Timeline
1643: Formation of the New England Confederation1 - Consisting of the Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth,
New Haven and Connecticut colonies, this was the first union formed for the purpose of mutual defense
against the French and Indians and as a forum for inter-colonial disputes.
June, 1754: Formation of the Albany Congress - With delegates representing Massachusetts, New
Hampshire, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania (including Delaware), Maryland, Virginia, Rhode
Island, and Connecticut, this congreso provided for unified negotiations with the Six Nations of the
Iroquois Confederation.
July 10, 1754: Publication of the Albany Plan of Union - Drafted by Benjamín Franklin2, this was the first
document to detail a proposal of inter- colonial unity and to aim for a permanent union of American
colonies.
1765: The Stamp Act Congress meets in New York City - This congress developed a unified colonial
strategy to appeal and protest the unfair legislation of Parliament.
1774: Meeting of the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia. It organized a unified colonial boycott,
and agreed to meet again if their terms were not met.
1774: Presentation of the Galloway Plan to Congress - This proposal for union included a plan to
establish an American Parliament that would provide legislative authority over the colonies and
empowered with veto power over the British Parliament in regards to colonial matters.
May, 1775: The Second Continental Congress3meets in Philadelphia - This congress met to discuss
further unified colonial appeals, to plan protests and to manage the beginnings of military action against
the British. The purpose of the congress had not been to declare independence but to protest for
usurpation of rights by the king and Parliament. Events such as the Stamp Act of 1764, taxing all
Confederacy - A confederacy is a form of government in which independent states are loosely joined, typically
for common defense. Each independent state maintains power over the majority of its own affairs.
The Confederation Congress was a governing body that consisted of representatives from each of the 13 states.
Congress governed the affairs of the United States between the ratification of the Articles of Confederation in
1781 and the ratification of the U.S. Consitution.
1
A printer by vocation, inventor, philosopher and author by hobby, Benjamin Franklin played many vital roles in
establishing both the independence of the United States and in ensuring the success of the young nation. Elected
as a delegate to the Albany Congress of 1754, his Albany Plan outlined the balance of power between local
independence and colonial union, and has been said to be prophetic of the U.S. Constitution. He served as a
delegate to the Second Continental Congress, was chosen for the committee to draft the Declaration of
Independence, was sent as a diplomat to France to procure military assistance during the Revolution, and was
appointed as one of three to negotiate the Treaty of Paris. Franklin also served as a delegate to the convention
that produced the U.S. Constitution.
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Second Continental Congress - The Second Continental Congress met for the first time in Philadelphia in May
of 1775, and continued to meet until the full ratification of the Articles of Confederation on March 1, 1781. This
congress produced the Declaration of Independence, drafted the Articles of Confederation, and served as an
unofficial national government, managing the war effort, finances and foreign affairs, while the Articles were
debated by the states. It was succeeded by the Congress of Confederation.
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newspapers and legal documents, had infuriated public opinion. The governor’s palace had been burnt
at Boston, and the mob had been fired on by British soldiers. In 1773 the famous “Tea Party” occurred.
January,1776: Publication of Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union - Benjamin Franklin drafts a
plan of union that based representation in congress and contributions to the common treasury on the
number of males in each state between sixteen and sixty years of age.
June 7, 1776: Richard Henry Lee4 of Virginia proposes independence in Congress: “these united
colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states.” - Lee proposes a resolution that
calls for drafting a declaration of independence and a plan of government and conferderation.
June 12, 1776: Committee appointed to draft Articles of Confederation - Congress appoints a committee
chaired by John Dickinson5 to draft the plan of confederation.
July 2, 1776: Draft of the Articles submitted to Congress - John Dickinson's draft of the Articles of
Confederation is submitted to Congress for debate and revision.
July 4, 1776: U.S. declares independence – Thomas Jefferson6’s Declaration of Independence is
published to the world.
November 15, 1777: Congress completes the Articles of Confederation - The final version of the Articles
of Confederation is adopted by Congress and submitted to the states for ratification7.
July 9, 1778: Eight of the thirteen states officially ratify the Articles - The delegations from New
Hampshire, Massachusetts Bay, Rhode Island, and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York,
Pennsylvania, Virginia and South Carolina sign and ratify the Articles of Confederation.
February 22, 1779: Delaware ratifies the Articles - Delaware ratifies the Articles of Confederation, and
Maryland is the only state yet to ratify. The confederation does not take effect until all states have
ratified.
An influential planter and statesman from Virginia, Richard Henry Lee proposed the resolution that led both to
the formulation of the Declaration of Independence and the Articles of Confederation. He served as a delegate to
the Second Continental Congress once serving as its president, and was one of a committee of three to review
the Articles of Confederation for completeness before it was sent to the states for ratification. He later served as a
delegate to the Constitucional Convenction and received credit for drafting the 10th Amendment, which
guaranteed states' rights.
4
Serving as a delegate from Pennsylvania to the Second Continental Congress, John Dickinson became part of
the committee assigned to author the first draft of the Articles of Confederation. Dickinson, who had extensive
writing experience, was chosen as the chairman and the primary author of this document, although he had been
one of the delegates who did not sign the Declaration of Independence. Favoring a strong central government
similar to that of Great Britain, much of Dickinson's draft was changed before ratification, although his insistence
on a strong central government resurfaced later in his support of the U.S. Constitution.
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Jefferson strongly believed in the importance of legislation that limited the power of government and
strengthened the rights of the people. Jefferson proposed and passed important legislation dictating the
separation of church and state and was integral in both Virginia's decision to cede its northwestern territory to
Congress and in drafting the land ordinances that would serve to manage the land equitably.
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To formally approve and accept a legal document, such as a constitution.
2
January 2, 1781: Virginia cession of land - Virginia cedes a portion of its land west of the Appalachian
Mountains to Congress.
March 1, 1781: Establishment of the U.S. Government – Maryland ratifies the Articles of Confederation,
formally establishing the first government of the United States. Although the Articles of Confederation
had been approved by 12 states by 1779, they could not go into effect until Maryland's ratification on
March 1, 1781.
October 17, 1781: Surrender at Yorktown - British General Charles Cornwallis surrenders to the
Continental Army at Yorktown, Virginia, ending the war between the United States and Great Britain.
1782: Establishment of the Bank of North America - Founded by the Secretary of Finance, Robert
Morris, this bank helped to stabilize the commerce of the United States.
March, 1783: Newburgh Mutiny - The army stationed at Newburgh threatened mutiny because they had
not received their pay and were only stopped by George Washington8's effective persuasion to remain
loyal to the patriotic cause.
June, 1783: Congress forced from Philadelphia - A mutinous group of Pennsylvania troops, demanding
pay, forced Congress to leave Philadelphia. President John Dickinson refused the assistance of all on
the state militia, as he feared they were not reliable. Congress retreated to Princeton.
September 3, 1783: Signing of Treaty of Paris - This treaty, negotiated on behalf of the U.S. by
Benjamín Franklin, John Jay9 and Samuel Adams, formally acknowledged the independence of the
thirteen American colonies, and set the boundaries of the new nation at the Atlantic Ocean in the east,
the Mississippi River in the west, Florida in the south, and Canada in the north. It establishes the terms
of peace between the United States and Great Britain.
March 1784: Acquisition of the Northwest Territory - Congress officially acquires the land ceded by
Virginia north and west of the Ohio River.
April 23,1784: Passage of Land Ordinance- Land Ordinance of 1784 – Proposed and drafted by
Thomas Jefferson just a month after Virginia officially handed over western lands to congress, this
ordinance established the process by which new lands would be divided into states, the process for
surveying and sale, and the qualifications of new states to enter into Congress. This ordinance set the
precedent to prohibit any attempts to colonize newly ceded lands.
The Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army, this Virginia-born planter served a great symbolic role in
early American history. He was keenly in favor of a strong national government, and exerted his influence toward
that end when possible. He hosted the first successful interstate commerce meeting at his plantation home,
Mount Vernon, and contributed tremendous prestige to the Constitutional Convention by agreeing to serve as one
of the delegates from Virginia.
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Jay, as diplomat to Spain, attempted to negotiate for American access to trade along the Mississippi River.
