School bullying – What it is and Why it hurts
The image of the class bully lording over weaker students goes back as
far as the one-room schoolhouse. The class bully hasn't disappeared from
our schools' classrooms, playgrounds, hallways, bathrooms, cafeterias,
stairways, and school buses. In fact, children today have to put up with
not only physical and verbal threats and intimidations, but also new
forms of bullying. These new forms include spreading rumors through emails and cell phones, or using the Internet to cause distress.
Today's children aren't any more likely than their parents to place an encounter with a
bully among their fondest memories of childhood. Those who argue otherwise might try
explaining why so many adults can instantly recall not just the first, but also the last
names of the individuals involved in childhood bullying incidents.
Bullying is repeated physical, verbal, sexual, or psychological attacks or intimidation.
At one time, school bullying may have been viewed as a "rite of passage" that built
"character." Today, however, it's no longer regarded as just something that happens
during playground routines. Educators, health and mental health practitioners, parents,
and community members are realizing that it is a serious problem that can lead to more
severe long-term problems for individuals and communities. Some experts believe that
bullying should be considered a special form of child abuse-sometimes called "peer
abuse," the cruelty of children to each other.ref
Federal researchers have found that bullying is related to more serious forms of violenceboth for the victims and for the bullies-including frequent fighting and the carrying of
weapons. Bullying is also associated with a higher risk of substance abuse.ref
Not all aggressive behavior among children and youth should be considered "bullying."
Bullying is generally defined as repeated physical, verbal, sexual, or psychological
attacks or intimidation by one individual who is perceived as being physically or
psychologically stronger than another. In a general sense, a student is being bullied or
victimized when he or she is exposed, repeatedly and over time, to negative actions on
the part of one or more other students.ref
How serious is the problem? Many students fail to report bullying to teachers and other
adults, making bullying an underreported problem. As researchers probe more deeply
into what goes on among school-aged children, however, alarming statistics are
surfacing:
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According to the results of a nationwide survey funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development, ref bullying affects nearly one out of
every three U.S. children in grades 6-10.
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One third of high school students polled about issues related to school size said
their schools had serious problems with bullying.ref
A review of 1999 data collected by the Federal government on school safety
among 12- to 18-year-old students found that approximately 36 percent of
students reported seeing hate-related graffiti at school.ref
Fifty-five percent of 8- to 11-year-olds and 68 percent of 12- to 15-year-olds say
bullying is a big problem.ref
A nationwide survey highlighted by the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC) found that 6.6 percent of students in grades 9-12 had missed at
least one day of school during the 30 days preceding the survey because they felt
unsafe at school or on their way to or from school.ref
A survey by the American Association of University Women found that although
students today are likely to be aware of school sexual harassment policies, 8 in 10
students -- both boys and girls -- said they experienced some type of sexual
harassment in school. The results were the same among urban, suburban, or rural
schools.ref
There are signs that bullying is on the rise. According to the National Education
Association (NEA), in recent years, "bullying has become more lethal and has occurred
more frequently" than in the previous two decades.ref The National Association of
School Psychologists (NASP) has called bullying "the most common form of violence in
society".ref
Groups such as the NEA, NASP, American Medical Association, and the American Bar
Association have launched major initiatives to draw attention to the issue. Partly in
response to several highly publicized school shootings across the country in recent years,
several State legislatures have passed laws requiring schools to adopt antibullying
policies.
The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services also has launched a major
antibullying effort using prime-time television, public service messages, and bullying
educational materials to bring the message directly to the children, parents, and schools
affected by these issues. Involved agencies include SAMHSA's Center for Mental Health
Services and the Health Resources and Services Administration.
Adults have a responsibility to understand-and intervene-when antisocial behavior
crosses the line and becomes bullying used to gain control or power over another
individual. Intervention also means empowering children, particularly the victims and
those who are witnesses to bullying, to be part of the solution.
Recognizing bullying for what it is shouldn't lead to the conclusion that schools are
dangerous breeding grounds for crime and violence. The CDC notes that the majority of
injuries that occur at schools are unintentional and not violent. Less than 1 percent of all
homicides among children and adolescents are school related.ref
However, there is no doubt that bullying can increase the "fear factor" in school
environments.
The Consequences of Bullying
Research on bullying is still in the embryonic stages in this country. However, available
figures indicate that school bullying can have major social, educational, health, and other
consequences for the children who bully, the children who are bullied, the witnesses of
violence, and their communities:
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Youth who are bullied have higher rates of suicide, depression, post-traumatic
stress disorder, and substance abuse.ref
Hostile kids who mistrust others are much more likely than their peers to develop
physical symptoms linked to diabetes and heart attacks in the future.ref
Youth who bully others frequently behave badly in school and are more likely to
smoke and drink alcohol.ref
According to the latest Secret Service Safe School Initiative, almost 75 percent of
students who used violent weapons at school (e.g., guns or knives) to attack others
felt persecuted, bullied, threatened, attacked, or injured by others prior to the
incident.ref
In one State, half of all reported hate crimes were committed by juveniles-the most severe
and violent of these were nearly always preceded by years of bullying.
Bullying and Violence
A groundbreaking report published in the Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent
Medicine in 2003ref found that bullying at home or at school may lead to more
aggressive behavior as the child gets older. The report analyzed information from a 1998
survey of more than 15,000 students in grades 6-10 in public and private schools across
the United States. The report identified bullying as a strong risk factor for possible
violence in the future. Among those who pose the greatest risk for violence are bullies
who often feel threatened themselves.
The study found that both children who bully and those who are bullied carry weapons to
schools:
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About 50 percent of boys and 30 percent of girls who had bullied others in school
reported carrying a weapon.
Thirty-six percent of boys and 15 percent of girls who had been bullied carried a
weapon.
Youth who are bullied and who also bully others away from school were nearly
16 times more likely to carry a weapon.
The short-term consequences of bullying for the victim are more than a black eye from a
fight or a damaged reputation from an e-mail message. Those who are bullied feel tense
and afraid and unable to concentrate on their studies. However, available figures indicate
that bullying is coming at tremendous health, educational, and other costs to society.
Impact on Learning
Bullying can distract bullies, victims, and witnesses from learning. Bullies who are
plotting their next attack or victims who are consumed with anxiety and fear about their
next encounter with a bully will have difficulty focusing on the lesson at hand. Witnesses
may:ref
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Be afraid of associating with the victim for fear of lowing their social status
among their peers, or fear retribution from the bully and becoming victims
themselves;
Fear reporting bullying incidents because they do not want to be considered a
"snitch," "tattler," or "informer";
Experience guilt or helplessness for not standing up to the bully on behalf of their
classmate;
Be drawn into bullying behavior by peer pressure;
Feel unsafe, a loss of control, or unable to take action.
Truancy
Bullying is having tremendous health, educational, and other costs on society.
Truancy has been labeled one of the top ten major problems in schools in the United
States and identified as one of the most powerful predictors of delinquency. Many
students stay home from school because they are afraid of being bullied.ref Students who
are not in schools learning may find other, less acceptable ways to occupy their time.
About half of serious violent juvenile victimizations occur between noon and 6 p.m.ref
Decreased school attendance hurts the individual and society. Absence from school
affects a student's achievement, promotion, graduation, self-esteem, and employment
potential. Independent of the lost educational opportunities, truancy comes with other
societal costs.
Bullying's Long-Term Effects
The effects of bullying extend beyond the school years. Bullying may lead to criminal
behavior for those who bully and future health and mental health problems for both the
bully and the victims:
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Six out of 10 kids identified as bullies in middle school are convicted of a crime
by the time they reach age 24.ref
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Years after experiencing bullying, adults who were bullied as teens have higher
levels of depression and poorer self-esteem than other adults.ref
Children exposed to violence either at home or at school often suffer long-term
problems such as anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress, low self-esteem,
anger, and self-destructive behaviors.ref
Yet, despite its prevalence, bullying often is overlooked or downplayed as a problem
among parents and educators. Many bullying activities take place out of the view of
adults. But even those activities that occur within plain sight are frequently ignored:
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As many as one-fourth of elementary and middle school teachers don't understand
the seriousness of bullying or putdowns and, therefore, intervene in only 4 percent
of bullying incidents.ref
More than two-thirds of middle school students believe that schools respond
poorly to bullying.ref
Most school bullying doesn't lead to headline-grabbing incidents of students brandishing
guns in mass attacks against their perceived enemies. The consequences of bullying are
often less obvious, yet nonetheless damaging and lasting. Left unchecked, bullying
creates an atmosphere of intimidation and fear that can send a message to students that
aggressive and violent behavior is accepted.
Environmental Factors
Bullying exists within an environment of other forms of violence and aggression by and
toward youth:
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The U.S. child homicide rate (2.6 per 100,000 for children younger than 15 years)
is five times higher than the rate of 25 other industrialized countries combined,
according to the CDC.ref
Suicide is the third leading cause of death for adolescents. The rate of suicide
among adolescents increased 128 percent between 1960 and 2000.ref
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According to a 2001 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse (NHSDA)
Report, 28 percent of the nation's youth have participated in a serious fight either
at school or at work, have taken part in a group-against-group fight, or have
attacked others with the intent of seriously hurting them.ref
The U.S. Department of Justice reports that juveniles are twice as likely as adults
to be victims of serious violent crime and three times as likely to be victims of
assault.ref
In one-third of the sexual assaults reported to law enforcement, the victim is under
the age of 12.ref
According to a comprehensive 1995 study of the prevalence of violence among
youth, approximately 8.8 million youths indicated that they had seen someone
else being shot, stabbed, sexually assaulted, physically assaulted, or threatened
with a weapon.ref
An estimated one in eight 17-year-olds have experienced post-traumatic stress
disorder at some point in their lifetimes, according to the same study cited
above.ref
The average child sees 16,000 murders on television by age 18. Although
homicide rates have decreased, network news coverage of homicides has
ballooned.ref
Cost of Violence
The annual cost of the violence affecting young people and others in society is estimated
at a staggering $425 billion in direct and indirect costs relating to the criminal justice
system, security, treatment, and lost productivity and quality of life.ref
Putting aside the larger questions about the degree of violence in society, however,
parents, teachers, students, and communities can do something about school bullying.
The time to start is now.
Myths and Facts
Despite increasing research and publicity about bullying, several myths still exist. See if
you can separate the myths from the facts below:
Instructions: Read the statement and then click on the "Myth" or "Fact" button to choose
which you think it is. You may also view all the answers on one page (with references).
You will need a Javascript enabled browser to score this form.
How To Use offers help enabling javascript.
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Children who bully are loners.
Is this a Myth or a Fact?
"Sticks and stones may break your bones, but names can never hurt you."
Is this a Myth or a Fact?
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All children can get bullied, even if they look "normal."
Is this a Myth or a Fact?
 Most adults think bullying is the same as normal peer
conflict.
Is this a Myth or a Fact?
 Only a small number of children are affected by
bullying.
Is this a Myth or a Fact?
Parents can help prevent bullying by becoming involved in their child's
schooling.
Is this a Myth or a Fact?
Bullying happens mostly in plain sight of others.
Is this a Myth or a Fact?
Summary
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Bullying is a major problem, particularly in elementary and middle schools, and
comes with major costs for the individual and society.
Bullying can lead to more serious problems, including substance abuse,
depression, and criminal behavior.
Intervention programs, adults, and in fact, the whole community must respond to
bullies, victims, and children who are witnesses.
Several myths about bullying persist. These myths can affect the prevention and
intervention efforts to stop bullying.
Objectives
At the end of this module, readers will be able to:
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Identify three types of children who bully and children who are bullied.
Recognize three methods of bullying.
Recognize three general characteristics of a bully and a victim.
Differentiate the impact bullying has on the bully, victim, and witness.
Peer-Peer Aggression
"In a 2001 survey commissioned by the Kaiser Family Foundation, more 8- to 15-yearolds picked teasing and bullying as 'big problems' than those who picked drugs or
alcohol, racism, AIDS, or pressure to have sex."
