in the stages of topic
and scope of the project. In a comprehensive statement Titmus writes:
This paper is about methods rather than about methodology in the sense of a science of
methods. It seems to me doubtful whether there is, could or should be a methodology
specifically related to comparative adult education. Nor does it seem likely that the
methodology of comparative education, of which comparative adult education is a branch,
will ever be specific to itself. Except in its application of pedagogy, it seems essentially
similar to that of other social sciences and likely to remain so.78
That is, the research methods must be selected. It should not be confused with methodology of
adult education or the methods used in the provision of learning opportunities for programs. It
should be emphasized that there is no one method for research in comparative adult education.
Indeed, there may be a combination of methods. The methods should be selected in terms of the
purpose and design of the particular project as well as practical aspects of gathering the data.
Some considerations for the selection of the research method that are particularly related
to comparative adult education are: 1) Can the topic of objectives of the topic be
achieved by it? 2) Is it appropriate to the topic? 3) Is it adaptable for use with two or
more countries? 4) Is it financially within range? 5) Are support services such as library
or computer available? 6) Are there ways to evaluate the effectiveness of it?
F. Collection of Data
The task is to collect sufficient and appropriate data on a topic to determine if components in two
or more countries are similar or dissimilar in kind and degree.
45
The collection of data in two or more countries involves some factors that are different in degree
rather than in-kind from a study in one country. For example: travel expense may be greater;
similar technical services may be difficult to arrange; and access to subjects (people) may not be
appropriate because of customs such as cultural or religious.
Only the relevant data need to be collected. It is appropriate to collect some questionable data in
terms of relevance which might be used later or it can be discarded. If the relevant factors
influencing the study cannot be controlled, then there must be an attempt to identify and analyze
the factors to indicate that any concessions limiting the kind or amount of necessary data or any
substitution of data affects or even negates the validity of the project.
The key factor in the collection of data is to have the data in a form that can be analyzed whether
manually or by computer. When collecting data for comparison, the providers may wish to
contribute data irrelevant to the study. This additional data may be pressed upon the collector
because the providers consider the data significant. It may be because of national pride,
emotional reasons, or uniqueness. It may be important therefore to gather data and acknowledge
it in the report but not use it in the comparative analysis.
G. Ordering of Data
The ordering of data is necessary so that the data may be analyzed. The plan begins with the
selection of the topic and is being considered in scope of the topic, selection of method and
the collection of data. This stage has to be considered in terms of the type of analysis and
may suggest reconsideration of the previous stages.
The data from the two or more sources must be arranged in the same form so that comparison
may be made. Technology such as optical scanning, searching according to the selected
46
indicators of the related topic is becoming increasingly useful. These factors are particularly
significant in comparative adult education because the development of technology may vary
greatly in the countries.
H. Comparison and Analysis of Data
After the data have been juxtaposed, the analysis may begin. Critical analysis of data should be
made in terms of the topic to identify similarities, dissimilarities, and other characteristics. It is
sometimes useful to look for reasons for similarities and differences other than by strict analysis.
The type of analysis should be considered in the previous stages of the project so that the data
may be analyzed to reveal information about the topic. In this way reliability, objectivity and
validity may be assured.
I. Results and Conclusions
It is the responsibility of the researcher to draw conclusions and generalizations in strict regard to
the topic and the limitations. It is appropriate to comment on the firmness or tentativeness of the
conclusion. The generalizations should be stated in relation to both theory and the practice of
adult education.
It was stated in the stage on search of previous studies that the project should be built upon
previous theory and practice. It is useful also to suggest areas for further projects which might be
suggested by the project.
J. Observations about Significance
The haunting question following the completion of a study is, will it make a difference? The
researcher asks the question and forms a response. It is suggested that the response be included
in the report of the project. It may also be useful in future studies as a complement to the
responses of the readers of the report.
47
K. Evaluation of the Project
The significance of the study indicates its worth: An evaluation and feedback relates not
only to quality but considers efficiency and effectiveness. It includes observations about
strengths and weaknesses. Consideration should be given to factors that might be eliminated,
might be modified and might be added.
NOTES
1
Alexander N. Charters, A Primer of Adult Education. Literacy, Adult Education and Rural Development Division,
UNESCO (Paris, France: UNESCO, 1987), p. 1. ED-87/WS/10.
2
United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, The UNESCO: IBE education thesaurus, 2nd
rev. ed. (Paris, France: UNESCO, 1975), p. 8.
3
A. A. Liveright and Noreen Haygood, The Exeter Papers:
Report of the first international conference on the comparative study of adult education (Boston, MA: Center for the
Study of Liberal Education for Adults at Boston University, 1968), p. 1.
4
Charters, A Primer of Adult Education, p. 6.
5
Alexander N. Charters and Raymond Dengel, International Handbook of Resources for Educators of Adults English Language Materials (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Publications in Continuing Education, 1987), pp.
51-64. MSS 33.
6
Charters, A Primer of Adult Education, pp. 26-30.
7
Ibid., p. 6.
8
Ibid., p. 2.