Threatened by Americans moving westward, the Spanish diplomat Diego de Gardoqui recommended instead that
Spain would establish trade with eastern U.S. ports, assist in removing Great Britain from the Great Lakes and
assist in combating the Barbary Pirates. Southern and Western delegates in Congress viewed with contempt this
plan that seemed to sacrifice their interests to the commercial interests of the Northeast.
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March 25, 1785: Meeting of Mount Vernon Conference - This name was applied to a meeting between
Maryland and Virginia statesmen at George Washington’s Mount Vernon Plantation. Originally
scheduled to meet at Alexandria to discuss free navigation of the Potomac and Pocomoke Rivers, the
delegates ended up resolving far broader issues of trade and mutual policy between the two states.
September 11, 1786: Meeting of the Anápolis Convention- This meeting of the states of New York, New
Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware and Virginia, at the request of Virginia, aimed to improve the uniformity
of commerce. Only twelve delegates came, and they proceeded to call a second meeting, to be held in
May of 1787, for the purpose of revising the Articles.and discuss broader reforms.
January 25, 1787:Shay’s Rebellion– Daniel Shays, a farmer from western Massachusetts and a former
captain in the Continental Army, organized farmers throughout New England to protest legislation that
increased taxes and demanded immediate debt-repayment. When the state legislature refused to
respond, Shays and his armed followers closed the courts in western Massachusetts in protest of
foreclosed properties. The rebellion came to a head when Shays was defeated while trying to seize a
federal arsenal of weapons in Springfield, Massachusetts, on January 25, 1787. This rebellion
demonstrated the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation, and convinced many states of the need
for a stronger central government.
May 25, 1787: First meeting of the Constitutional Convention - Delegates from all states except Rhode
Island meet in Philadelphia for the purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation.
July 13, 1787: Passage of the Northwest Ordinance - A revision of the earlier Land Ordinance of 1784, ,
the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 refined some of the earlier qualifications for statehood. It further
provided that a certain amount of land had to be reserved for public education, and that slavery was to
be prohibited in this territory north of the Ohio River.
September 17, 1787: Draft of constitution submitted to the states - The Constitutional Convention sends
its draft of the U.S. Constitution to the states for ratification.
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Thomas Paine (1737Context
Thomas Paine was born in Britain, on January 29, 1737. Paine's formal education lasted only
until the age of thirteen, at which point he began working for his father. Eventually, took low-paying job
in tax-collecting, educating himself further in his free time. In 1772, Paine was fired for publishing an
article arguing that raising tax-collectors' salaries would reduce corruption. Shortly thereafter in London,
Paine met Benjamin Franklin, who convinced Paine to move to America.
Paine emigrated to America in late 1774, only a few months before the revolutionary war began
on April 19, 1775. Paine immediately became involved in American political life, editing Pennsylvania
Magazine and writing a variety of articles. After the first battle of the war, Paine began to argue that the
American colonists should seek complete independence, rather than merely fighting to free themselves
from unfair British taxation. Paine made this argument in his pamphlet Common Sense, which first
appeared in January, 1776, and immediately became popular and widely read. Paine's ideas played a
central role in rallying public opinion and were an important precursor to the Declaration of
Independence, which was written six months later. The pamphlet thrust Paine into the national spotlight,
earning him a prestigious government appointment later on during the war. Most historians agree that it
was Thomas Paine’s Common Sense, published in January 1776, that gave the needed push for
revolution. He argued that separation from England was the only reasonable course.
The roots of the war for American Independence can be traced back at least as far as the French
and Indian War of 1763. Although the British won this war, they incurred immense costs, and began to
increase the monetary burden placed on the American colonies. With the Townshend Acts of 1767,
Parliament imposed new taxes in the American colonies, and although these were repealed in 1770, the
tax on tea remained. Colonial frustration erupted in 1773 at the famed Boston Tea Party when
Americans stormed a ship owned by the British East India Company and dumped large volumes of tea
into Boston Harbor. In retaliation, the British Parliament imposed a variety of restrictions aimed at
reasserting their control over the colonies.
These measures, known in America as the intolerable acts, spurred the convening of the first
continental congress in 1774. Although the American colonies now had a centralized forum in which to
discuss policy, their path was far from clear. Even after a battle erupted on April 19, 1775 at Lexington
and Concord, the colonies lacked a clear plan. Opinions on the purpose of the war with Britain and the
future the colonies varied widely. Many, of the delegates to the continental congress were not convinced
that complete independence was desirable.
In Common Sense, which was published at this time, Paine argued that the colonies should seek
full independence from Britain. His pamphlet convinced many who were unsure of the purpose of the
war and played a profound role in influencing the opinion of laymen and lawmakers alike. Common
Sense was crucial in turning American opinion against Britain and was one of the key factors in the
colonies' decision to engage in a battle for complete independence.
Key Facts
Full Title - Common Sense
Author - Thomas Paine
Type of Work - Political Pamphlet
Language - English
Time and place written - 1775–1776, Philadelphia
Date of First Publication - January 10, 1776
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Publisher - Robert Bell
Themes - Government as a necessary evil, State of Nature, The Inevitability of American
Independence, The Inevitability of British Oppression, America's relationship with the rest of Europe,
The Problems with Monarchy
Terms
Society - Paine thinks of society as everything good that comes out of people living and working
together. It is the state of affairs whereby people collaborate to bring about positive aims.
Government - Government, according to Paine, is the force that aims to keep people from acting in
accordance with their vices. Its existence is the unfortunate consequence of the fact that people
sometimes act in evil ways.
Stamp Act - Passed by Parliament in 1765, the Stamp Act levied a tax on a large body of printed
material in the colonies. The tax was aimed at recouping some of the large costs incurred by the British
in the French and Indian War. This tax was met with great resistance by the colonists, who refused to
buy stamps, rioted, and threatened tax-collectors. Furthermore, delegates from nine states convened at
a Stamp Act Congress in order to voice a unified protest against the king. Parliament repealed the Act,
although it also issued a Declaratory Act in 1766, asserting its right to tax the colonies.
Reconciliation - The notion that the colonies should attempt to resolve the dispute with Britain and
remain a part of the British empire. Even after hostilities first broke out, there was a strong sentiment
among Americans that it was unnecessary to break completely free of Britain. Many still felt a loyalty to
the monarchy and thought it possible to come to a peaceful agreement with the British. This position,
which was common in 1776, is the viewpoint that Paine wrote Common Sense to oppose.
Hereditary Succession - The notion that the power to rule as a legitimate king should be passed down
by blood relations. This idea legitimated the passing on of the monarchy in Britain from father to son for
generations on end. The idea also pervaded other areas of British society, where people were often
seen as being born into a certain position in life, and limited to living the same lives as their parents.
Usurpation - The unlawful or unjustified seizure of the power to govern. In the context of Paine's
argument, this comes up in the discussion of British royal power.
Themes
Government as a necessary evil - From the outset, Paine makes it clear that he is not particularly fond
of government, whose sole value he thinks lies in "restraining our vices". For Paine, the natural state of
man is to live without government, and government's existence is justified only to the extent that it
alleviates problems that would be created by this natural, anarchic way of life. If a government fails to
improve society or, worse, actively causes some of the same troubles that would result from anarchy, it
is particularly blameworthy.
State of Nature - Much of Paine's analysis proceeds by considering an imagined natural state in which
man might have first found himself. This method of analysis, popularly used by political theorists such as
Locke and Hobbes, considers man as he might have been before society was formed. Such an analysis
then imagines what man would have been like, and what rights he might have had, if it were not for the
interference of outside circumstance. Paine uses this imagined natural state to analyze a political
dilemma with his parable of the settlers first coming to America. Furthermore, in discussing monarchy,
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Paine presumes men to be "originally equals", and in doing so, hearkens back to some imagined age
where he presumes men to have all been equal.
The Inevitability of American Independence - A linchpin in Paine's argument is that America will
eventually be independent. At times, he presents this as a simple fact that everyone accepts, but
occasionally, he argues for it, citing the extent of the rift separating the colonies and the English king.