Fight Crime: Invest in Kids, 2003ref
Bullying is "exposure, repeatedly and over time, to negative actions on the part of
one or more other students."ref It is an imbalance of power. This definition is based on
work by the Norwegian researcher Dan Olweus, who pioneered the field of bullying
research in the 1970s.
After three young boys committed suicide in Norway in the early 1980s, efforts by
Olweus and others resulted in a nationwide bullying prevention campaign in Norway.
The program has become the international standard for bullying prevention.ref
Bullying encompasses more than physical acts; it can take the form of:
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Name calling
Threats
Verbal or other forms of shunning.ref
Most bullying shares the following characteristics:
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It is aggressive behavior or intentional "harm-doing";
It is carried out repeatedly and over time; and
It occurs within an interpersonal relationship characterized by an imbalance of
power.ref
When Does Bullying Happen?
Research on bullying and bullying prevention efforts is more recent in the United States
than in Europe, where there has been public awareness of bullying for 20 years.
Although children are less likely to be bullied as they get older, research indicates that
bullying behavior tends to peak in late middle school or early high school. Older bullies
just tend to pick on younger victims.ref, ref Bullies also tend to encourage others to help
in the bullying or to carry out intimidating acts.ref
The Role of the Peer Group
Early adolescence is a particularly vulnerable time for students because it is a time when
their peer groups are becoming more and more important. As children begin to yearn for
independence from their parents, they
turn to their peers for assurance, identity,
and comfort.ref Part of that assurance or
acceptance comes in the form of
stratified groups among boys and girls.
These groups reflect status. Elevated
standing for boys is frequently based on
being tough, aggressive, and athletic. For
girls, physical attractiveness is a central determinant of social status.ref
The transition from elementary to middle school, which usually requires children to
adjust to new facilities and the presence of older children, can cause some children a lot
of stress. Changing from one school to another can often lead to an increase in emotional
and academic difficulties, such as dropping grades, loneliness, and anxiety.ref
Some researchers speculate that the process of attempting to define a place in a new
social structure may promote bullying behavior. If bullying pervades the social norm of
the middle school, then children entering middle school who want to "fit in" start to copy
the behaviors of those kids they see as popular.
Recent studies have supported this theory. In one study of 452 fourth- through sixthgrade boys, 13 percent were rated as aggressive and popular by their teachers.ref The
peer group in particular, and the school's social climate in general, therefore support the
bullying activity. The challenge then becomes how to teach children to handle the
stressors of a new environment and pressures to belong without practicing hurtful
behaviors.
Children Who Bully
Boys and girls who engage in bullying behavior tend to have a need to feel powerful and
in control. They seem to get satisfaction from inflicting pain or hurting their peers, both
physically and emotionally. They also tend to show little sympathy or empathy for others
and to defend their actions by claiming the victim provoked them.ref, ref Most of the
research has been done on boys who bully. Generally, children who bully:ref, ref
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Are aggressive with others (including parents and teachers)
Frequently hit or push other children
Are physically strong and socially dominant
Have a positive view of aggression
Have trouble following rules
Show little empathy for others
Are emotionally immature
Are irresponsible
Show inadequate social skills (also true for bully/victims)
Seek attention (think fear equals respect)
Are often contemptuous of both children and adults
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Are often academically below average
Cannot and will not accept responsibility for their actions
The Role of Self-Esteem
Most bullies' friendships are based on fear, not respect.
There are conflicting data regarding the self-esteem of bullies. Dr. Mona O'Moore
studied more than 8,000 children and found children who have been bullied, children
who bully others, and children who were both bullied and who bullied others had
significantly lower global self-esteem than did children who had neither bullied or been
bullied. The children who both bullied and were bullied had the lowest self-esteem of
all.ref
There are bullies who appear to have self-esteem, but in truth are self-centered,
narcissistic, and impressed with the power showered upon them. Ervin Stuab, Ph.D.,
professor of Psychology at the University of Massachusetts, says that "the self-esteem of
aggressive boys appears to be very vulnerable, very fragile. Its maintenance requires
specific circumstances and behaviors on their part. This raises the question whether we
can consider it a genuine positive self-esteem."ref Popularity is often only skin deep,
because most bullies' friendships are based on fear, not respect.ref
Traits of Children Who Bully
Bullies often share the following traits:ref
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Gender. More boys report bullying than girls. When researchers directly observe
girls interacting on the playground, however discrepancies between genders are
not as great. Boys report more physical forms of bullying; girls tend to bully in
indirect ways, such as gossiping and excluding.
Age. International studies have shown the highest rates of bullying among 11- and
12-year-olds, although bullying among younger kids is becoming more common.
Temperament. Bullies tend to have low thresholds for frustration.
Aggression. Bullies tend to be aggressive not only toward their peers, but also
toward their teachers and family. They have positive attitudes about aggression
and can easily be provoked.
Physical Strength. Boys who bully tend to be physically stronger and have a
need to dominate others. Girls who bully are not necessarily stronger than other
girls in their class. They often are smaller in size.
Lack of Empathy. Bullies have little empathy and show little remorse for their
actions.
"For 2 years, Sam, a quiet 13-year-old, was a human plaything for some of his
classmates. The teenagers badgered Sam for money, forced him to swallow weeds and
drink sour milk. When Sam's torturers were asked about the bullying, they said they
pursued their victim because 'it was fun.'"ref
Although general characteristics tend to show up for those kids
who are bullies, bullying is really a continuum of behaviors. In
other words, no one characteristic will define bullying, but rather,
a combination of several traits and characteristics shape the
behavior.
It is natural to want to label a kid either a bully or a victim, but researchers have
discovered that it is more accurate to look at specific instances of bullying behavior
because some kids can be both bullies and victims.ref Moreover, children often fail to
identify obvious bullying behaviors as such. In one study, adolescents reported practicing
bullying behaviors or reported being victims of bullies, but these same children did not
associate the actions as "bullying".ref
Why Children Bully
There are many reasons why a child may bully others or display behaviors that are hurtful
and intimidating. These include:ref, ref
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Frustration. A child feels impaired or out of control and has not learned adequate
ways to deal constructively with this frustration. The bully may have an
undiagnosed learning problem, or may have an unresolved emotional problem.
Rewarded. The bully is rewarded for his/her behavior and feels a sense of power.
Victim of abuse. The child is being abused at home and is expressing his or her
anger at younger or smaller children at school.
Victim of neglect. The child's emotional, spiritual, and developmental needs are
not being adequately met.
The child is being bullied. If responsible adults have repeatedly failed to address
the child's victimization, the child learns that exhibiting aggressive behavior may
be the only way to avoid the bullying environment.
Influence of others. The child may have fallen in with the wrong crowd (e.g., one
that supports and practices violence, as well as drugs and alcohol).
Poor or no role model. If the child does not have a positive role model at home
to reflect proper means of expressing anger and/or frustration, the child then
learns destructive behaviors.
Conduct disorder. A bully may have a conduct disorder. If left undiagnosed, the
disorder may lead to other personality disorders.
Children Who Are Bullied
Just as there is no one definitive profile of a bully, there is no one profile of a child who
gets bullied. The reasons a child becomes bullied may include:ref
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Being fat or thin
Being tall or short
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Being quiet or creative
Having big ears or small ears
Being from a different culture or having a different religion or ethnicity
Having different tastes or likes
Having the "wrong" clothes (wearing clothes that are not "cool" at the time)
Wearing glasses or braces
Being homosexual-or believed to be gay or lesbian
Being unwilling to use strength to defend him or herself
Any imaginative "excuse"
"A high school boy originally from Turkey said that when he first moved to the United
States, he wore the same clothes he'd worn back home and found that he was taunted as
'gay'"ref
In short, the list of possible reasons for being bullied is endless. To some extent, the
reasons also are irrelevant because they are merely excuses for the bully to continue his
or her behavior. The child who is bullied becomes the useful object for the bully to
displace his or her anger, frustration, or aggression.
Traits of Children Who Are Bullied
Although there is no single type of victim, for some children, the following
characteristics may be present before the bullying occurs; for others, they may appear as
a result of the victimization:ref
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Gender. Boys and girls are equally likely to report being victimized.
Age. Victimization decreases as children get older. Research has shown that
almost one-fourth of victims are children in grades 1-3, whereas it drops to 12
percent in grades 7-8. Younger children are more likely to be bullied by older
children; children in higher grades are more likely to be bullied by their peers.
Temperament. Many bullied children tend to be anxious and withdrawn. This is
more indicated in preschool children than older school-age children.
Physical Appearance. Research has not supported the popular misconception
that victims must have some unusual physical trait or be considered ugly by the
bully. Many children who are bullied have no discernable physical trait that is
unusual, yet still get picked on.
Self-esteem. Children who are bullied often report low self-esteem, though it is
likely that in many cases, the low self-esteem is the result of the victimization.
Anxiety. Boys and girls who are bullied report symptoms of anxiety, such as
tenseness and fearfulness.
Experts tend to characterize children as either "passive victims" or "bully-victims".
Bully-victims also are sometimes called "provocative victims".ref Passive victims tend
to comprise the many children who are bullied.
Did You Know?
Boys and girls are equally likely to report being victimized.
Passive Victims
Children who can be characterized as passive victims or submissive victimsref share
certain qualities. Often, these children are:ref
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Cautious
Sensitive
Insecure-unable to assert themselves among their peers
Socially isolated
Lonely
"If you treat people like dirt, like nothing, that's how you're going to feel." -quote from a
bullyref
Other characteristics often found in passive victims include:ref, ref
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Being physically weaker than their peers (particularly boys)
Displaying "body anxiety" when scared of being hurt, having poor physical
coordination, and not being athletic
Having difficulty making friends
Having poor social skills
Crying or getting upset easily
Having difficulty standing up for themselves in peer groups
Relating better to adults than to peers
Passive victims represent roughly 80-85 percent of all victims.ref It is worth noting that
some of the characteristics of passive victims may be seen as contributing factors as well
as consequences of victimization.ref For example, if a child feels and acts insecure, his or
her behavior may signal to others that he or she is an easy victim for bullying. The
insecurity may therefore be viewed as contributing to the abuse. However, a child who is
bullied regularly also is likely to experience insecurity because of the bullying behavior.
Bullies often engage in a "shopping process" to find students who will become their
preferred victims, according to Gary Ladd, Ph.D., professor at the University of Illinois.
They look for students who reward them by showing distress, who relinquish tangible
resources, and who are less likely to retaliate or report them.