9
Ibid., p. 55.
10
Ibid., p.66.
11
Constitution of the United Nations, Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Adopted in London,
November 16, 1945. Amended by the General Conferences at its 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th, 10th, 12th,
15th, 17th, 19th and 20th sessions (Paris, France: UNESCO).
12
Fourth International Conference on Adult Education, March 19-29, 1985, Paris, France. Final Report of the
Conference convened by UNESCO (Paris: UNESCO, 1985).
13
Liveright and Haygood, The Exeter Papers, p. 8.
14
World Council of Comparative Education Societies. Fifth World Congress of Comparative Education, Abstracts of
Papers (Paris, France: Association Francophone D'Education Comparee, July 1984), p. 38.
15
Charters, A Primer of Adult Education, pp. 26-30.
16
Adult Education Act (P.L. 89-750, 1966). Definitions of Adult Education, Continuing Education, Lifelong
Learning, and Community Education in Federal Legislation.
17
Higher Education Act (P.L. 89-329, 1965), Title I-Part A. Definitions of Adult Education, Continuing Education,
Lifelong Learning, and Community Education in Federal Legislation. (1976 Amendments).
18
Higher Education Act (P.L. 89-329, 1965), Title I-Part B. Definitions of Adult Education, Continuing Education,
Lifelong Learning, and Community Education in Federal Legislation. (1976 Amendments).
19
William W. Brickman, A Historical Introduction to Comparative Education. Comparative Educational Review,
Vol. 1, No. 9 (February 1960):6, 7.
20
Ibid., p. 7.
21
Dusan M. Savicevic, Comparative Studying of Education (theoretical-methodological framework) (Belgrade,
Yugoslavia: Institut za Pedagoska Istravivanja, 1984), p. 238.
22
Charters and Dengel, International Handbook of Resources for Educators of Adults, p. 14.
23
Fourth International Conference on Adult Education. Final Report. UNESCO (Paris: 1985).
24
James Robbins Kidd, A Tale of Three Cities -Elsinore, Montreal, Tokyo. (Syracuse: SUPCE, 1974). "
25
International Handbook of Resources for Educators of Adults. (London: World Association for Adult Education,
1929).
48
26
International Bureau of Education, meeting May-June, 1973, Geneva, Switzerland. Draft summary record of
meeting of experts on documentation and information services in adult education. IBE, 1973.
27
Alexander Nathaniel Charters, Some Perspectives on Lifelong Education (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University
Publications in Continuing Education, April 1983), p. 3.
28
E. M. Hutchinson, Adult Education Organizations in a Comparative Context, in Charters, Comparing Adult
Education Worldwide (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1981), pp. 109-128.
29
International Handbook of Resources for Educators of Adults.
30
International Bureau of Education, meeting May-June 1973, Geneva, Switzerland.
31
Institute on Pedagogy, UNESCO, West Germany.
32
Liveright and Hay good. The Exeter Papers.
33
Warren Ziegler, Essays on the Future of Continuing Education Worldwide (Syracuse, NY: SUPCE, 1970). LC
5209. E8.
34
R. J. Blakely, The New Environment: Questions for Adult Educators (Syracuse, NY: SUPCE, 1971). LC 5209
156F 1970.
35
Agenda for Comparative Studies in Adult Education: International Expert Meeting, English language (Syracuse,
NY: SUPCE, 1972), LC 5209 156 1972.
36
Alexander N. Charters and William M. Rivera, International Seminar on Publications in Continuing Education
(Syracuse, NY: SUPCE, 1972). LC 6251 C4 #72.
37
Robert Peers, Adult Education; A Comparative Study (London: Rutledge and Keagan Paul, Humanities Press,
New York, 1958), p. 43. LC 5215.
38
M. E. Ulich, Patterns of Adult Education; A Comparative Study (New York: Pageant Press, Inc., 1965). LC 5219
U47.
39
Charters and Associates, Comparing Adult Education Worldwide.
40
Alexander N. Charters and Ronald J. Hilton, Landmark Programs: A Comparative Analysis (England: CroomHelm, scheduled for 1988).
41
Clif Bennett, J. Roby Kidd, and Jindra Kulich, Comparative Studies in Adult Education: An Anthology,
Occasional Papers No. 44 (Syracuse, NY: SUPCE, 1975). LC 5215 C 65. The Contributors are: Malcolm S.
Adiseshiah; J. R. Kidd; Pedro Rossello; Alan M. Thomas; Joseph A. Lauwerys; Brian Holmes, Harold J. Noah and
Max A. Eckstein; Benjamin R. Barber; C. Bennett; Edward King; George Z.F. Bereday; W. D. Halls; Robert A.
Carlson; Hayden Roberts; Coolie Verner; Charles H. Adair; Cyril O. Houle; M. C. Barnard; Don Adams and
JosephP. Farrell; Ana Krajnc; Colin Titraus; D. Porter; Robin S. Harris;Jindra Kulich; Alexander N. Charters.
42
Peter G. Haygood, A Bibliography of Comparative Adult Education: A Source Book. (Nottingham: Dept. Adult
Education, Nottingham University, 1982).