Since many people were uncertain about the idea of a revolution that would sever them from the king,
establishing the principle of American independence was an important first step for Paine to take in his
arguments. By convincing his audience that America will be independent some day, it is much easier for
Paine to make the case for an immediate and full rebellion.
The Inevitability of British Oppression - Yet another key point in Paine's argument derives from
considering what will happen if America reconciles with Britain. Paine argues that even if the colonists
reach an agreement with Britain, the problems that have developed between the colonies and the king
will inevitably repeat themselves. New taxes will be levied and parliament will interfere with colonial life.
Paine attempts to demonstrate this in two ways. First, he points to the history of colonial relations with
Britain, especially the events surrounding the Stamp Act. Second, he attacks the structure of Britain's
government, arguing that it is corrupt and unjust, and will inevitably lead the British to continue
mistreating the colonies.
America's relationship with the rest of Europe - Paine is acutely aware of the benefits to be reaped
through developing strong relationships with European countries other than Britain. This informs his
argument in a number of ways. First, Paine points out that it would be advantageous for America to form
commercial and political ties with these nations. Second, he notes that the current political arrangement
of America's being subservient to Britain precludes the colonies from being able to independently
engage in such alliances. He concludes that only if the colonies declare independence, will they be able
to reap the opportunities offered by alliance with various European nations.
The Problems with Monarchy - A large part of Common Sense is dedicated to attacking monarchy,
both as an institution and in its particular manifestation in Britain. Paine puts the theoretical attack in
Biblical terms, arguing from the text of the Bible that the monarchy originated in sin. Paine presents his
specific problems with the British monarchy, with his attack on hereditary succession and with the
numerous grievances he makes against the present king.
Summary of Main Issues
In Common Sense, Thomas Paine argues for American Independence. His argument begins with
more general, theoretical reflections about government and religion, then progresses onto the specifics
of the colonial situation.
Paine begins by distinguishing between government and society. Drawing a sharp line, Paine
argues that society is always something to strive for, whereas government is "a necessary evil." Society
fosters the fulfillment of our desires, while government is there only to keep man from indulging his
vices. Paine says that if a country with a government is hampered by oppression, it is far worse than if
such behavior were to occur on its own, since the people create and support the government, and are
therefore financing their own poor condition. If all people acted morally, government would not be
necessary, but since people are fallible, government is necessary to the protection of life and property.
Government's fundamental purpose, therefore, is to provide security, and the success of a government
is to be judged by the extent to which it fulfills this role. Government has its origins in the evil of man and
is therefore a necessary evil at best. Paine says that government's sole purpose is to protect life, liberty
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and property, and that a government should be judged solely on the basis of the extent to which it
accomplishes this goal.
To understand the purpose of government, Paine considers a small number of people, placed in
a small region of land, an island, cut off from all humanity. Unable to live alone, they would soon find
themselves interacting in order to avoid a perpetual solitude. Together, they would be able to a build
shelter and feed themselves more effectively. Out of necessity, the men would create a society. As long
as they were to treat each other honorably, they would need no law. However, in order to account for
inevitable defects in moral virtue, they would need to form a government; lawmaking becomes
inevitable. At first, they might simply designate some place to meet for all to discuss public matters, but
as the size of the society increases, they would need to choose representatives to make the law. In
order to make this work, they would need to hold frequent elections to ensure that the will of the
representatives is aligned with that of the people. Paine breaks out of the world of his parable to argue
that, therefore, representation, and not monarchy, is essential to "The strength of government and the
happiness of the governed." Paine claims that his view of government is based on the principle "that the
more simple any thing is, the less likely it is to be disordered."
Having expressed his disagreement with British reign in America, Paine proceeds to launch a
general attack on the British system of government. Paine says the British system is too complex and
rife with contradictions, and that the monarchy is granted far too much power. The British system
pretends to offer a reasonable system of checks and balances, but in fact, it does not. He then sets out
to attack the British constitution. He derides it as "exceedingly complex," and rife with monarchical and
aristocratic tyranny. Paine argues that, furthermore, it is absurd to think that the British system consists
of branches of government checking each other.
From here Paine moves on to discuss, in general, the notions of monarchy and hereditary
succession. Man, Pain argues, was born into a state of equality, and the distinction that has arisen
between king and subject is an unnatural one. At first, Paine says, the world was without kings, but the
ancient Jews decided they wanted a king. This angered God, but he allowed them to have one. Paine
presents pages of biblical evidence detailing God's wrath at the idea of the Jews having a king. The
conclusion Paine reaches is that the practice of monarchy originates from sin, and is an institution that
the Bible and God condemn. Paine calls hereditary succession an abominable practice. He says that
even if people were to choose to have a king, that does not legitimize that King's child acting as a future
ruler. Furthermore, hereditary succession has brought with it innumerable evils, such as incompetent
kings, corruption, and civil war.
Having dispensed with the preliminary theoretical issues, Paine sets in to discuss the details of
the American situation. In response to the argument that America has flourished under British rule, and
therefore ought to stay under the king, Paine says that such an argument fails to realize that America
has evolved and no longer needs Britain's help. Some say that Britain has protected America, and
therefore deserves allegiance, but Paine responds that Britain has only watched over America in order
to secure its own economic well-being. Paine adds that most recently, instead of watching over the
colonies, the British have been attacking them, and are therefore undeserving of American loyalty.
Paine says that the colonies have little to gain from remaining attached to Britain. Commerce can
be better conducted with the rest of Europe, but only after America becomes independent. Paine also
asserts that if the colonies remain attached to Britain, the same problems that have arisen in the past
will arise in the future. Paine argues that it is necessary to seek independence now, as to do otherwise
would only briefly cover up problems that will surely reemerge.
Paine even proposes the form of government that the independent colonies should adopt. His
recommendation is for a representative democracy that gives roughly equal weight to each of the
colonies.
Paine explains why the current time is a good time to break free of Britain. Primarily, Paine
focuses on the present size of the colonies, and on their current capabilities. He presents an inventory
of the British Navy and gives calculations revealing how America could build a navy of comparable size.
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Paine recommends this as a way of ensuring America's security and prosperity in trade. Paine also
argues that America is sufficiently small as to be united now. If time were to elapse, and the population
of the colonies to grow, the same feeling of unity would not be present. Paine adds that if the Americans
revolt now, they can use the vast expanses of uncharted land to the West in order to pay down some of
the debt they will incur.
Paine says that as a colony of Britain, America lacks respectability on the international scene.
They are seen simply as rebels, and cannot form substantial alliances with other nations. In order to
prosper in the long term, the colonies need to be independent. Paine says that, by declaring
independence, America will be able to ask for the help of other countries in its struggle for freedom. For
all of these reasons, Paine says it is imperative and urgent that the colonies declare independence.
Analysis
Paine presents government as an institution whose sole function is to restrain the evil in man.
Furthermore, he presents society as the force that "promotes our happiness positively". Government,
then, is conceived of as simply a preventative force, while any positive or creative acts are up to society.
Many Western democratic governments appropriate large sums of money toward positive projects that
are intended to improve public life, and it is worth considering whether Paine would have objected to the
modern state in which government "promotes our happiness…" The argument could also be made that,
given the affection Paine expresses for society, he might be very fond of modern governments. After all,
Paine lauds society because of what it accomplishes, and if a government could accomplish the same
thing, Paine's view of government might change.
Paine claims to be using a parable to introduce his general reflections about government,
although his intention is clearly to comment on the situation in America. In his parable, America is the
land secluded from the rest of society, since it is separated from Europe by an ocean, and the few
people placed there are the original settlers. An obvious problem with Paine's story in relation to the
situation in America, however, is that America was not quite cut off from the rest of society, as many
European powers controlled various territories in America. Furthermore, Paine intends to examine how
government originates out of nature, but the settlers who first crossed over from England arrived with
English notions of government, rather than creating the government from scratch.
Quotations explained
1. Society in every state is a blessing, but government even in its best state is but a necessary evil; in its
worst state an intolerable one…
This quote, from the first page of Common Sense, lays out Paine's general conception of government.
His general view that government is "but a necessary evil" forms an intellectual backdrop against which
it is easier to call for an outright rebellion against the British government.