Bullies may pick any excuse to justify their intimidating and hurtful behavior, but
research indicates that children with disabilities have a higher likelihood of becoming
victims of bullying. These disabilities may include muscular dystrophy, cerebral palsy, or
stuttering.ref
Children With Disabilities
As noted earlier, bullying behavior is a problem that schools nationwide face. Most
bullying research has focused on children as a whole. There is not as much research
looking at bullying within subgroups of children, such as those with any form of
disability. Bullies tend to focus on peers who seem vulnerable, and having a noticeable
disability adds risk to a student's safety. Schools tend to label and separate students based
on athletic or academic aptitude. This provides an atmosphere ripe for bullying and
teasing.ref
In addition, many children with disabilities do not participate in general education
classes, mainstream clubs, or athletic programs-they are instead placed in special
education, an additional "label." This separation perpetuates a lack of understanding and
interaction among students with and without disabilities, as well as among staff outside of
special education.ref
With severe bullying, equal access to educational opportunities and benefits for youth
with disabilities can be eroded, including denial of rights under the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), and provisions of a Free Appropriate Public
Education (FAPE).ref
Bully-Victims
Bully-victims, also called provocative or aggressive victims,ref display many of the same
characteristics as passive victims, except they tend to be hyperactive (though not always
formally diagnosed with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder) and have trouble
concentrating. This particular type of victim is not as prevalent as the passive victim,
comprising just 5 percent of those children who are bullied.ref However, these children
tend to be quick tempered and try to fight back if they feel they have been insulted or
attacked. They are more likely to alienate their peers and teachers.ref When they are
bullied, they tend to be bullied by many students or the entire class. Provocative victims
also tend to bully those people who are younger or weaker than themselves.ref, ref
In particular, most provocative victims:ref
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Have difficulty concentrating
Are restless, hyperactive, impulsive, and create tension
Are clumsy, immature, and exhibit irritating habits
Are sometimes disliked by adults, including teachers
Bully-victims or provocative victims often create problems for the entire school
community and are more likely than passive victims to be referred to special education
services. Unfortunately, special education placement, while often necessary, often
exacerbates the bullying because students who receive special
education services are more likely than students in regular classes to be
bullied.ref
Complaining about the community's reputation for racial harassment at
sporting events, one student said, "Other schools don't want to come
here to play us. Even their cheerleaders get taunted."ref
Recent research has shown that these types of victims should be monitored carefully, as
they frequently display not only the social-emotional problems of victims, but also the
behavioral anti-social problems of bullies.ref, ref Provocative victims also were shown to
have poorly modulated affect and behavior. Their impulsivity, hyperactivity, and
emotional dysregulation (e.g., emotional outbursts) were very reactive, quite likely a
main reason they emerge as likely targets of bullying.ref
Although provocative victims often have inappropriate outbursts of emotion, they seem
to internalize their emotional distress. In self-reports, they acknowledge feelings of
depression and anxiety, possibly related to their difficulties coping with negative
feelings.ref Among all types of bullies and victims, provocative victims are the most
disliked by their peers, being the most highly rejected group or subgroup.ref Knowing the
correlation between victimization and poor psychosocial functioning, this subgroup of
children who are bullied and bully seem particularly at risk.
Children Who Witness Bullying
Witnesses and bystanders also play important roles in the dynamic of bullying. Witnesses
display different attitudes and reactions towards a direct bullying situation.ref
Olweus developed categories of witnesses and bystanders to help understand the complex
dynamics of bullying. Besides the bully and victim, there are:ref, ref
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Followers or "henchmen." They take an active part, but do not start the
bullying.
Supporters/passive bullies. They support the bullying, but do not take an active
part.
Passive supporters/possible bullies. They like the bullying, but do not display
open support.
Disengaged onlookers. They watch what happens, but do not take a stand.
Possible defenders. They dislike the bullying and think they ought to help, but do
not.
Defenders of the victim. They dislike the bullying and help, or try to help, the
victim.
Multiple studies have shown that peers are present in more than 85 percent of bullying
incidents.ref, ref Peers who do not see the bully suffer negative consequences for his or
her behavior are more likely to copy the behavior themselves.
Two recent studies, one from Canada and the other from Finland, found that in most
instances, peers were involved in or witnesses to a bullying incident, as opposed to
having the bully and target alone. In fact, in the Canadian study, peers were involved in
85 percent of the bullying incidents.ref
When children are interviewed, they tend to align themselves with the bully, not the
victim.
Children who witness or participate in repeated bullying may become desensitized and
lose the ability to recognize the detriments to aggressive behavior. They only see the
positive rewards from someone who wields power. Children who have a proclivity for
aggressive behavior and are more impulsive are more likely to copy the bullying
behavior. Research has shown that children's empathy for victims decreases as they get
older,ref which affects whether they are likely to intervene in a bullying situation.
When bullying occurs on the playground, peers may play a large role in encouraging the
aggressive behavior by gathering around and watching. Research consistently shows that
a majority of peers do not intervene, and in fact, act in ways that maintain the
behavior.ref, ref When children are interviewed, they tend to align themselves with the
bully, not the victim.
It is important to note that there are children who do try to intervene, either directly (with
the bully) or indirectly (by telling a teacher or another adult). These children, research has
found, tend to have a higher social status in general. Their status as class or group leaders
enables them to take some of the power away from the bully and therefore establishes
more balance.ref
The Importance of Witnesses
Studies indicate that roughly 30 percent of students are either bullies or victims or both
(within a school term). That makes 70 percent of the student population potential
witnesses. Some researchers believe that the witnesses to bullying are the key to
eliminating bullying because they are the sizable majority in any school.ref
Although this student population wields the most power and has the most opportunity to
change a school, they are not a homogeneous group. Of course, the entire school
community must support system change to support any bullying prevention effort. In the
book "Bullies, Witnesses & Targets: Helping Children Break the Chain," SuEllen and
Paula Fried describe six categories of witnesses:
"Tattling is when you are trying to get someone in trouble. Reporting is when you are
trying to get someone out of trouble.
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Inactive. These children are somewhat aware of the bullying, but try to avoid
incidents and shield themselves from dealing with the bullying.
Angry. They become angry at the victims for not deflecting the bullying. They
blame the victim for their inaction, which forces the witness to be an audience to
the continued abuse.
Fearful. These witnesses confess that it hurts them to see their classmates being
victimized. They think about doing something to stop the bullying, either by
intervening themselves or telling a teacher, but fear the potential wrath of the
bully.
Voyeur. These kids get pleasure from watching others get taunted and bullied or
are relieved they are not the victim.
Accomplice. They cause the most harm because of their collusion. They laugh at
the bullying and join him/her in the behavior as a way of ingratiating themselves
with the bully. Accomplice witnesses give the bully more power, status, and
popularity because they join in the act, which would not get as much attention if
the bully acted alone.
Helpful. These children actually try to help the victim either by directly
intervening or getting an adult to stop the incident. Helpful witnesses understand
the difference between tattling and reporting.
Methods of Bullying
Children and adolescents may use a variety of methods to hurt one another. The most
well known form of bullying is physical aggression. This may include hitting, kicking,
punching, or destruction of property. Verbal bullying may include teasing, name-calling,
and taunting a child to make him or her angry. Physical and verbal bullying are both
considered direct forms of bullying.
There also are indirect forms of bullying. Examples include spreading rumors, excluding
others from a group, and enlisting someone else to assault someone for the bully.
Role of Gender
Researchers are still examining the role of gender in bullying and aggression. When it
comes to bullying, both girls and boys bully, although the methods may differ. Research
has suggested that males are more likely than females to be violent and to physically
bully both other boys and girls.ref, ref Some research has shown that boys tend to be
physically aggressive and are more easily provoked by physical behavior. Girls, however,
tend to be relationally aggressive with other girls and are provoked by that behavior, not
physical behavior.ref
Males
Aggression
Females
Place your mouse over either of
the figures to see what their
bullying tendancies are.
Relational aggression involves attacking the relationships of people and hurting people's
self-esteem. It is subtler and involves behaviors such as spreading rumors, withholding
friendships, ignoring, gossiping, or excluding a child from a small group of friends.ref,
ref More focused research is needed to investigate the impact of gender on school
bullying and youth violence.
Traditionally, aggression has been accepted by society for boys and men. In school,
aggression may be rewarded for boys. As reflected by the social status of peer groups for
boys in middle and high school, aggressive boys tend to hold higher status among their
peers. Aggression in girls, however, is not as accepted or as well studied as aggression in
boys. Overall, physical aggression has received the greatest attention from researchers,
educators, and parents when examining the consequences of bullying.
Most females engage in comparatively low levels of aggression, thereby popularizing the
notion that females are less aggressive than males.ref With closer study, however, it
appears that the nature of the aggression differs from that of their male peers. Female
youth practice what has been called "relational" aggression.ref This covers behaviors
such as:ref
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Manipulating one's relationships with peers;
Purposefully ignoring someone when angry (giving the "silent treatment");
Spreading hurtful rumors or talking about someone; and
Telling others not to play with or talk to a certain classmate as a means of
retaliation.
In each of the above examples, social relationships are used as the vehicle for harming a
peer, not physical acts. Both physical and relational victimization have been found to
predict certain social and psychological adjustment problems (e.g., peer rejection,
loneliness) beyond aggression.ref This could be described as using a more indirect
approach to bullying.
Sexual Bullying/Homophobic Bullying
In addition to verbal, physical, and psychological bullying, there also is sexual bullying.
Homophobic bullying is included in this category. Sexual bullying occurs when one
student is harassed by another student(s) with unwanted words or actions. Examples of
sexual bullying include:ref, ref
A recent survey found that 9 out of 10 teens hear other kids at school or in their
community use words such as "fag," "homo," "dyke," "queer," or "gay" at least once in a
while.
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Unwanted jokes, comments, or taunts about sexual body parts
Teasing about sexual orientation or starting rumors about sexual activities
Passing unwanted notes or pictures about sex
Physically intrusive behaviors, such as brushing up against or grabbing someone
in a sexual way or forcing someone to engage in unwanted sexual behaviors
Spreading sexual rumors
Pulling at clothing in a sexual way or pulling clothing down or off
"Flashing" or "mooning"
A recent survey by the National Mental Health Association found that more than 75
percent of teens report that peers who are gay or thought to be gay are teased or bullied in
their schools and communities. Nine out of 10 teens hear other kids at school or in their
community use words such as "fag," "homo," "dyke," "queer," or "gay" at least once in a
while, with 51 percent hearing them every day.ref Another study found that
lesbian/gay/bisexual/transgender (LGBT) youth heard slurs about 26 times a day, or one
every 14 minutes.ref
Hearing derogatory and
hurtful words and
becoming victim to
physical aggression can
severely affect a LGBT
youth's education, and
mental and physical health.
These students are more apt
to skip school due to the fear, threats, and property vandalism directed at
them.ref
Using Technology To Bully
Technological advances have created new ways for one child to bully
another. Some adolescents use cell phones to bully others. Abusive phone calls can range
from silent "breather" calls to swearing, shouting, or making threats.ref Another common
form of cell phone bullying is using text (txt) messaging to send threats or abuse. Bullies
often find a way to hide their phone numbers from the victim.
Many teenagers use the Internet to create Web logs or "blogs," which are online journals
or diaries. Blogs can be easily accessed by anyone on the Internet and are easy to set up
and maintain. One survey found that 10 million blogs are expected to be up and running
by the end of 2004.ref The vast majority of bloggers are teens and young adults; 90
percent of them are between 13 and 29 years old. Although adolescence is a turbulent
time when peer relations dominate, some teenagers use personal information gathered
from another person's blog in hurtful ways such as spreading rumors or gossip.ref
In Great Britain, making anonymous, or abusive phone calls or electronic messages is a
criminal offense. The definition covers anyone who uses a public telecommunication
system:ref
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To send a message or other matter that is grossly offensive or of an indecent,
obscene, or menacing character; or
To cause annoyance, inconvenience, or needless anxiety to another, or to
Summary
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Bullying affects most children, either directly or indirectly, and takes many forms.
There are several types of victims and players in the complex process of bullying.
Witnesses to bullying comprise the largest percentage of children in a school.
All forms of technology can be used by a student to bully or intimidate another
student.
persistently send a message that the person knows to be false.
Objectives
At the end of this module, readers will be able to:
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Understand bullying within the larger context of a child's school and family
environment.
Recognize the factors that contribute to aggressive behavior, including bullying.
Identify three protective factors that can reduce the likelihood of aggressive
behavior.
List two strategies for promoting resiliency.
Youth Violence and Aggression
"It appears that bullying is not an isolated behavior, but a sign that children may be
involved in more violent behaviors." -Duane Alexander, M.D., Director of the National
Institute of Child Health and Human Developmentref
The deaths of 12 students and 1 teacher in a suburban Colorado school by two troubledand bullied-youth, who then committed suicide, etched the word "Columbine" in the
American psyche. Columbine and other highly publicized school shootings garnered
countless media reports and public commentary, including a report by the Surgeon
Generalref and antibullying efforts by State legislatures and the U.S. Government.
Rarely does bullying reach the level of violence that erupted at Columbine. Even lowlevel bullying, however, has the potential to escalate into mental health, substance abuse,
or other problems. For many students, bullying may be just one manifestation of other
problems present in the home, at school, or in the community.