43
Jindra Kulich, Adult Education in Continental Europe: An Annotated Bibliography of English-Language Materials
1983-1985, compiled by Jindra Kulich, 1987; Adult Education in Continental Europe: An Annotated Bibliography
of English-Language Materials 1980-1982, compiled by Jindra Kulich, 1984; Adult Education in Continental
Europe: An Annotated Bibliography of English-Language Materials, 1975-1979, compiled by Jindra Kulich, 1982
(Vancouver, BC: Centre for Continuing Education in cooperation with the International Council for Adult
Education).
44
A. Julien, Esquisse et Vues Preliminaires d'un Ouvrage Sur L*Education Comparee (Plan and Preliminary Views
for a Work on Comparative Education) (Paris, France: 1917).
45
Council of Europe, Learning for Life (Strasbourg, 1984).
46
Charters, .A Primer of Adult Education, p. 1.
47
Studies and Documents - Adult Education Systems in Europe. European Centre for Education and Leisure.
(Czeckoslovakia: Czeckoslovak Academy of Sciences, Prague).
48
Alexander N. Charters and Dilnawaz Siddiqui, Comparative Adult Education: An Annotated Resource Guide English Language materials (scheduled 1988).
49
Charters and Associates, Comparing Adult Education Worldwide, p. 7.
50
J. Roby Kidd, How Adults Learn, rev. (New York: Association Press, 1962).
51
World Council of Comparative Education Societies, Fifth World Congress of Comparative Education.
52
Maria Ramirez, To Persons Interested in Multinational and Comparative Education, Travel, and Exchange
Programs, July 1987. Study-Work Scholarship in France (Albany, NY: Center for Multinational and Comparative
Education, The State University of New York).
49
53
Sharan B. Merriam, Adult Learning and Theory Building: A Review. Adult Education Quarterly, Vol. 37, No. 4,
Summer 1987, AAACE,^ Washington, DC, pp. 187-198.
54
Sharan B. Merriam and Edwin L. Simpson, A Guide to Research for Educators and Trainers of Adults. (Malabar,
FL: Robert E. Konieger Publishing Co., 1984).
55
Ana Krajnc, The Rationale of Comparative Research (Ljubljana: University of Ljubljana, Yugoslavia, 1987).
56
Charters and Siddiqui, Comparative (international) Adult Education; An Annotated Resource Guide.
57
Charters and Dengel, International Handbook of Resources for Educators of Adults, pp. 81-87.
58
Alexander M. Charters and George Abbott, Adult Education - Audio and Video Recordings (Syracuse, NY:
Syracuse University Publications in Continuing Education, 1982). MSS 23. (ED/IP).
59
Ibid.
60
Alexander N. Charters and Donald P. Holmwood, Acquisition List, Clearinghouse of Resources for Educators of
Adults; By descriptive Subject Headings (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Clearinghouse of Resources for
Educators of Adults, 1978).
61
Alexander N. Charters and Edward Gschwender, Resources for Educators of Adults - Periodicals and Newsletters,
Adult Education, in E.S. Bird Library (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Publications in Continuing Education,
March 1984). MSS 29, p. 1.
62
Charters and Dengel, International Handbook of Resources for Educators of Adults.
63
Premysl Maydl et associates. Adult Education in Europe, Methodological Framework for Comparative Studies
#14 and 15 (Prague, Czechoslovakia: European Centre for Leisure and Education, 1983-6).
64
World Conference on Adult Education, August 21-31, 1960, Montreal. Final Report. (Paris, France: UNESCO,
1960).
65
Comparative Education Review, Vol. 1-31 (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1986).
66
Maydl et associates. Adult Education in Europe.
67
International Journal of University Adult Education, an official publication of The International Congress of
University Adult Education. Secretary-Treasurer, ICUAE, c/o Dept. Extension & Summer Session, The University
of Mew Brunswick, Box 4400, Fredericton, New Brunswick, E3B 5A3, Canada.
68
Convergence, International Journal of Adult Education, International Council for Adult Education, Vol. I-XVII,
No. 4, 1984. Convergence, 29 Prince Arthur Ave., Toronto, M5R 1B2, Canada.
69
Colin Titmus, Strategies for Adult Education, Practices in Western Europe (Chicago: Follett Publishing Company,
1981).
70
Cyril O. Houle, Continuing Learning in the Professions. The Jossey-Bass Series in Higher Education (San
Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass Publishers, 1980).
71
The International Associates Newsletter, Coalition of Adult Education Organizations (CAEO), Issue No..17. April
1976.
72
Charters and Siddiqui, Comparative Adult Education: An Annotated Resource Guide.
73
Kulich, Adult Education in Continental Europe.
74
Titmus, Strategies for Adult Education.
75
Houle, Continuing Learning in the Professions.
76
Liveright and Haygood, The Exeter Papers.
77
Agenda for Comparative Studies in Adult Education; Report from the International Expert Meeting, 1972.
78
Titmus, Comparative Adult Education: Questions of Methods.
50