2. To say, they will never attempt it again is idle and visionary, we thought so at the repeal of the stampact, yet a year or two undeceived us…
This quote comes from the third section of Common Sense, in which Paine considers the details of
America's relationship with Britain. Here, he argues that the British simply cannot be trusted to deal
fairly with the colonies. Paine points out that the British have repeatedly imposed unfair taxes, and even
after they repealed them, as with the stamp-act, later imposed new ones.
3. Why is it that we hesitate? From Britain we can expect nothing but ruin. If she is admitted to the
government of America again, this continent will not be worth living in.
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This quote, from the middle of the final section of Common Sense, is characteristic of much of Paine's
rhetoric. His pamphlet is intended not just to lay out an argument in favor of independence, but also to
motivate and rouse the populace. As such, Paine's style is often intended to rouse the reader. He
accomplishes this task particularly well in this passage by first questioning whether there really is a good
reason to stay quiet about the need for independence and then by painting a vivid picture of the
disturbing reality that would exist were America to remain under British rule.
4. Until an independence is declared the continent will feel itself like a man who continues putting off
some unpleasant business from day to day, yet knows it must be done, hates to set about it, wishes it
over, and is continually haunted with the thoughts of its necessity.
With this powerful image, Paine concludes Common Sense. This image encapsulates Paine's central
point throughout the pamphlet that America must ultimately become independent of Britain. Paine
maintains that, inevitably, the colonies will cease to be under British rule, and that the only question that
remains is when the colonies are to become free. Paine believes that the time for action is now rather
than later, and therefore exhorts his fellow Americans to rise to action and do what he believes he has
shown must be done.
Study Questions and Essay Topics
1. How is Paine's view of government connected to his arguments for revolution?
Paine sees government as inherently bad, and does not see government as divinely ordained or
otherwise intrinsically valuable. According to Paine, governments can only be measured by their
effectiveness, as measured by their ability to improve society without being tyrannical. Paine does not
believe that anyone has a right to govern others, which means he thinks that the king should no longer
rule the colonies. Paine's view of government makes the revolutionary movement much more palatable
by rejecting the presumption that the king has some legitimate and preexisting authority over the
colonies. He says the only question that really matters is whether the colonists' living conditions would
be better if they governed themselves, rather than being governed by the Crown.
2. How does Paine address the concern that America is too small to defeat the British?
In Paine's day, many people could not fathom the possibility of a group of colonies successfully taking
on the world's strongest empire, but Paine tries to show that America's small size is not a disadvantage.
To do this, Paine adopts a twofold strategy. First, Paine argues that the colonies are not actually that
small, and lays out in detail how the colonies could build a Navy equivalent to the feared British Navy.
Second, Paine argues that to the extent that the colonies are small, it is an advantage rather than a
liability, as a smaller group of colonies will be more unified in their ts struggle for freedom.
3. Why does Paine stress that revolution will eventually occur? How does he substantiate this claim?
By demonstrating that a separation between the American colonies and the British Empire was
inevitable, Paine hopes to make people more accustomed to the impossible idea of a free America. If
Paine can convince his audience that America must eventually separate, the feasibility of the idea is no
longer in doubt, and the colonists will instead have to consider when the separation will occur. Paine
substantiates his claim with references to the present state of affairs, which he takes as evidence that
the relationship between America and Britain cannot continue unchanged.
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Suggested Essay Topics
4. Why does Paine think it is in America's best interest to be free from Britain?
5. Does Paine present a compelling argument for an American declaration of independence?
6. Discuss Paine's view of the connection between religion and government.
7. How do you think a loyalist would react to Paine's arguments?
8. How do Paine's opinions about human equality relate to his view of America's relationship with
Britain?
Review Quiz
1. What does Paine think of government?
(A) It should make sure everyone has enough to survive
(B) It is a reflection of the glories of man
(C) It is a necessary evil
(D) It should not exist
2. Where was Paine originally from?
(A) Philadelphia
(B) England
(C) Boston
(D) New York
3. How does Paine describe the natural state of man?
(A) Some people were born to be rulers and some subjects
(B) Some people were born to be slaves and some masters
(C) All people are born equal
(D) Man is naturally evil
4. What does Paine consider a great sin committed by the Ancient Jews?
(A) Worshipping another God
(B) Eating from the tree of knowledge
(C) Enslaving their enemies
(D) Requesting a king
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5. Even if a king gains legitimate power, why does Paine think that king's children should not
automatically attain the same position?
(A) They may be stupid
(B) They have not been chosen by the people
(C) They will likely grow up unfit to rule
(D) All of the above
6. What is the term Paine uses for the idea that America should resolve its differences with Britain and
return to her empire?
(A) Reconciliation
(B) Reconstruction
(C) Reparations
(D) Restoration
7. Which of the following reasons does Paine NOT cite when he argues that the colonies must free
themselves from British rule?
(A) Reconciliation would create an unstable political situation that cannot be left to posterity
(B) Reconciliation would result in a renewed war with French-influenced, American- Indian tribes
(C) The British will impose new, unjust taxes
(D) America cannot be effectively governed from afar
8. What does Paine suggest that America build?
(A) Universities
(B) Libraries
(C) Nuclear warheads
(D) A Navy
9. Why does Paine think America's small size is an advantage in the struggle for independence?
(A) Other countries will want to help a small nation defeat a larger one
(B) It will be harder for British attacks to be on target
(C) Because large countries cannot fight for as long
(D) The colonies are more unified
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Suggestions for Further Reading
Penguin edition of Common Sense
Fruchtman, Jack. Thomas Paine: Apostle of Freedom. New York, NY: Four Walls Eight Windows, 1996.
Kaye, Harvey. Thomas Paine: Firebrand of the Revolution. Oxford University Press, 2000.
Paine, Thomas. Thomas Paine: Collected Writings. Ed. Eric Foner. The Library of America, 1995.
Grote, Bruce & Fish, Becky. Thomas Paine: Collected Writings. Ed. Arthur Schlesinger. Chelsea House,
1999.
13
Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826)
Jefferson was born in Virginia, his mother was from a distinguished family, his father a county
official and surveyor, who died when Thomas was only fourteen. Determined to improve himself, he
entered William and Mary College in Williamsburg, where he had the best teachers. After his
graduation at law school he stayed at Williamsburg and was admitted to the bar, beginning a
distinguished career in the legislature.
Jefferson was a delegate from Virginia to the Second Continental Congress10. After Richard
Henry Lee called for independence on June 11, 1776, Thomas Jefferson was appointed to a committee
to draft the Declaration of Independence, with Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, Roger Sherman and
Robert Livingston. Much of it was Jefferson’s but he was unhappy because he wished to include a
strong statement against slavery and to place the British people on record as the ultimate cause for the
Revolution because they tolerated a corrupt parliament and king, and neither passage was tolerated.
Jefferson left Congress and settled near his family in Virginia, where he was elected governor in
1779, being re-elected he resigned. He withdrew from public life between 1781-84. Appointed Minister
to France he signed with Franklin, the Treaty of Paris, ending the Revolutionary War and in 1790 was
appointed by Washington first secretary of state under the new adopted Constitution. In 1796 he ran for
the office of president, losing to John Adams, he took the vice-presidency and was elected president in
1800, the first to be inaugurated at Washington. He wrote innumerable letters, farmed thousands of
acres in Virginia, built one of the most beautiful plantations in America and was a remarkable architect
who designed the Virginia state capital. He died a few hours before John Adams on the Fourth of July,
1826.
Context
The The Declaration of Independence, completed and signed in July of 1776, marked the official
separation between the 13 colonies ( New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New
York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and
Georgia) and Great Britain. An armed struggle between the colonies and Britain had begun just over a
year before, with the Battles of Lexington and Concord. The formal declaration of independence
established the new American revolutionary government and officially declared war against Great
Britain. The primary purpose of the declaration was to assist the Second Continental Congress (a
representative from each colony was sent to the Second Continental Congress in May of 1775 to debate
the topic of independence. Although initial disagreement seemed to stall the drive towards
independence, by July 2nd, 1776 all 13 colonies committed to fighting in the war for independence) in
obtaining aid from foreign countries. The document also clearly outlines the history of abuses the
colonists had suffered under British rule since the end of the French and Indian war in 1763.