Because experts now know that bullying may increase the level of fear in schools, as well
as violence outside of schools, substance abuse, and other problems, parents, educators,
policymakers, and others must understand the factors contributing to the problem to
design effective responses.
Risk and Protective Factors
Children do not live in a vacuum. Their behavior may result from the interaction of
multiple factors, some specific to the individual and others that are situational,
familial, or societal.
The presence of "risk factors" puts an individual at higher risk of aggressive
behavior, such as bullying. Conversely, the presence of "protective factors" may
ward off bullying behaviors. Examples of protective factors include parent
supervision and participation at school, peaceful conflict resolution in the home,
and parental discouragement of aggression. Decreasing risk while increasing
protective factors is the goal of bullying prevention.
Risk factors usually do not exist independently. That is, several risk factors may be
present in one child. One study found that a 10-year-old exposed to six or more risk
factors is 10 times more likely to be violent by age 18 as a 10-year-old exposed to only
one factor.ref
Risk Factor Timing
The timing of the occurrence of risk factors also determines whether a child has an
increased risk of violence. Effective prevention programs must not only consider the
range of risk factors present (in the individual as well as the environment), but that in the
developmental process, these factors are more likely to be significant.
The fact that risk factors are present does not mean that a child is predetermined to
commit bullying and other aggressive acts. No single risk factor or combination of factors
can predict with certainty that violence will occur, nor does the presence of protective
factors ensure that violence will not occur. Recognizing risk and protective factors serve
the purpose of predicting the likelihood of bullying and violence and identifying points of
prevention at the individual and community levels.
It is interesting to note, however, that when third-grade students were asked to identify
classmates who were bullies, 25 percent of the 8- and 9-year-olds they identified as
bullies had a criminal record by the age of 30.ref
Individual Factors
Individual factors affecting bullying and aggression include:
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Behavioral characteristics
Biological influences, such as the chemical makeup of the brain or developmental
problems
A child's personality and interpersonal behaviors often play a role in determining the
likelihood that he or she will become a bully or a bullying victim. Examples of
personality traits include shyness, outgoingness, contentedness, irritability, patience,
resourcefulness, and determination.
Children who are more impulsive and active, with dominant personalities, may be
more inclined to bully.ref Children who are anxious, insecure, cautious, socially
isolated, or who lack social skills may be more inclined to be victims.ref
A child's temperament, or the way he or she interacts with others, can be affected by
his or her physical characteristics, such as height or weight, attractiveness, health
problems, or the presence of a physical, emotional, or other kind of disability.
Individual risk factors may include HIV, fetal alcohol syndrome, or retardation.ref
Although the presence of any one of these risk factors does not mean a child will be
overly aggressive or become a victim, each plays a role in how the child interacts with
those around him or her.
Many children and youth who behave violently may have a long history of emotional and
behavioral problems. Although it is important to avoid stereotyping or labeling of
individuals with certain personality traits, it is nonetheless worth noting that experts have
identified certain behavioral patterns that may be warning signs.
Warning Signs for Violence
The Commission for the Prevention of Youth Violence has identified warning signs of
youth violence and recommends consultation with a mental health professional for youth
who demonstrate any of the following:ref
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Frequent loss of temper
Frequent physical fighting
Significant vandalism or property damage
Making serious threats
Extreme impulsiveness
Alcohol and other drug abuse
Easily frustrated
Hurting animals
Preoccupation with violent or morbid themes or fantasies in schoolwork, artwork,
or choice of entertainment
Carrying a weapon
Name calling, abusive language
Bullying or being bullied
Truancy
Excessive feelings of rejection, isolation, or persecution
Gang affiliation
Depression, despair
Low self-esteem
Threatening or attempting suicide
Extreme mood swings
Deteriorating school performance
Being witness to or the subject of domestic abuse
Setting fires
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Preoccupation with weapons and explosive devices
History of discipline problems
Social withdrawal
Blaming others for difficulties and problems
The Surgeon General's Report on Youth Violence lists a number of risk
factors that may be present in the individual that can help predict the
onset, continuity, or escalation of violence either at a young age (ages 6
to 11) or later (ages 12 to 14):ref
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General offenses
Physical violence
Substance use
Being male
Aggression (among males)
Hyperactivity, restlessness
Difficulty concentrating (among males)
Risk taking
Crimes against persons
Antisocial behavior
Exposure to television
Medical or physical condition
Low IQ
Dishonesty (among males)
Substance Abuse by the Student
Substance use is a major risk factor in increasing the probability of youth violence in both
the early onset and late onset of violence. Statistics bear out this link between alcohol and
violence. For example:
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According to one study, 40 percent of students who drank alcohol at school also
carried a weapon at school, compared with 4.4 percent of those who did not
drink.ref
High school girls who smoke, drink, or use marijuana are more than twice as
likely to report having been in a physical fight in the past 30 days as those who
have never smoked, according to a study looking at the effects of substance abuse
among girls and young women.ref
Children who drink alcohol by seventh grade are more likely to commit criminal
and violent acts and have other problems, according to a RAND Health study.ref
The American Medical Association found that compared with adolescents who were nondrinkers, adolescents who were drinkers:ref
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Scored worse on vocabulary, general information, memory, memory retrieval, and
at least three other tests.
Experienced a 10-percent decrease in verbal and nonverbal information recall
performance in a year's period.
Indicated "significant" neuropsychological deficits in youth ages 15 and 16 with
histories of extensive alcohol use.
Performed worse in school and were more likely to fall behind and have an
increased risk of social problems, depression, suicidal thoughts, and violenc
Familial Factors
Familial factors contributing to bullying and aggression include: ref
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Substance or alcohol abuse by someone in the family
Certain kinds of parenting behaviors toward the child
Family violence
Lack of warmth and involvement on the part of the parents
Overly permissive parenting
Lack of setting clear limits for child
Lack of or inadequate parental supervision
Harsh, corporal punishment
Child maltreatment, such as sexual or physical abuse
As every parent knows, one of the best ways to teach a young child a new skill is to show
by doing. Unfortunately, the technique is all too effective when it comes to behaviors that
adults may not want children to emulate. Children who experience violence either as
victims or as witnesses "are at increased risk of becoming violent themselves," according
to the U.S. Department of Justice's Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention
(OJJDP).ref These children:
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Begin committing crimes at a younger age;
Commit nearly twice as many offenses as non-abused children; and
Are arrested more frequently than non-abused children.
Children need not experience the abuse themselves to be harmed. OJJDP notes that
children who have viewed or heard violent acts often have the same lasting effects as
those children who are direct victims.
Research continues to show that, among some children, parental permissiveness toward
aggression and harsh, punitive parenting both may lead to aggression and therefore
bullying.ref, ref More specifically, some parents may encourage their kids to be tough
and aggressive. Many boys from these types of families end up being not only aggressive,
but angry, argumentative, and disruptive.ref
Children need not experience the abuse themselves to be harmed.
These aggressive boys learn that their self-esteem or self-image
should be based on their strength, power, and physical superiority
over others. They do not learn that a positive image includes
competence, good performance in school, and good relations with
family and peers. Parents who use coercive parenting instill fear very
early in their children. They often do this by using techniques that
create an inequality of power such as physical punishment, yelling,
and name-calling.ref, ref
Lack of Support
Disciplinary practices vary widely from family to family. Whatever the style, if the
parent is not consistent, the child suffers. For example, if a parent overlooks misbehavior
one day yet severely punishes the child the next day for the same behavior, the child does
not learn right from wrong. Mixed messages from the parents where one says one thing
and the other says something different also can confuse a child. Familial behaviors have
the potential to strengthen or weaken a school-aged child's ability to relate to peers and
behave appropriately.
Compared with past generations, new mothers today often do not have the social supports
of family and community that help provide positive models of child rearing and
discipline. They often feel overwhelmed, isolated, and unprepared. When a mother is
unable to care for her child early in the child's life, that child does not bond securely with
the mother. This often leads to deficiencies that may show up in the child as a lack of
empathy, trust, and reciprocity of feelings. Parents also may have problems such as
alcoholism or drug abuse and mental illness.
Socioeconomic factors can serve as risk factors for children and youth. Many families
need to work more than one job to make ends meet. Often, kids are left for long periods
of time after school with little or no adult supervision. The impact can range from a
parent being unable to provide homework help to a lack of recreational and cultural
opportunities in a violent neighborhood. Limited social and economic resources also
contribute to parental stress, child abuse, and family breakups.ref
Substance Abuse by Family Members
Alcohol and substance abuse-whether by the student or by family members-increases the
likelihood that the student will turn to violence. According to the National Association
for Children of Alcoholics (NACOA), families affected by alcoholism report higher
levels of conflict than do families with no alcoholism.ref Alcohol abuse also is linked to
domestic violence. Most welfare professionals cite substance abuse as a cause of or
contributor to at least half of child maltreatment cases.ref
Children of addicted parents may indicate problems that make them susceptible to
bullying. In general, children of parents who abuse alcohol have higher rates of school
absenteeism and are more likely to leave school, or be referred to the school
psychologists than are children of non-alcohol-abusing parents.
Societal and Community Factors
Societal and community factors affecting bullying and violence include:
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Bigotry
Poverty
Easy access to alcohol and weapons
Poor schools
The prevalence of violence in the media and popular cultureref
Outside of the family, one of the major factors contributing to youth violence is the
impact of peers.ref Many adolescents spend up to 40 percent of their non-sleeping time
alone or with peers (or adults) who might negatively influence their behavior.ref Another
study has put the figure even higher, noting that adolescents spend only 4.8 percent of
their time with the parents and 2 percent with adults who are not their parents.ref
A particular school's climate also plays a significant role in influencing the dynamics of
peer relationships.
School Factors
"Again and again in our listening conferences, young people said, 'It's up to us.'"
Schools with a high incidence of bullying tend to have a lack of adequate adult
supervision (especially during breaks) and an overall indifferent or accepting attitude
toward bullying.ref What this often means is that less noticeable verbal attacks aimed at
another student may not get corrected. If a child is verbally attacked on a regular basis,
his or her view of school and peers is tainted and often negative.
A child's attitude toward and performance in school may influence whether he or she
turns to bullying and violence. Many factors contribute to school performance, including
peer group and family dynamics. Gang membership is identified as a high risk factor
among youth who experience a late onset of violence, along with neighborhood
influences, such as crime, drugs, and disorganization.
For many children and youth in the throes of adolescence, the peer group replaces the
family in holding the most influence. As a result, efforts to create an antibullying culture
among schools must incorporate the role of the peer group.
Violence in the Media
American children are bombarded by information and images from television, movies,
music videos, video games, the Internet, and other mass-media outlets. Most of the
research on the impact of the media and its connection to aggressive behavior in children
has been limited to television. The body of research indicates that exposure to media
violence increases children's aggressive behavior in the short term and encourages
aggressive attitudes and emotions, which may in turn lead to aggressive or violent
behavior.ref
Research on new media forms, such as cable television programs, video games, and the
Internet, is in the initial stages of development. The Surgeon General's report noted that
some experts have hypothesized that the hands-on nature of some of the new media may
result in dramatically different behavioral outcomes than the more passive forms of
entertainment from movies and television.
Not only do many American children spend hours a day being entertained by a television
or a computer game, but much of the content and programming they are exposed to is
violent. A National Television Violence Survey that examined the content and amount of
violence on American television found that:ref
Mouse-Over the Buttons to Change Stations
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Forty-four percent of the violent interactions on
television involve perpetrators who have some
attractive qualities.
Sixty-one percent of television programs
contain some violence, and only 4 percent of
television programs with violent content feature
an anti-violence theme.
Nearly 75 percent of violent scenes of television
feature no immediate punishment for or
condemnation of violence.
The debate over the extent and impact of media violence raises numerous issues relating
to government and/or self-regulating of the media industry, as well as educational efforts
and technological advances that can help parents monitor children's access to media. As
research unfolds and the debate continues, the best approach is for families to be
proactive in determining what their children are exposed to and how often.