Prior to the French and Indian war, the colonists had enjoyed over a hundred years of "salutary
neglect." In other words, although laws were in place to maintain the subordinate status of the colonies
to Great Britain, they were usually not enforced. After the French and Indian war, which increased
Britain's share of North America, King George III11 and Parliament sought to establish firm control over
The Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia in May of 1775 because the First Continental Congress
had vowed to meet again if its attempts at peace with Great Britain failed. In April 1775, it became clear that the
colonies were already in an undeclared war against Great Britain, evidenced by the Battles at Lexington and
Concord. The Second Continental Congress had the dual responsibility of coordinating the ongoing defensive war
effort in the colonies and debating the question of independence.
10
King George III reigned over Great Britain and Ireland from 1760 to 1820. King George III was a descendent of
the house of Hanover, a German royal family, but the first of his family to be born and educated as an
11
14
the land newly obtained from France, and to help pay war debts by taxing the colonies. They did this by
enacting a number of acts that either taxed the colonists or placed stricter controls on trade. These laws
included the Sugar Act (1764), the Stamp Tax (1765), the Townshend Acts (1767), and the Tea Act
(1773). Additionally, Parliament enacted the Quartering Act (1765) which forced colonists to help pay for
the British military stationed in the colonies.
Colonists initially protested these acts through peaceful means such as petition, boycott, and
committees. They argued that since they had no representation in Parliament, they could not be
rightfully taxed by Parliament. As their petitions were repeatedly ignored, and taxes continually added,
colonists turned to increasingly more destructive actions, like the Boston Tea Party of 1774. In response
to this rebellious action by the Massachusetts Colony, the King and Parliament exacted punishment
through legislation referred to by colonists as the "Intolerable Acts."
The Intolerable Acts sparked the colonies to call an inter-colonial congress for the purpose of
discussing a unified response to the King and Parliament. This First Continental Congress, as it was
called, met in September 1774 in Philadelphia. All 13 colonies were present except for Georgia. The
Congress drafted a declaration claiming that the Intolerable Acts were unconstitutional, that the
colonists retained the same civil rights as English citizens, and that they would boycott all English goods
until reconciliation was reached. The negotiations never happened. Instead, tensions continued to
mount between the colonists and Great Britain. The First Continental Congress agreed to meet again in
May 1775 if no reconciliation had been reached. At this Second Continental Congress, all thirteen
colonies were present.
It took 14 months, military mobilization, persuasive pamphleteering, and the further abuse of
colonial rights before all 13 colonies agreed to pursue independence. At issue were political as well as
practical concerns. Upper class colonists tended to fear the lower class gaining too much power through
revolution. Middle class colonists could not afford to see their businesses continue to decline due to
trade restrictions. All colonists resented that the King and Parliament denied them representative
government and their civil rights. However, they also doubted whether they would be strong enough to
resist the British military.
Early in 1776, Thomas Paine published his pamphlet Common Sense, which won over many
colonists to the cause of independence. Meanwhile, the congress had sent the King an Olive-Branch
Petition as a last effort towards reconciliation. Not only did he refuse to respond to the colonists' plea, he
sent an additional 20,000 troops to North America and hired mercenaries from Germany to bolster his
military force. An all-out war seemed imminent and even moderate delegates realized that in order to
obtain much-needed military support from France, they would have to declare themselves wholly
independent from Great Britain. Richard Henry Lee of Virginia proposed a resolution for independence
in June of 1776. The Congress appointed a committee to draft a declaration of independence that
consisted of John Adams (MA), Benjamin Franklin (PA), Thomas Jefferson (VA), Robert Livingston (NY)
and Roger Sherman (CT).
The job of drafting the Declaration of Independence fell to the youngest member of the
committee, Thomas Jefferson. In composing the declaration, Jefferson drew on ideas from the
Enlightenment, especially those of John Locke. Not only did the declaration represent a milestone in
the history of the United States, it also turned the political philosophies of 18th century Europe into real
political practice.
Englishman. Unlike his predecessors, he aimed to rule strongly over British concerns abroad and did so by
revoking the policy of salutary neglect (An unwritten though longstanding British policy of letting slide the many
British laws meant to maintain the colonies as economically and politically subordinate to England. King George
III wanted to more strongly govern the colonies and put an end to salutary neglect) that had dominated colonial
policy until then. He also attempted to diminish the powers of parliament by frequently appointing new ministers to
carry out his policy. This led to political chaos throughout Great Britain, and also contributed to the strict laws
imposed on the colonies after 1763.
15
The Declaration of Independence: summary of main points.
The Declaration of Independence, written by Thomas Jefferson and adopted by the Second
Continental Congress states the reasons the British colonies of North America sought independence in
July of 1776.
The declaration opens with a preamble describing the document's necessity in explaining why
the colonies have overthrown their ruler and chosen to take their place as a separate nation in the
world.
It explains that has become necessary for the 13 colonies to separate from Great Britain. That
these 13 colonies have the right to become a nation as legitimate as any other nation. Additionally, that
it is important to explain to the public, including those in other nations, why this declaration of
independence is being made.
This declaration is based on certain truths:
All men are created equal and there are certain unalienable rights that governments should never
violate. These rights include the right to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.
Governments exist to support the rights of men. Governments exist only through the power of the
people that they represent.
When a government fails to protect those rights, it is not only the right, but also the duty of the people to
overthrow that government. In its place, the people should establish a government that is designed to
protect those rights. Governments are rarely overthrown, and should not be overthrown for trivial
reasons. it is not typical for people to change a system that they are accustomed to. However, when the
people have suffered many abuses under the control of a totalitarian leader, they not only have the right
but the duty to overthrow that government.In this case, a long history of abuses has led the colonists to
overthrow a tyrannical government.
King George III is guilty of 27 specific abuses. The King interfered with the colonists' right to selfgovernment and for a fair judicial system. Acting with Parliament, the King also instituted legislation that
affected the colonies without their consent. This legislation levied taxes on the colonists. It also required
them to quarter British soldiers, removed their right to trial by jury, and prevented them from trading
freely. Additionally, the King and Parliament are guilty of outright destruction of American life and
property by their refusal to protect the colonies' borders, their confiscation of American ships at sea, and
their intent to hire foreign mercenaries to fight against the colonists.
The colonial governments tried to reach a peaceful reconciliation of these differences with Great
Britain, but were continually ignored. Colonists who appealed to British citizens were similarly ignored,
despite their shared common heritage and their just cause. After many peaceful attempts, the colonists
have no choice but to declare independence from Great Britain.
The new nation will be called the United States of America and will have no further connections
with Great Britain. The new government will reserve the right to levy war, make peace, make alliances
with foreign nations, conduct trade, and do anything else that nations do.
Commentary
The Declaration of Independence is important because it inspired many revolutionary efforts
throughout the world and contributed to Americans' understanding of their values as a new nation. The
introduction, called the preamble, to the Declaration of Independence is especially important because it
builds connections between philosophical theory and practical politics, expresses the fundamental
values of the new American government, and also appeals to other nations to accept the new nation.
The introduction relies heavily on the philosophical and political ideas of the Enlightenment
period of 18th century Europe, including the ideas of Thomas Hobbes, Jean Jacques Rousseau, and,
most particularly, John Locke.12 Locke believed that humans, by nature, had the right to protection of
John Locke was an English Philosopher who influenced the thoughts and actions of American leaders in the
revolutionary era. The author of Two Treatises of Government (1690), Locke attacked the theory of divine right of
kings, arguing that the power of the state rested on the power of the people. Locke believed that governments
12
16
life, health, liberty and possessions. Jefferson altered this slightly when he claims the unalienable rights
include "life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness." Locke also strongly opposed the divine right of kings-which held that kings held absolute power because they were placed on their throne by God--and
insisted that the people had the right to consent to their government and that the power of law making
resides with the people. Jefferson included this theory when he writes "to secure these rights,
governments are instituted among men deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed."
Jefferson's declaration helped to put Locke's philosophies into the realm of real-world politics. Many
revolutions that occurred after the American Revolution cited Jefferson's Declaration of Independence
as justification in overthrowing a corrupt and dictatorial power.