In addition to questions about its impact on children's behavior, the prevalence of new
media raises concerns about how children are adapting technological advances to bully
their peers. Many parents, educators, and others are just waking up to the realization that
children and youth are posting messages on Web sites and using cell phones and the
internet to spread rumors and to harass or abuse their peers. (See Module 2, Methods of
Bullying, for more information.)
Protective Factors For Bullying and Violence
Schools, parents, and communities have a responsibility to eliminate risk factors that
make children and youth vulnerable to bullying and violence. Combined with the effort to
eliminate or reduce risk factors affecting behaviors, communities also may increase the
factors that increase the resilience among students to stay clear of risky behaviors.
Many youth, including those who are subject to multiple risk factors, have the personal
strength and resilience to help them avoid problems such as alcohol, drugs, and school
violence. American culture is peppered with stories of how individuals have achieved the
highest levels of success against all odds. As with risk factors, some characteristics of
resilient children are at the individual level; others are at the family or peer level.
"No student should be afraid to go to school because of bullying, and no parent should be
worried that their child may be bullied." -from Make Time to Listen, Take Time to Talk
brochure
Whether at the individual, family, school, and peer group level, protective factors can
help moderate the effect of negative influences. Researchers are increasingly aware of the
importance these protective factors play in improving public health.
Protective factors that may help buffer the risk of youth violence include:ref
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Having a positive outlook on social situations
Being aware of consequences for bad behavior
Enjoying warm, supportive relationships with parents or other adults
Having friends that parents approve of
Being supervised by parents
Being committed to school
Winning recognition for involvement in positive activities
Living in a neighborhood free of crime, drugs, or other symptoms of community
disorganizations
What Makes Resilience?
The capacity to withstand hardship requires several strengths. These include:ref
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Insight: learning how things and people work
Independence: knowing when a relationship is unhealthy and how to set
boundaries
Relationships: learning how to make and maintain healthy relationships
Initiative: generating constructive activities and creatively solving problems
Creativity and humor: using creativity and humor to express complex emotions
or to reduce tension
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Morality: knowing right from wrong and standing up for those beliefs
Developmental Assets
The Search Institute, which supports practical research for healthy development, has
identified 40 developmental "assets" that can help build resiliency in an individual,
children, groups of children, and communities. The Institute has surveyed more than 2
million youth across the United States and Canada since 1989 and found a "strong and
consistent relationship between the number of assets present in young people's lives and
the degree to which they develop in positive and healthful ways".ref
Some of the assets may be manifested externally in the family or community. These
external assets include:
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Family and community support;
Caring adult relationships;
The setting of boundaries and expectations; and
Constructive use of time.
Other assets are present internally, including:
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Having an enjoyment of learning;
Reading for pleasure;
Having positive values and a caring attitude;
Having a sense of equality and social justice;
Having a healthy lifestyle and healthy attitude toward sex; and
Possessing social competencies and having a positive identity.
The fewer assets a youth has, the more likely he or she is to engage in risky behaviors. A
Search Institute survey conducted during the 1999-2000 school year of more than
200,000 youth in grades 6-12 in more than 300 communities across the United States
found that young people from all racial/ethnic groups who engaged in high-risk behaviors
reported, on average, only six to nine of the 40 developmental assets. The same survey
found that youth who did not engage in high-risk behaviors, had, on average, 23 or 24
assets.
Clearly, there is a need for what the Search Institute calls "asset-building." The Search
Institute found that overall, the average youth in grades 6-12 has fewer than 20 of the 40
assets. Most successful programs to address school violence and bullying aim to build
protective assets among children and youth so that they can develop in positive and
healthful ways.
Understanding the role protective factors play in school violence does not preclude
addressing systemic problems that contribute to school violence, such as poverty, drugs,
and crime. Notwithstanding the need to help individual students at risk, addressing the
causes of bullying and school
violence also requires a
consideration of the broader
public policy issues present in
the home, school, and
community.
Strategies for Promoting Resiliency
To prevent your child from being bullied:ref
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Instill self-confidence in your child.
Help your child establish good social skills.
Teach your child to speak out for himself or herself.
Teach your child to seek help, if harassed, from you and other caring adults.
To prevent your child from bullying:ref
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Present yourself as a model of nonviolent behavior.
Clearly state that violence is not acceptable.
Assist your child in finding nonviolent strategies for anger management and
conflict resolution.
Seek help from mental health/school counselors to help stop bullying and
aggressive behavior.
Practitioners also can help youth develop resiliency. Some strategies include:ref
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Identify the youth's assets.
Identify the family's assets.
Role model positive behavior.
Encourage learning and participation in extracurricular activities.
Encourage the youth to explore and identify his or her values and beliefs.
Teach communication skills, problem solving skills, and decisionmaking skills.
Promote community involvement.
Help youth to identify goals and find the resources to help achieve these goals.
Set clear expectations with the youth.
Encourage the youth to develop a positive sense of self.
Summary
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The presence of risk factors within the individual, family, or community can help
predict the likelihood of violence.
Protective factors at the individual, family, school, and peer group level can help
moderate the effects of negative influences.
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Substance abuse, either by the individual or by a family member, is a major risk
factor for youth violence.
Youth who have inner strength and resilience may avoid problems, such as
alcohol, other drugs, bullying, and school violence.
Objectives
At the end of this module, readers will be able to:
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Recognize two reasons why assessment is important in elementary school.
List two methods used to facilitate talking with kids.
Describe three of the most common issues mental health professionals face when
working with kids in late elementary and middle school years.
Mental Health Counselors
"Having a child who is bullied means seeing your child become an outcast, frozen out,
and completely isolated... 'I wouldn't wish the grief and helplessness I feel on any
parents, but I wish you and your children could actually feel just for a short time what my
daughter and our family have had to live with for the last 6 months or so. Then perhaps
you would understand."-Mother of a victim of bullying.ref
The mental health field is filled with varying and often overlapping professions. These
include mental health counseling, psychology, social work, marriage and family
counseling, professional counseling, psychiatry, and school counseling.ref Many, if not
all, of these professions work with children, either in private practice, community-based
clinics, or schools. All mental health professionals benefit from an understanding of the
complexity of bullying and school-based violence. The knowledge is bound to enhance
the quality of clinical work with children.
School-based mental health professionals need to work within the framework of the
larger school system, paying attention to family and community concerns at the same
time. This framework includes a recognition and respect for the increasingly diverse
populations within our schools, including many students who may be using English as a
second language.
It is important for school professionals to remember that formal interviews with a student
about psychosocial/mental health concerns require the signed informed consent from a
parent or legal guardian. If possible, students also should provide informed consent.
Further legal and confidentiality concerns are addressed in Module 7.
Cultural Competencies
There are certain cultural competencies that counselors should have in the fight to combat
violence and bullying in the schools. These include:ref
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Becoming aware of and changing any of their own "dominator" attitudes toward
racial, cultural, and religious differences. This refers to beliefs about a person
being better than another or more deserving than another based on his or her race,
culture, or religion.
Modeling how to live using partnership values.
Teaching students about the role fear and lack of understanding of cultural, racial,
and religious differences play in bullying incidents.
Conducting in-service trainings with teachers and other school staff about the
causes and effects of bullying and how to intervene, including those situations
that involve racial or cultural overtones.
Helping to create a positive school climate that involves everyone and designing
interventions that ensure that no one is marginalized for any reason.
Structuring small counseling and cultural awareness groups for students to
explore the stereotypes and cultural ignorance to discover what they have in
common.
Becoming part of the proactive process to prevent bullying, such as helping to
establish antibullying policies.
Reaching out to those students who appear marginalized, stigmatized, or
victimized, and those who are bullies.
Assessment/Screening
Nearly every student encounters distractions in the home or in the peer group that can
make learning difficult. Some students, however, face more serious barriers on a daily
basis that may prevent them from learning, interacting with peers, and growing
emotionally. Being a victim of bullying falls under this category.
School staff and mental health professionals are confronted with children daily who are
doing poorly in school as a result of emotional and/or psychosocial problems. To provide
an environment in which students can learn and succeed, school professionals need
effective tools to assess the nature of the problems and resources for change.ref This
module discusses assessment and screening of general behavioral and/or emotional
problems, as well as those directly related to bullying behavior.
Professionals should consider a number of clinical issues with children and adolescents
before addressing and diagnosing children.
Definitions
Assessment is a broad-based concept that includes diagnosis, screening, and diagnostic
testing. In practice, the overall aim of assessment is to collect information about the client
and make judgments as an aid to decisionmaking.
In practice, the overall aim of assessment is to describe information about the client and
make judgments as an aid to decisionmaking.
The judgments may refer to what happened in the past (what caused the problem), the
present (how severe is the problem), or the future (how the problem may improve with a
certain intervention). There is some controversy in the field regarding the approaches
used in assessment because even when objective data are used, decisions often are made
subjectively.ref However, assessment still remains an important step in beginning to
identify a student's problem.
Because young children do not always fall neatly into specific mental health categories,
mental health professionals need specialized skills and training to do the assessment. The
National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) promotes early childhood
assessment practices that are:
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Developmentally appropriate, ecological, comprehensive, skills based, and family
focused.
Conducted by a multidisciplinary team.
Linked to intervention strategies designed for young children, rather than to
categorical classification.
Based on comprehensive, educational and/or behavioral concerns, rather than
isolated deficits identified by individual assessment.
Nondiscriminatory in terms of gender, ethnicity, native language, family
composition, and/or socioeconomic status.
Technically adequate and validated for the purpose(s) for which they are used,
including the provision of norms for minority children and children with physical
disabilities.ref
Functions of Assessment
The major purposes of assessment can be grouped into four functional categories. These
include:ref
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Identification. Data are used to help find and label the focus of interest. This
focus may be a child's problem or behavior, as well as a particular strength.
Selection. Data are used to help make decisions about general changes in status.
These changes usually revolve around decisions about the general nature and
form of intervention needed (e.g., educational, psychological, or medically
necessary treatments).
Planning for specific change. Data are used to determine immediate and shortterm objectives and procedures for accomplishing long-term goals. Examples are
specific plans or prescriptions for a given day's intervention.
Evaluation of intervention. Data are used to decide whether the intervention was
effective based on positive and negative outcomes.
Functional Behavioral Assessment
Almost all professionals in the field agree on one thing: No one knows exactly what
causes problem behavior. Schools have frequently reacted to bad behavior by suspending
problem students. However, if the underlying causes are not addressed, the behavior will
repeat itself and possibly get worse after students are suspended.
Functional behavioral assessment is an approach that diagnoses the causes of problem
behavior (such as bullying) and identifies likely interventions. Functional behavioral
assessment looks beyond the behavior itself and focuses on the underlying biological,
social, affective, and environmental factors that initiate, sustain, or end the behavior.ref
Research has shown that focusing on "why" the student behaves badly, or the underlying
motivation, is more effective than focusing on the behavior alone.
Behavioral Problem
Before a functional behavioral assessment can be effectively implemented, it is necessary
to pinpoint the behavior causing discipline problems. Many factors play a role in a
student's inability to behave appropriately or to learn. These include:ref
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Deficiencies in basic living and opportunities for development:
1. Lack of food in the home
2. Inadequate clothing-substandard housing (also being homeless)
3. Lack of transportation
4. Family income at or below the poverty line
5. Immigrant-related concerns (e.g., limited English, legal status)
Observable problems:
1. School adjustment problems
2. Relational difficulties (insensitivity to others, dysfunctional family
situation)
3. Substance abuse
4. Abuse by others (physical, sexual)
5. Emotional upset-delinquency
General stressors and underlying psychological problems associated with them:
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1. External stressors (perceived) and deficits in support system
2. Competence deficits (low self-efficacy/self-esteem, skill deficits)
3. Threats to self-determination/autonomy/control
4. Perceiving threats to valued relationships
5. Psychopathology
Crises and emergencies:
1. Personal/familial (such as domestic violence)
2. Subgroup (such as the death of a classmate)
3. School-wide (such as a shooting on campus)
Difficult transitions:
1. Associated with stages of schooling (entering or leaving middle school)
2. Associated with stages of life (puberty)
3. Associated with changes in life circumstances (moving, death in the
family)
Behavioral Causes
Because problem behavior stems from a variety of causes, it is best to examine the
behavior from as many different perspectives as possible. It is best for the student when
schools have teams of teachers, mental health professionals, and school nurses to
examine problems. This allows the entire team to reflect on what purposes are being
served when the student engages in the bullying behavior.
Questions that can help the team decide on appropriate intervention include:ref
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Is the problem behavior linked to a skill deficit? Does the student understand
what behavior is expected of him or her? Does the student realize that he or she is
engaging in unacceptable behavior, or has that behavior simply become a habit?
Does the student have the skill (or knowledge), but for some reason not the
desire, to change his or her behavior? Sometimes a student can perform a skill
or behavior, but does not behave consistently or in all school settings. This is
often called a "performance deficit." In some cases, the student's behavior is being
rewarded by attention from teachers or peers. In this case, the team may need to
ask additional questions when developing an assessment plan. These may include:
1. Is there value to the student acting in this particular way?
2. Is the problem associated with certain social or environmental conditions?
3. What current rules or routines does the student consider irrelevant?
If the problem is both skill- and performance-based, what supports does the
student need to help him or her adapt the behavior (e.g., disrupting
classroom, not listening) more appropriately? These supports may be school or
mental health supports as well as skill-based supports (e.g., anger management,
relaxation, communication skills).
Behavioral Plan
Whatever the approach, the behavior plan should be inclusive and proactive. The
assessment plan should be linked to a behavior plan. Positive behavioral interventions
may include:ref
Whatever the approach, the behavior plan should be inclusive and proactive.
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Replacing problem behavior with appropriate behaviors that serve the same
function as the inappropriate ones (e.g., getting attention).
Increasing the appropriate behaviors.
Making necessary changes to the environment to encourage acceptable behavior
rather than reward inappropriate behavior.
Providing necessary supports for each child.
Assessment Techniques
There are two main techniques that can be used in an assessment: the indirect assessment
and the direct assessment.
Indirect Assessment
This is sometimes referred to as an "informant" assessment. It relies heavily on structured
interviews (mostly in the form of a questionnaire) with students, teachers, parents,
guardians, or other adults who have direct responsibility for the student.ref The Inventory
of Wrongful Activity is another example of a questionnaire. There are many
commercially available assessments and questionnaires that can help a school or mental
health professional conduct an indirect assessment. Questionnaires also may be given to
teachers to conduct a school-wide assessment of problems such as bullying, substance
abuse, and violence. One example is Handling Bullying: A Staff Questionnaire.
The National School Safety Center has developed a short checklist of characteristics of
youth who may be at risk for causing school violence. These characteristics serve to alert
school administrators, teachers, and other support staff of the needs of students,
especially those with emotional or behavioral issues.
Direct Assessment
Direct assessment involves observing and recording situational factors surrounding a
problem behavior (e.g., antecedent and consequent events). The observer, usually an
evaluator, examines the student in the setting where the problem behavior is most likely
to occur. The evaluator records this data using an Antecedent-Behavior-Consequence
(ABC) approachref and creates a matrix or scatter diagram to identify patterns of
relationship among variables. Direct assessment requires observation over a longer
period.
Understanding the Nature and Scope of Problems
What specific areas and topics should be addressed in an
assessment? The answer depends on the current status of various
aspects of a student's daily life. One approach to the interview has
been developed by Dr. Henry Berman of the University of
California, Los Angeles (UCLA) Department of Psychology. It is
known as HEADS (Home, Education, Activities, Drugs, Sexuality).ref
HEADS provides a way to start the interview or assessment; it is not a diagnostic tool. It
gives a mental health professional a place to start in an interview. Problem areas
discovered can be explored in more detail. The interview examines questions such as:
Home/Health Education
Activities Drugs Sexuality
Home/Health
Place of residence:
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Where does the student live and with whom?
Physical conditions at the home?
Family status, relationships, and problems (separation, loss, conflict, abuse, lack
of supervision, victimization)?
Physical health:
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Developmental problems?
Somatic complaints?
Accident proneness?
Indications of physical or sexual abuse?
Indications of an eating disorder?
Recent physical injury/trauma?
Emotional health:
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Anxieties? Fears? Anger? Frustration?
Frequent and extreme mood swings?
Self-image (degree of perceived sense of competence, self-worth, control over
daily events, gender concern, self-acceptance)?
Isolation or recent loss?
Hopes and expectations for the future?
If unhappy, is he/she depressed?
If depressed, is he/she suicidal?
Back to top
Education
School functioning:
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Grade, special placement?
Learning (level of skills)?
Performance (daily effort and functioning, grades)?
Motivation (interests, attendance)?
Relationships at school:
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Behavior (cooperation and responsiveness to demands and limits)?
Special relationships with any school staff?
Plans for future education?
Activities
Types of interests:
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How does the student spend time?
Interest or involvement in music?
Art?
Sports?
Religion?
Culture?
Gang membership?
Responsibilities:
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Caring for siblings?
Chores?
Job?
Relationships with peers:
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Any close friends?
Separation/loss?
Conflict?
Abuse? Neglect?
Victimization?
Alienation?
Relationships with other adults:
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Positive role models?
Supportive community?
Supportive home?
Back to top
The following categories also should be included for students in upper middle school and
high school:
Drugs
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Substance use or abuse?
Back to top
Sexuality
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Active sexually?
Considering becoming active sexually?
Is, has been, or wants to be pregnant?
Problems with identity?
Back to top
Other Indicators
The mental health professional interviewing the student and/or his or her family also
should be alert to indicators of psychological and mental health problems of the student,
including:ref
The student and family should always be asked for input in developing strategies for
problem solving.
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Appearance: Dress, grooming, or unusual physical characteristics.
Behavior: Activity level, mannerisms, eye contact, manner of relating to
therapist/parent, motor behavior, aggression, or impulsivity.
Expressive Speech: Fluency, pressure, impediment, and volume.
Thought Content: Fears, worries, preoccupations, obsessions, or delusions.
Cognition: Orientation, vocabulary, abstraction, and intelligence.
Mood/Affect: Depression, agitation, anxiety, hostility, or irritability.
Suicidality/Homicidality: Thoughts, behavior, stated intent, or risks to self and
others.
Attitude/Insight/Strengths: Adaptive capacity, strengths and assets, cooperation,
insight, judgment, and motivation for treatment.
Other general questions include: What is going well? What is
going not so well? How pervasive and serious are the problems?
What seems to be the causes of the problems? What could be
done to make things better?
The student and family should always be asked for input in
developing strategies for problem solving. By involving the student, the professional
helps him or her to identify the problem and begin to process the underlying factors
influencing the problem. It also allows the mental health professional to assess the
student and family commitment to change.ref
Talking With Kids
According to the Center for Mental Health in Schools at the UCLA Department of
Psychology, there are specific communication skills that will help promote an effective
and open dialogue with kids. In general, effective communication involves being able to
talk with, not at, others. An active listener avoids prying or judging. Rather, he or she
understands when it is appropriate to share information and relate one's own experiences.
Some suggestions include:ref
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Creating the context for dialogue:
1. Create a private space and a climate where the youngster can feel it is safe
to talk.
2. Clarify the value of keeping things confidential.
3. Explore dialogues when the time or condition is right -- do not push if it
isn't.
4. Utilize methods other than just conversations, such as working together on
a project while talking.
Establishing credibility as a listener:
1. Respond with empathy, warmth, and understanding (express appropriate
reassurance and praise, minimize criticism and confrontation).
2. Show genuine regard and respect (the ability to transmit real interest and
acceptance of the other's feelings).
3. Use active and undistracted listening.
4. Validate and affirm a student's observation whenever appropriate.
5. Keep in mind that you want the student to feel more competent as a result
of the interchange.
Facilitating talk:
An active listener avoids prying or judging.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Avoid interrupting.
Start slowly, avoid asking questions, and minimize pressure to talk.
Encourage the child to take the lead.
Humor can open the dialogue -- sarcasm has the opposite effect.
5. Give the child your undivided attention. Show that what the child is saying
is important, which helps develop positive attitudes and skills for oral
communication.
6. Ask open-ended questions, not yes or no questions.
7. Include another child or small group if a child is reluctant to talk alone.
8. Help a child find the words to describe feelings by sharing your own
observations about his or her behavior (i.e., "It looks like something made
you angry" or "You seem sad today").
9. Be sure to make positive interactions outweigh the negative interactions
when a child has an emotional, behavioral, or learning problem.
10. Respect the need for short periods of silence -- the silence is part of the
process and allows a child to think about the issue without the pressure to
talk.
Referring Students to a Mental Health Professional
The following guidelines can be used when working with students who have repeatedly
been victimized by bullying, are victims of domestic violence, or have been subject to an
incident of school violence. In making a referral, teachers need to stress that it is not a
sign of parents' failure if they are not able to help the child themselves. It also is
important to realize that early action will help the child resume his or her normal school
activities faster.
A child's ability to deal with the stress may depend on the form of victimization or the
nature of the crisis. A child who is abused at home will likely suffer additional trauma if
bullied at school. That child may have insufficient coping skills to handle the stress both
at home and at school.ref
Preschool and Elementary School
Consider referring the student/family for professional help if the child:
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Seems excessively withdrawn and depressed
Does not respond to special attention and attempts to draw him/her out
Begins to display regressive behaviors (thumb sucking, soiling clothes) for
extended periods of time
Exhibits extreme signs of anxiety, such as excessive clinging, irritability, eating or
sleeping problems, for more than 1 month
Middle and High School
Consider referral to a mental health professional if the student:
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Is consistently unfocused and disoriented
Is severely depressed or despondent or shows agitation, restlessness, or pacing
Shows signs of self-mutilation
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Seems unable to take care of his or her appearance (bathing, changing
clothes, eating, etc.)
Repeats ritualistic acts
Uses drugs or alcohol
Is unable to make simple decisions or carry out everyday functions
Shows excessive preoccupation with one idea or thought -- especially one
that is violent to self or others
Warning Signs of Bullying/Victimization
Children may exhibit warning signs of being a victim of bullying. A child may be a
victim of bullying if he or she:ref
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Returns from school with torn, missing, or damaged clothing, books, or
belongings
Has unexplained cuts, bruises, and/or scratches
Has few, if any, friends
Appears afraid to go to school
Has lost interest in school work
Complains of stomachaches or headaches
Has trouble sleeping and/or has frequent nightmares
Appears sad, depressed, or moody
Appears anxious and/or has low self-esteem
Is quiet, sensitive, or passive
If any of the above characteristics are present, a teacher, school personnel, or parent
should follow up with the student first to explore what may be going on, then contact the
appropriate mental health professional. The problems may or may not be related to
bullying.
Bullying Characteristics
In the specific context of bullying, it is important for a teacher to differentiate between
bullying behavior and normal peer conflict, particularly when other behavioral,
emotional, or mental health issues may be present.
There are three defining characteristics of bullying:ref, ref
1. Intent to harm. The bully finds pleasure in taunting or trying to dominate the
victim and continues even after the victim is in distress.
2. Intensity and duration. The bullying continues over a long period of time, and
the effect is damaging to the victim's self-esteem.
3. Power of the bully. The bully uses age, strength, or size to overpower the target.
Other defining aspects of bullying have to do with the effects on the victim:
1. Vulnerability of the victim or target. The target is sensitive to
teasing and cannot adequately defend him or herself. Physical or
psychological qualities also may play a role in being bullied.
2. Lack of support. The target feels isolated and vulnerable. Often, the
target does not report the incident due to fear of retaliation.