The introduction to the Declaration of Independence also is important for the ways it contributed
to Americans' understanding of their rights as citizens. Americans continue to believe that the phrase
"all men are created equal" is a fundamental "law" in the country. While this phrase was included in the
introduction to the declaration, it appears nowhere else in official documents defining rights granted
under the U.S. Government. The Declaration of Independence holds no legal authority in our country,
yet it continues to be cited as the foundation for American equality. Various groups throughout history
have criticized American "equality", referring to the introduction of the declaration for support. Critics
point to Jefferson's contradictory message regarding equality in reference to slavery. Although Jefferson
stated that all men are created equal and have the right to liberty, he ran a large plantation and was a
slaveholder. Other critics point to the use of the word "men" as excluding women citizens. The 1848
Seneca Falls Convention used Jefferson's format and style to draft The Declaration of Sentiments, a
document declaring women's unfair treatment by the U.S. government and by society. Both as a source
for debate about equality and as a definition of the ideological foundation of the new nation, the
introduction to the Declaration played a crucial role in defining American values and laws.
The introduction is also significant because Jefferson insisted on the importance of explaining the
rebellious actions of the 13 colonies to the nations and statesmen of the world. The most powerful
nations of the world in the 18th century were monarchies. The ideas of Jefferson could serve not only to
threaten Great Britain's colonial empire, but the colonial empires of other nations in Europe.
Recognizing the importance of maintaining good diplomatic relations with European nations, Jefferson
sought to explain the actions of the 13 colonies in rational terms. Anticipating that this document would
influence rebellions elsewhere, Jefferson clarified that governments should not be overthrown for trivial
causes. Instead, Jefferson explained that only "despotic" or totalitarian governments should be
overthrown.
Study Questions
1. What caused the increase in parliamentary legislation after the French and Indian War?
Answer for Question 1
King George III differed from the other Hanover monarchs in that he wanted to be a strong ruler over all
British territory. During the French and Indian War, George III gained control over the region between
the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River. He also gained the perfect opportunity to finally
control colonial activity. George III did not want his colonies to become rich off their trade with other
countries. He believed that the profits of the colonies belonged to the Mother Country. He further
believed that the colonists, who reaped the most benefits from the defeat of the French and Indians,
should assist in paying war debts. Therefore, he and his ministers passed legislation that was strictly
were formed to protect the natural rights of men, and that overthrowing a government that did not protect these
rights was not only a right, but also an obligation. His thoughts influenced many revolutionary pamphlets and
documents, including the Virginia Constitution of 1776, and the Declaration of Independence. Additionally, his
ideas about checks and balances and the division of church and state were later embodied in the U.S.
Constitution.
17
enforced by royal appointees and the British military. This legislation was designed to strictly enforce
trade regulations, as well as to tax the colonists. The legislation also made it painfully evident to the
colonists that King George III was not interested in allowing them the self-rule and economic freedom
they had enjoyed before.
2. What evidence was there that colonists acted in a unified fashion before the passage of the
Declaration of Independence?
Answer for Question 2
Before te French and Indian War, the individual colonies viewed themselves as separate entities
only connected by their common heritage and their loyalty to the British King. When the acts of
Parliament began to strip individual colonies of their rights and self-rule, other colonies noticed. As soon
as the Stamp Act was passed in 1765, colonists began to organize a unified protest. Nine of the 13
colonies met to discuss the Stamp Act and resolved that the colonists, as British citizens, had the same
rights as citizens living in England. Furthermore, they established the idea that it was unlawful for
Parliament to impose a tax on the colonies, because the colonies had no representation in Parliament.
Five years later in 1772, Samuel Adams began the Committees of Correspondence in order to
strengthen the idea that an attack on one colony represented an attack on all of the colonies.
After the Intolerable Acts were passed in 1774, 12 of the 13 colonies met to issue a declaration
similar in content to the resolution by the Stamp Act Congress. Only this time, they vowed to enact a
unified boycott on all British goods. Although the Intolerable Acts targeted the Massachusetts colony,
the other colonies felt a strong need to protest this abuse of rights. The precedent set by the First
Continental Congress was that the colonies were willing to act together in a more permanent way. They
vowed to meet again in May of 1775 if their protest did not lead to peaceful reconciliation. By the
meeting of the Second Continental Congreso all 13 colonies were present and acted together to
administer a war of defense even before they acted together to declare independence.
2. Why did the Intolerable Acts have a greater impact on the colonies than earlier tax acts?
Answer for Question 3
The Intolerable Acts not only attacked the economic rights of people in the Massachusetts colony, but
also removed their system of self-rule and representative government. The Intolerable Acts closed the
port of Boston to imports and exports, appointed a military governor, barred town meetings, and
prevented the election of local officials and the selection of jurors. Although colonists viewed earlier tax
acts and acts to control trade as unconstitutional, this act actually deprived them of their civil rights. The
Magna Carta and British Bill of Rights of 1689 indicate that the King is not above the law, and that
certain civil rights are granted to British subjects to ensure that the King does not become to powerful.
Among these rights are the right to trial by a jury of one's peers, and the power of taxation resting in the
hands of an elected body. Both of these rights were removed with the tax act. The colonists had no form
of economic or political defense against the King's absolute rule in Massachusetts.
4. In what ways was George III's nationality (German) influential in his actions against the colonists?
5. What influenced moderates to vote for independence?
6. Why would the Declaration of Independence ease the domestic turmoil between Tories and Whigs?
7. In what way did the King of Britain's actions make colonial independence inevitable?
8. Is the Declaration of Independence a radical document? Explain.
9. What issues did the Declaration of Independence fail to resolve regarding equality? Regarding the
newly established national government?
18
Suggestions for Further Reading
Bailyn, Bernard. The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution. The Belknap Press of Harvard
University Press, Cambridge, 1992.
Miller, John C. Origins of the American Revolution. Stanford University Press, Stanford, 1979.
Rakove, Jack N. The Beginnings of National Politics. Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., New York, 1979.
Smith, Page. Jefferson: A Revealing Biography. American Heritage Publishing Co., Inc., New York,
1976.
Wills, Gary. Inventing America: Jefferson's Declaration of Independence. Doubleday & Company, Inc.,
New York, 1978.
19
The Articles of the Confederation (1781-1789)
Context
As the first official document that defined the United States government, the Articles of
Confederation both reflected the ideals and philosophies of the American Revolution and highlighted the
practical difficulties of democratic government.
The idea of a union formed for mutual defense began in 1643 with the founding of the first
colonial union, called the New England Confederation. Recognizing that a union would help the
colonists to defend themselves against the threat of Indian attacks and French invasion, this
confederation established the idea that unified strength was an effective power on the North American
continent.
As the governments of the colonies evolved and established more power, they continued to rely
on unions for mutual defense. At the beginning of the French and Indian War in 1754, additional
colonies attended the Albany Congress for the purpose of forming a unified defense strategy against the
French and Indians. The colonists learned an important lesson from this experience, and began to
instinctively rely on the power of unions any time their rights were abused during the pre-Revolutionary
era.
The governing body that eventually created the Articles of Confederation was based on this
tradition of defensive unions, but was formed in a time of peace—not actually preparing for war.
However, the Second Continental Congress originally formed for the purpose of mutual defense of the
thirteen colonies, suddenly found itself in 1776 waging a full-scale war and governing a nation.
Congress managed to successfully direct the Revolution effort and to prevent domestic anarchy
by relying more on improvisation than on any codified system of laws. Consensus worked for the
thirteen states when faced with the imposing task of defeating the British; however, when Congress
approached the topic of drafting a constitution that would serve to direct the affairs of the nation,
numerous controversies erupted over how to establish a balance of power between individual states
and a national governing body. Despite all their experience in organizing unions for mutual defense, the
representatives had no reliable source from which they could draft the plans for a new and democratic
form of government.