3. Long-term consequences. The damage to the victim's self-esteem is
often long lasting and may lead the student to withdraw from school and peers or
makes them more aggressive.
Peer Conflict
In contrast, a normal peer conflict will not contain any of those elements found in a
bullying-target relationship. Peer conflicts involve the following five factors:ref
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Freedom of expression. Peers do not insist on getting their own way.
Willingness to communicate. Peers give reasons when they disagree.
The relationship is valued. Peers apologize or try to find win-win situations.
Negotiation is an option. Peers will bargain and negotiate to get their needs met.
Disengagement is an option. Peers can change the topic or walk away.
Depression
It is increasingly important for all school personnel and administrators to be aware of
possible depression in children who are targets of bullying. Olweus found in his research
that being bullied in middle school is predictive of low self-esteem 10 years later. He also
found that by age 23, children who were bullied in middle school were more depressed
and had lower self-esteem than their peers who had not been bullied.ref In the general
population, roughly 2.5 percent of children and up to 8.3 percent of adolescents suffer
from depression.ref
Research is showing that the onset of depression is occurring earlier than in past decades.
Not only is depression occurring earlier, it seems to persist and recur through adolescence
and into adulthood.ref Awareness of depression is critical when working with elementary
and middle school children because children's behavior and the factors that affect their
behavior will determine their success later in life. Depression in children may have a
hereditary link, but the school environment plays a big role in shaping a child's mental
health as well. For example:
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Students receive an average of 213 verbal put-downs per week, or 30 per day.ref
Ten percent of students who drop out of school do so because of repeated
bullying.ref

Ninety percent of all students felt that bullying caused social, emotional, or
academic problems for those students who were bullied.ref
The diagnostic criteria and key defining features of major depressive disorder in children
and adolescents are the same as for adults. However, depression in children is often
harder to recognize and diagnose, and symptoms differ depending on developmental
stages.ref, ref Children have a harder time verbally expressing how they are feeling and
describing their moods. Unless parents are aware of some of the signs of depression in
children, they are often unable to see a child's behavior for what it is.
Signs of Depression in Children and Adolescents
Mood disorders, such as depression or dysthymia, substantially increase the risk of
suicide. The incidence of suicide attempts reaches a peak during the midadolescent years.
More than 90 percent of children and adolescents who commit suicide have a mental
disorder.ref Depression often is present in these children. Research has shown that at any
one time, between 10 and 15 percent of the child and adolescent population have some
symptoms of depression.ref
Between 10 and 15 percent of the child and adolescent population have some symptoms
of depression.
Symptoms of depression in children and adolescents may include:ref
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Frequent vague, nonspecific physical complaints such as headaches, muscle
aches, stomachaches, or tiredness
Frequent absences from school or poor performance in school
Talk of or efforts to run away from home
Outbursts of shouting, complaining, unexplained irritability, or crying
Being bored
Lack of interest in playing with friends
Alcohol or substance abuse
Social isolation, poor communication
Fear of death
Extreme sensitivity to rejection or failure
Increased irritability, anger, or hostility
Reckless behavior
Difficulty with relationships
Anxiety Disorders
In childhood and adolescence, the presence of anxiety disorders (which includes
separation anxiety disorder, generalized, social phobia, obsessive-compulsive disorder) is
higher than any other mental disorder. In fact, researchers estimate that 13 percent of
children and adolescents in the United States have some anxiety disorder.ref A child who
manifests excessive anxiety behavior is likely to worry about all aspects of his or her
environment, including:ref
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Academic performance
Sporting activities
Being on time
Natural disasters
Peer relationships
Appearance
Research has shown that children who are the victims of bullying have a higher rate of
anxiety disorders (mostly social anxiety) and loneliness.ref, ref In one study, recurrent
victimization was a strong predictor of self-reported symptoms of anxiety and depression
for girls, but not for boys.ref
Children who are anxious often become overly conformist, perfectionist, or unsure of
themselves. Their anxiety limits their ability to achieve self-fulfillment; they seek
approval and reassurance from those around them. With social phobia, worries branch
out also to include:

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
Fear of being embarrassed in any social setting
Fear of speaking in front of a class or in public
Fear of eating, drinking, or writing in public
Physical manifestations of social phobia include:ref
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
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Heart palpitations
Tremors
Sweating
Diarrhea
Blushing
Muscle tension
Panic attack (in severe cases)
Anxiety disorders tend to be long lasting, often remaining through adulthood, although
they may become less severe. Often, the child adapts by hiding the anxiety better. Life
events may either reassure the child or exacerbate the anxiety and disorder.
Conduct Disorder in Children and Adolescents
Conduct disorder is a component of the disruptive disorders that also includes
oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD).ref These classifications seem to be a collection of behaviors rather than a
coherent pattern of mental dysfunction.ref
General characteristic behaviors of the disruptive disorders include:ref, ref
Children with conduct disorder rarely respond to punishment or any
reward system for good behavior.
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Aggressively fighting
Bullying
Intimidation
Physically assaulting another
Sexually coercing another
Being cruel to people and/or animals
Easily losing temper
Deliberately refusing to comply with requests
Blaming others for their own mistakes
Continually being angry and resentful
Vandalism, setting fires, and smashing windows (in high school)
Theft, truancy, and early substance use (late middle school and high school)
Precocious sexual activity (i.e., in late middle school and high school)
In preschool boys, high reactivity, difficulty being soothed, and high motor activity may
indicate risk for ODD. Often, ODD is a precursor of conduct disorder in the middle and
high school years.
Depending on how it is defined, as many as 1 to 4 percent of all 9- to 17-year-olds have a
conduct disorder. Children with an early onset of the disorder (before age 10) are usually
male.ref Conduct disorder is hard to diagnose and hard to treat. Generally, diagnosis is
contingent on the presence of three or more of the above behaviors over a year's period,
with at least one behavior within 6 months of the evaluation.ref
Bullying others is common with children with conduct disorder. However, conduct
disorder is not based on one incident of misconduct, but rather, behavior that permeates
all aspects of a child's life, both in school and at home. Unfortunately, children with
conduct disorder rarely respond to punishment or any reward system for good
behavior.ref
Children with conduct disorders tend to come from families with excessive amounts of
dysfunction and chaos. This often includes lack of supervision, frequent changes in
caregivers, poverty, neglect, and alcoholism.
Alcohol Use Disorders (Mainly in Adolescents)
Most assessment and diagnostic criteria for alcohol use disorders (AUD) have been
conducted on adults, as defined by the The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV). However, as more research is conducted on
adolescents, there have been screening tools developed to help compensate for certain
limitations. The DSM-IV describes two primary AUDs: alcohol abuse and alcohol
dependence. Adolescents tend to have alcohol abuse because they haven't had the time to
develop a long-term dependence.
Alcohol abuse is a type of drinking that is accompanied by one or more of the
following behaviors within a 12-month period:ref
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Failure to fulfill major work, school, or home responsibilities.
Drinking in situations that are physically dangerous, such as while driving a
car or operating machinery.
 Recurring alcohol-related legal problems, such as being arrested while under
the influence of alcohol or physically hurting someone while drunk.
 Continuing to drink despite ongoing relationship problems caused or
worsened by the effects of alcohol.
Alcohol dependence can include all of the signs of alcohol abuse, but is more serious. The
person may be unable to stop or control his or her drinking, even after trying. He or she
may exhibit tolerance of alcohol or show withdrawal symptoms with the absence of
alcohol.ref This person is said to be addicted to alcohol.
DSM-IV is used by most professionals who work in addiction to help diagnose anxiety
disorders, affective disorders, psychotic disorders, and substance abuse disorders.
Approximately 11 million youth in the United States under the age of 21 drink alcohol.
In the DSM-IV, substance abuse is defined as "a maladaptive pattern of substance use
characterized by hazardous or compulsive use or the presence of role impairment or
recurrent legal problems, but without evidence of tolerance or withdrawal." Most people
who meet the criteria for substance abuse eventually will meet the criteria for dependence
if they continue to use (American Psychiatric Association, 1994).
Approximately 11 million youth in the United States under the age of 21 drink alcohol.ref
Nearly half of them drink to excess, consuming five or more drinks in a row. This pattern
of excessive underage drinking does not stop once the person reaches legal age. The
pattern of alcohol abuse often continues into adulthood.
Warning Signs of Alcohol Abuse
Sometimes it is difficult to tell if a teenager or young adult has a drinking problem. Most
teenagers and young adults will not walk up to someone they are close to and ask for
help.
There are signs that alcohol or other drugs are taking control of someone's life. Some of
these signs are easy to see. Others are not. If a child has one or more of the warning signs
listed below, he or she may have a problem with alcohol or other drugs:
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Getting drunk or high on a regular basis
Lying about things (like where or with whom the child hangs out) or about how
much alcohol or other drugs he or she is using
Avoiding his or her parents to get drunk or high
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Giving up activities he or she used to do, such as sports or homework
Hanging out with friends who drink or use drugs
Having to drink more to get the same high
Believing that he or she needs to drink or use other drugs to have fun
Pressuring others to drink or use drugs
Drinking and driving
Taking risks, including sexual risks
Having frequent hangovers
Feeling rundown, hopeless, depressed, or suicidal
Getting in trouble with the law
Being suspended from school for an alcohol- or drug-related incident
Objectives
At the end of this module, readers will be able to:
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Identify two theoretical perspectives for bullying/victimization.
Describe two clinical interventions used with children and adolescents affected by
bullying and victimization.
Why Do Some Children Become Bullies?
Teasing makes me feel so sad.
Watching teasing makes me mad.
Teasing just is not right
So stand against it with all your might
--from a poem by a third-grade student
There are several theoretical perspectives that aim to describe why certain kids bully and
others are bullied. Not all have received strong empirical support, but are nonetheless
found in the research. Some possible explanations include: ref, ref
How a child reacts to the bullying can often determine how long bullying continues.
1. Maternal-Child Relationship. This theory, which examines a child's early
relationship with his/her mother, states that children in preschool and early school
years who are sheltered from social interactions are ill equipped for normal
interactions later. These children do not know how to handle conflicts that arise.
When there is a conflict with a peer, these children exhibit inappropriate behavior
that makes them different from their peers. They therefore become targets for
bullying and victimization. These children are often timid, lack independent
conflict resolution skills, and lack age-appropriate social skills.
2. Victim Hypothesis. This theory posits that bullies are attracted to the demeanor
of overly anxious children and youth -- that there is something about that
particular child that seems to be more vulnerable than his or her peers.
3. Difference Hypothesis. This attributes bullying victimization to external
attributes of the child or youth. This could include obesity, vision impairments,
braces, poor motor skills, cerebral palsy, disabilities, learning disabilities, sexual
orientation, etc.
4. Social Identity Theory. A person's social identity is shaped by the school
environment (including peers) and his or her interactions with it. If identification
with the school is strong, then the school becomes a positive reference group for
the student. For some bullies, evidence shows that the school community may not
be so positive. As a student drifts towards a delinquent identity, the school
environment becomes a negative reference.
5. Reintegrative Shaming Theory. At some level, many bullies feel shame for their
behavior (though they may not consciously recognize it). Feeling shame can act
as a barrier to positive identification with a school. Youth learn either adaptive or
maladaptive shame management as they age. Youth who can recognize their
wrongful behavior, take responsibility, and make amends can let go of the shame.
For those students who do not know how to do this, their shame can be turned
into anger, therefore pulling them away from their peers and a positive
identification with the school. ref
Yet not all children who fit into one of the above categories falls prey to bullying. How a
child reacts to the bullying can often determine how long bullying continues. Children
with good coping skills, as well as those able to use a sense of humor, are less likely to
become continued targets of bullies.
Clinicians can consider the above theoretical perspectives as they examine bullying in the
context of the increasing importance of the peer group during late elementary and middle
school. Early adolescents, seeking autonomy from their parents, turn to their peers to
discuss problems, feelings, fears, and doubts. However, this reliance on peers exists
concurrently with the need for status. ref It is during this time that peer groups become
distinct, and issues of acceptance and popularity become highly important.