The source of most of the controversies lay in that Americans held sharply contrasting
interpretations of the implications of the American Revolution. Radicals13 believed that the purpose of
the Revolution was to establish a government, unlike any other at the time, that placed power solidly in
the hands of the people. Therefore, they interpreted the confederation to be like past unions, given
power solely to provide for mutual defense.Sovereingty, they claimed, belonged close to the people in
the hands of state governments, not in a strong central government. Conservatives14, on the other hand,
viewed the Revolution as an opportunity to remove control from a foreign elite and place it solidly in the
hands of a centralized government in America. Like radicals, they believed in the importance of mutual
defense, but wanted to extend the union’s power to be able to manage all affairs of the new nation.
The shape of the new government, as established by the Articles of Confederation was largely
influenced by the radicals’ point of view. The Articles were submitted to the states for ratification in the
Political leaders who favored strong state governments and thought the Articles of Confederation should
remove most power from the national government, placing more power in the hands of the people. Radicals
feared the formation of another strong central government, similar to the British government, which would favor
the elite, strip people of their right to equal representation, and violate their freedom.
13
Political leaders who favored the formation of a strong central government and who thought the Articles of
Confederation should grant more powers to the national government than to the state governments.
Conservatives tended to fear the power of the masses and to favor government by the elite.
14
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midst of war with Great Britain. Most Americans greatly feared the possibility that their new American
government would be as strong and as destructive to individual rights as the British one, and that the
war would thus have been fought in vain. The government established and approved by the people in
1781, therefore, consisted of a national congress with extremely limited powers and thirteen
independent state governments that held the balance of power.
The significance of the Articles of Confederation is that it provided enough of a structure for the
nation to survive during those eight years, while the American people learned about the requirements to
run an effective national government. The weaknesses inherent in the Articles of Confederation
eventually provided the means for change.
In the midst of frustrating economic chaos and political confusion, individuals began to assert
their own power against ineffective and unfair government created by the Articles. In Shay’s Revellion
Massachusetts farmers rebelled against a state legislature that seemed no different than Parliament in
its unwillingness to change tax regulations and debt- repayment laws. Respected leaders from many
states met at the Anápolis Convention in 1786 to try to determine a uniform system of commerce
amongst themselves in the absence of a national policy. In both cases, Americans had realized that
their liberties were threatened when not protected by a strong enough central government.
When delegates of the states met to revise the Articles of Confederation at the Constitucional
Convention in May of 1787, they had gathered enough experience about the intricacies of government
to more clearly define what the next government of the nation should and would do. It would not
abandon the ideas of the American Revolution by placing too much power in the hands of the central
government, but it also would not allow numerous competing government systems to tear the union
apart.
Once again, the concept of union had evolved. Having learned from the failures of the
government created by the Articles of Confederation, the delegates at the Constitutional Convention
created a government that not only provided mutual defense against outside threats, it also created a
central government strong enough to reign in and withstand internal threats and represent unified
national interests to the world.
Summary of Main Points raised in the Articles
The representatives of the thirteen states agree to create a confederacy called the United
States of America, in which each state maintains its own sovereignty.A sovereign state maintains the
power to govern its own affairs without interference from other states or other bodies of power.
and all rights to govern, except those rights specifically granted to Congress.
As these thirteen states enter into a firm "league of friendship" for the purpose of defending each
other, there are standards that the states should follow to help maintain good relationships. Each state
must recognize the legal proceedings and official records of every other state, and that the citizens of
one state have the rights of citizenship in any state. Additionally, a state must help return runaway
criminals to the state in which the crime was committed.
States have the right to select and send two to seven delegates to Congress each year. Each
state has one vote in congress, and delegates can only serve for a period of three years in any interval
of six years. Delegates have certain privileges while serving in Congress. They are guaranteed the right
to freedom of speech and are immune from arrest for most petty crimes.
States are not allowed to conduct relationships with foreign nations without the permission of
congress. They cannot wage war, negotiate peace, raise an army or navy, conduct diplomacy, or make
an alliance with another state. However, they can make impost (a form of tax applied to goods that are
imported into a state or country). Imposts are typically used to make money, protect a home industry, or
retaliate against another state or country.
on goods, as long as they do not interfere with foreign treaties. States must keep a local militia, and they
may wage war if they need to quickly defend themselves.
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During war, states have the right to appoint officers of colonel rank and below. Congress pays for
war from a treasury that states contribute to relative to the value of land in their state.
Congress has the sole power to deal with foreign nations, including making war and peace, and
to deal with Indian (Native American) affairs. Congress must maintain uniform standards of coins and
measures, make the rules for the army and navy, and run the post office. Congress will help resolve
interstate disputes only as a last resort, and has the sole right to hold trials for crimes committed at sea.
Congress can appoint a provisional Committee of the States to serve when Congress is not in
session. Congress can appoint other committees made up of civilians to help run the nation, and a
president who can serve for one year every interval of three years.
Congress determines the budget and will publish it regularly, along with the proceedings of its
meetings. When Congress must request troops, it will do so relative to the number of white inhabitants
in each state, and the states must provide those troops on the date indicated.
On the most important issues of foreign affairs, nine of thirteen delegates must agree.
If Canada chooses to join the United States, it will be admitted as an equal state.
Congress takes full responsibility for all debts from the American Revolution.
All states agree to follow the rules of the Articles and the decisions of Congress and to never
violate the union.
Any changes to the Articles of Confederation must be agreed to in congress and approved by
every state.
Study Questions
1. Compare and contrast the beliefs of radicals and consevatives with respect to the formation of the
new government. What were the effects of these differences, as demonstrated in the Articles of
Confederation and in U.S. government in general?
2. What was the impact of Shay’s Revellion on constitutional government in the United States?
3. What is significant about each state having an equal vote in Congress?
4. Describe the weaknesses of the Confederation Congress and explain the significance of those
weaknesses to that time period in American history.
5. What role did land play in the ratification of the Articles of Confederation?
6. Describe the bonds that sustained the "loose confederation" of states. Was this a successful union of
states? Why or why not?
7. In what way(s) did Congress attempt to address the issue of slavery under the Articles of
Confederation?
8. Pick one of the weaknesses of the Confederation Congress (for example, its inability to regulate
interstate commerce) and explain how that led to the Constitutional Convention of 1787.
9. Explain the way(s)in which the Articles of Confederation established precedents for the U.S.
government.
10. How were the values of the American Revolution translated into practice with the Articles of
Confederation?
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Review Quiz
1. The first official U.S. Government is best described as a:
(A) monarchy
(B) oligarchy
(C) confederation
(D) anarchy
2. Conservatives believed in:
(A) a strong central government
(B) states' rights
(C) the British Bill of Rights
(D) absolute rule by the king
3. Radicals believed in:
(A) a strong central government
(B) states' rights
(C) the Magna Carta
(D) freedom of the seas
4. To ratify something means to:
(A) destroy it
(B) reject it
(C) change it
(D) accept it
5. The final draft of the Articles of Confederation placed sovereignty:
(A) in the national government
(B) in the state governments
(C) in western territories
(D) in President George Washington
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6. An impost can be described as a:
(A) tax on trade
(B) tax on postage
(C) tax on property
(D) tax on investments
7. The Confederation Congress was established by which of the following documents?
(A) the U.S. Constitution
(B) the Declaration of Independence
(C) the Albany Plan of Union
(D) the Articles of Confederation
8. The Second Continental Congress produced which of the following pairs of documents?
(A) the U.S. Constitution and the Olive Branch Petition
(B) the Declaration of Independence and the Articles of Confederation
(C) the Albany Plan of Union and the Bill of Rights
(D) Common Sense and the Declaration of Independence
9. Which patriot wrote the Albany Plan of Union?
(A) Benjamin Franklin
(B) John Dickinson
(C) Thomas Jefferson
(D) George Washington
10. Thomas Jefferson wrote which pair of documents?
(A) the U.S. Constitution and the Declaration of Independence
(B) the Articles of Confederation and the Bill of Rights
(C) the Galloway Plan and the Articles of Confederation
(D) the Ordinance of 1784 and the Declaration of Independence
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11. John Dickinson can be best described as:
(A) a radical from Massachusetts
(B) a conservative from Pennsylvania
(C) a radical from Pennsylvania
(D) a conservative from Virginia
12. What is Richard Henry Lee best known for?
(A) being the author of the Declaration of Independence
(B) being the author of the Articles of Confederation
(C) being the author of the proposal to declare independence and establish a plan of confederation
(D) being the general of the Continental Army
13. Who was Daniel Shays?
(A) The leader of a rebellion in western Massachusetts
(B) A colonel in the Continental Army
(C) A delegate to the Second Continental Congress
(D) The author of the Articles of Confederation
14. George Washington can be best described as:
(A) a radical from Massachusetts
(B) a conservative from Pennsylvania
(C) a radical from Pennsylvania
(D) a conservative from Virginia
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15. How many states had to ratify the Articles of Confederation before it officially established the first
government of the United States?
(A) nine
(B) two-thirds of thirteen
(C) thirteen
(D) seven
16. Which of the following powers were granted to Congress under the Articles of Confederation?
(A) The power to tax, make war and establish peace
(B) The power to make war, establish peace, and administer a post office
The power to prosecute criminals, send and receive ambassadors, and select the Committee
(C) of Congress
(D) The power to raise an army, try criminals of the high seas and enforce its laws
17. What was the purpose of the Annapolis Convention?
(A) To establish a separate government with its capital at Annapolis
(B) To declare independence from the Confederation
(C) To discuss the trade concerns of Maryland and Virginia
(D) To discuss the trade concerns of the thirteen states
18. What state ratified the Articles of Confederation last?
(A) Maryland
(B) Delaware
(C) Virginia
(D) Vermont
19. Which of the following problems did Congress experience under the Articles of Confederation?
(A) Congress could not raise a military to defend itself at Yorktown.
(B) Congress could not convince Thomas Jefferson to be a diplomat to France.
(C) Congress could not tax the states and therefore had difficulty repaying its debts.
(D) Congress did not have the authority to deal with affairs relating to Native American tribes.
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20. Which of the following can be described as a short- term cause of the desire for a stronger central
government?
(A) The Townshend Acts
(B) Shays' Rebellion
(C) The Treaty of Paris
(D) The Newburgh Mutiny
21. Choose the correct match of country and issue that the Jay-Gardoqui talks refer to:
(A) Spain--Mississippi River
(B) Britain--Great Lakes
(C) France--Port of New Orleans
(D) Britain--West Indies
22. What state was created out of the territory originally claimed by New York and New Hampshire?
(A) Maine
(B) Rhode Island
(C) Vermont
(D) Michigan
23. What did the Northwest Ordinance say about slavery?
Although allowed in the Northwest Territory, each household could only purchase a limited
(A) number of slaves per year.
(B) The slave trade would be abolished in 1800 in the Northwest Territory.
(C) Slavery was protected as property of the owner in the Northwest Territory.
(D) Slavery was made illegal in all states carved out of the Northwest Territory.
24. Why is the Ordinance of 1784 significant?
It provided a means for new states to enter the union as equal to each of the other sovereign
(A) states.
(B) It required the establishment of public education in the new states.
(C) It prohibited the practice of speculation in the new states.
(D) It granted Maryland a significant portion of the new states to make up for her limited borders.
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25. What colony of Great Britain was allowed to join the U.S. as indicated in the Articles of
Confederation?
(A) Jamaica
(B) Mexico
(C) Canada
(D) Ireland
26. How did delegates get elected to the Confederation Congress?
(A) Through a national election
(B) Each state legislature determined its own means of appointing delegates
(C) State legislatures chose all delegates
(D) The Congress chose influential men from each state
27. How many years could a delegate serve in Congress?
(A) one out of every three years
(B) two out of every four years
(C) three out of every six years
(D) five out of every ten years
28. How many years could a delegate serve as president of Congress?
(A) one out of every three years
(B) two out of every four years
(C) three out of every six years
(D) five out of every ten years
29. For which issue did the Congress not require at least a majority vote of all delegates?
(A) A decision to declare war
(B) A decision to adjourn until the next day
(C) A decision to create a new administrative committee
(D) A choice of a new president
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30. What nationalist politician tried unsuccessfully in 1781 and 1783 to pass an amendment that granted
Congress the right to collect an impost on foreign trade?
(A) Benjamin Franklin
(B) George Washington
(C) John Dickinson
(D) Alexander Hamilton
31. Which state continually refused increasing the power of the Congress while attempting to force its
creditors to accept devalued currency as repayment?
(A) Massachusetts
(B) Rhode Island
(C) Vermont
(D) Virginia
32. How many delegates was each state allowed to send to Congress?
(A) Only one delegate allowed per state
(B) five delegates
(C) two to seven delegates
(D) nine to thirteen delegates
33. How many votes does each state have in Congress?
(A) Only one vote per state
(B) It depends on the size of their total population
(C) It depends on the size of their free male population
(D) It is based on the value of land held by each state
34. How is taxation determined for each state?
(A) Each state pays equal taxes
(B) It depends on the size of their total population
(C) It depends on the size of their free male population
(D) It is based on the value of land held by each state
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35. Who manages the confederation when Congress is not in session?
(A) The president of Congress
(B) The Committee of the States
(C) The Secretary of State
(D) The Secretary of Congress
36. How many states must be in agreement to declare war?
(A) seven
(B) nine
(C) two-thirds of thirteen
(D) all thirteen
37. How many states must be in agreement to amend the Articles of Confederation?
(A) seven
(B) nine
(C) two-thirds of thirteen
(D) all thirteen
38. Which state held the land claim that was contested by Maryland?
(A) New York
(B) North Carolina
(C) New Hampshire
(D) Virginia
39. Who led the independence movement in Vermont?
(A) Ethan Allen
(B) Daniel Shays
(C) Thomas Jefferson
(D) Richard Henry Lee
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40. Why did the Congress move from Philadelphia to Princeton during June of 1783?
(A) It was too hot in Philadelphia
(B) The Pennsylvania State Legislature needed the space
(C) The Constitutional Convention needed the space
(D) The Congress faced a mutinous militia and had no military protection
41. On what date did the first U.S. government officially begin?
(A) July 4, 1776
(B) November 15, 1778
(C) March 1, 1781
(D) May 14, 1787
42. What river(s) did the Maryland and Virginia delegates intend to discuss at Alexandria?
(A) The Mississippi River
(B) The Potomac and Pocomoke Rivers
(C) The Ohio River
(D) The Hudson River
43. Which states would be considered landlocked, and hoped for Congressional control of western
lands?
(A) New Jersey and Maryland
(B) Virginia
(C) Pennsylvania
(D) North Carolina
44. Who would have been most affected by Jay's proposal to prohibit American commerce from the
Mississippi River?
(A) Northeastern merchants
(B) Plantation owners along the Atlantic Ocean
(C) Western farmers living in the Ohio River Valley
(D) The British in Canada
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45. In what way did states antagonize each other?
(A) Outright military invasion
Interstate trade wars involving the levying of imposts and tolls, the use of devalued currency,
(B) and complex commerce regulations
(C) Kidnapping members of state militias
(D) Public humiliation of other states in local newspapers
46. Which of the following was the most chronic problem for Congress?
(A) Constant arguing over issues
(B) The personal hygiene of Rhode Island
(C) Poor attendance
(D) The stubbornness of Maryland
47. What were the east-west boundaries of the United States as defined in the Treaty of Paris?
(A) The Atlantic to the east and the Pacific to the west
(B) The Mississippi to the west and the Appalachians to the east
(C) The Atlantic to the east and the Ohio River to the west
(D) The Atlantic to the east and the Mississippi River to the West
48. What three Americans served to negotiate the Treaty of Paris?
(A) Benjamin Franklin, Sam Adams and John Jay
(B) Alexander Hamilton, Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson
(C) George Washington, Alexander Hamilton and John Jay
(D) John Dickinson, Richard Henry Lee and Thomas Jefferson
49. What was the name of the first union of colonies formed for the purpose of mutual defense?
(A) The First Continental Congress
(B) The Second Continental Congress
(C) The New England Confederation
(D) The Albany Congress
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50. Who surrendered at Yorktown in 1781?
(A) Daniel Shays
(B) Charles Cornwallis
(C) Ethan Allen
(D) William Pitt
51. Which state did not attend the Constitutional Convention in May of 1787?
(A) Georgia
(B) Maryland
(C) Delaware
(D) Rhode Island
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