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Discuss two benefits of play therapy for students.
Social-Interactional or Social-Ecological Perspective
In most instances, peers were involved in or witnesses to a bullying incident.
International research supports the view that the peer group and other outside factors
influence bullying. This framework is called the social-interactional or social-ecological
perspective. This perspective considers bullying behaviors to be the result of complex
interaction between a person's internal characteristics (e.g., impulsivity) and the social
environment (e.g., peer group behaviors/attitudes, school social system). ref Bullying is
not just the result of two individuals having characteristics that make them prone to
becoming a bully or a victim of bullying, but rather is a process that unfolds within the
larger social environment. This environment includes influences of peers, teachers,
administrators, the playground and classroom environments, and family.
Stress Perspective
When children transition from elementary school to middle school, they often experience
stress. Although this area hasn't been extensively studied, there is some evidence that this
transitional stress may cause bullying behavior. A child may feel the need to quickly
establish his or her status in the new social structure. ref
Education studies have shown that changing from one school to another often leads to an
increase in emotional and academic problems that are not present with kids who stay in
the same school. Bullying may be the way some kids deal with this new, more stressful
environment. ref
Social Learning Theory
Researchers who have examined behaviors of kids just entering middle school have
found that bullying incidents increase during the first year of the transition. ref
Researchers have speculated that if bullying is part of the larger school culture (in middle
school), then those kids just entering the school are trying to assimilate.
People-and kids are no exception-easily learn behaviors from those around them.
Learned behavior theory demonstrates that people -- and kids are no exception -- easily
learn behaviors from those around them. Clearly, some of the behaviors are not
appropriate or healthy. Many kids who have learned bullying behavior have not yet
learned how to interact positively in the social structure of the school. Sixth graders who
want to fit in, for example, may adopt behaviors such as teasing and bullying, modeling
those older kids who have been in the school longer and have more power. ref
In the 1970s, Albert Bandura, a researcher and psychologist, created and pioneered the
social learning theory. This approach examined the phenomenon that people (and
especially children) will model behavior usually considered outside the norm. Through
hundreds of studies with children, Bandura identified three conditions that influence the
likelihood of modeling. Children are more likely to imitate a model when:ref
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The model is a powerful figure.
The model is rewarded rather than punished for the behavior.
The model shares similar characteristics with the child.
In the context of bullying, the bully clearly holds a position of power and often suffers no
negative consequences for his or her actions. Reinforcement often comes from a bully's
peers who either join in the bullying, gather to watch, or silently condone the behavior by
not offering to help the victim or stop the bullying. ref
Yet not all children who fit into one of the above categories falls prey to bullying. How a
child reacts to the bullying can often determine how long bullying continues. Children
with good coping skills, as well as those able to use a sense of humor, are less likely to
become continued targets of bullies.
Clinicians can consider the above theoretical perspectives as they examine bullying in the
context of the increasing importance of the peer group during late elementary and middle
school. Early adolescents, seeking autonomy from their parents, turn to their peers to
discuss problems, feelings, fears, and doubts. However, this reliance on peers exists
concurrently with the need for status. ref It is during this time that peer groups become
distinct, and issues of acceptance and popularity become highly important.
Clinical Interventions With Children
Increasingly, schools are beginning to adopt approaches to school bullying and violence
that involve all relevant players in a child's life. The supplement From Primary
Prevention to Treatment of Serious Problems highlights what collaborations are needed
to support the goal of helping a child learn and be safe. ref Although the most successful
bullying prevention approaches involve the entire school ref, sometimes children need
individual attention with a mental health professional. Specifically, when working with a
child who bullies (or is a bully/victim), the professional can ask specific questions, with
the answers sometimes determining the course of intervention. These questions
include:ref
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Did you plan to (add specific incident: e.g., take the other boy's lunch money)
beforehand, or was it a sudden urge?
Why did you pick on that particular person?
What were you thinking when you did it? (Example: "I need the money," "I'll
look cool.")
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How did you feel when you did it? (Example: excited, thrilled, frightened,
powerful)
How do you think the other boy felt?
What's happening in your life or in your family that may be upsetting you?
When the professional understands the details of what happened, they can determine how
to help the child. Using the example of stealing another boy's money, if the child stole the
money because he saw it sitting on a lunch tray and had a sudden urge to grab it, he will
need to learn to recognize his impulses and to stop them when they are inappropriate. If
he planned to steal the money, pre-selected a victim, and stole because he wanted to look
important, he will need to learn positive ways to make friends and gain peer acceptance.
ref
Mental health professionals use a variety of therapeutic approaches with children
depending on the age of the child and the nature of the problem(s). At times, a
combination of different psychotherapeutic approaches may be helpful. In some cases, a
combination of psychotherapy and medication may be necessary.
Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy
Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is a behavioral approach that has been used in
treating a variety of anxiety disorders and mood disorders in adults as well as in children
and adolescents. CBT has been found to be most effective with mild depression and
anxiety disorders such as social phobia. ref The CBT approach asks a person to examine
his or her thought process, which then leads to reflection on emotions and feelings. This
approach is based on the theory that thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes determine emotion
and behavior. ref
CBT involves teaching youth about the thought-emotion-behavior link and working with
them to modify their thinking patterns. This will lead to better, more adaptive behavior,
especially in stressful situations. ref Many children have not been taught adequate coping
skills. They have internalized negative thoughts about their self-worth. Using CBT, the
therapist works to identify the underlying thinking that is causing unwanted or painful
feelings. The therapist then helps the child replace this distorted thinking with thoughts
that enable healthier and more appropriate behavior. ref
CBT is helpful to use when working with children who have been involved in bullying or
any other victimization because many suffer from anxiety and/or depression. In practice,
the mental health professional can work with the child to teach him or her to recognize
the way they talk to themselves before and/or after an incident. Thoughts affect how a
child will feel, which then will determine ways a child will act. In a bullying situation, a
child who is bullied may be telling him/herself, "I am not good enough to be treated well"
or "My feelings are not as important as others are." These thoughts can often lead to
lower self-esteem and depression.
If that child can learn to change their self-talk, then they can learn positive ways to
address the bullying while raising their self-esteem. Even aside from the context of
bullying, research shows that depression is increasing among children, and children are
being affected by depression at an earlier age. Almost 20 percent of adolescents may
experience at least one episode of depression by the time they reach 18. ref Adolescents
in particular may have a multitude of symptoms, including depression, suicidality,
impulsivity, and behavior problems. r
Applying Cognitive-Behavioral Techniques in a Classroom
Cognitive-behavioral interventions (CBI) can be effective in helping teachers provide
students with the tools necessary to control their behavior. It involves teaching the use of
their self-talk to make them aware of how their thoughts affect their resulting feelings and
emotions. Researchers consider the internalization of self-statements fundamental in
developing self-control, so those children whose self-statements are negative have
negative beliefs about themselves. This can contribute to behavior problems, including
aggression and victimization. ref
By using rewards, modeling, role-plays, and self-evaluation, teachers or other school staff
can use the CBI approach with all students or those who have demonstrated higher risk
for behavior and emotional problems. The following is an example of this approach: ref
A boy gets teased and wants to push the peer back. This behavior can be mediated by
inner speech such as "That makes me mad, but first I need to calm down and think about
this."
In this example, as in all cognitive-behavioral interventions, the overt behavior (hitting or
pushing) is mediated by cognition ("I'm going to let him have it.") The premise is that if a
child can change his or her thoughts (cognition), the child can learn to change his or her
behavior. Modeling from the teacher is crucial for students to develop their own
techniques for changing thoughts. A teacher may walk a class through the process by
sharing comments with the class, such as, "What she said just now makes me really
angry, but I won't say anything now. I'll talk to her later." The teacher should be sure to
also share the outcome: "I'm glad I didn't say anything. It turned out to be just a
misunderstanding." As a result, teachers are helping students think about their thinking.
ref
In a CBI classroom, students would use the following sequential strategy when
approaching a problem: ref
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Stop and think before acting. They are taught to restrain aggressive responses
through the use of inner speak.
Identify the problem. Students are required to distinguish the specific aspects of a
situation that may elicit aggressive responses.
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Develop alternative solutions. Each student generates at least two alternative
solutions to aggressive behavior. These could include thinking about something
else until he or she is able to relax, or moving to another location.
Evaluate the consequences of possible solutions.
Select and implement a solution.
Objectives
At the end of this module, readers will be able to:
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Identify three strategies for schools to use to decrease and/or prevent bullying.
Illustrate two ways in which parents can help their children combat bullying.
List three ways in which the entire school community (including health and
mental health professionals, and students) can provide a climate of learning and
eliminate the "fear factor."
Prevention Is Everybody's Business
All students need to feel safe and secure to learn, and learning entails much more than
academics.
One of the most damaging aspects of bullying in schools is that it poisons the atmosphere
of learning for everyone. All students need to feel safe and secure in order to learn, and
learning entails much more than the academics. Middle school students, in particular, are
focused at that age on peer acceptance and vulnerable to messages about what is
acceptable behavior for "fitting in." Prevention efforts must recognize the role of the peer
group, as well as the relationship between the person who bullies and the person who is
bullied.
Promoting this environment of health and safety is a community-wide responsibility.
Lack of adult supervision, acceptance of bullying behavior, and inconsistent enforcement
of rules provide fertile conditions for the propagation of bullying activities. Many
children who are bullied can't always handle the problem on their own. Adults must play
a significant role.
Studies have shown that the most effective programs aren't those that rely on negative,
punitive measures. Effective prevention programs promote positive and just practices,
while also setting firm limits to unacceptable behavior. Some schools and communities
have created exemplary programs to reduce bullying and its detrimental effects on
children. Replicating these programs and creating new responses can reduce the "fear
factor" in the nation's schools.
Comprehensive Prevention Strategies
Research and experience suggest comprehensive efforts that involve administrators,
teachers and other school staff, students, and parents who are concerned about school
violence and bullying are more likely to be successful than those based solely in the
classroom.ref,ref Comprehensive intervention encompasses clearly worded policies and
stated codes of behaviors with consistent and supportive follow-through. Many resources
needed come from the existing school community, including all school staff (including
hall monitors, cafeteria workers, janitors), administrators, and parents.
It takes time to change attitudes and behaviors. But a community that perseveres can be
successful.ref
More than 10 years ago, Harvard University convened international experts on school
violence and bullying to study prevention strategies. Sponsored by the National School
Safety Center and the Federal Office of Juvenile Justice, Delinquency and Prevention, the
practicum included prominent researchers, mental health professionals, and school and
law enforcement personnel. This effort resulted in the development of a list of services,
strategies, and suggested training classes for addressing bullying. It also led to the
recommendation that schools provide:ref
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Rules against bullying that are publicized, posted school-wide, and accompanied
by consistent sanctions
Student and adult mentors who assist victims to build self-esteem and to foster
mutual understanding of and appreciation for differences in others
A "buddy system" that pairs students with a particular friend or an older student
who is aware of the buddy's class schedule and is available if help is needed
An on-campus parents' center to recruit parents to participate in the educational
process, volunteer, and assist in school projects and activities
Parenting and anger management classes for adults
Behavior contracts signed by students and parents, and written behavior codes for
students, teachers, and staff members
Discipline policies that emphasize positive behaviors rather than punishments for
wrong behaviors
Training for all adult supervisors in cafeterias, playgrounds, or other "hot spots"
where bullying is known to occur
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Classroom and school-wide activities designed to build self-esteem (for those who
are bullied) by spotlighting special talents, hobbies, interests, and abilities of all
students
What Can Schools/Administrators Do?
All staff at a school should be aware of what steps are necessary to help prevent and stop
bullying. As a first step, school staff should be aware of the purposes bullying may serve
for the children who bully. These include:ref
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Attention, recognition, prestige, or acceptance in a peer group. (Creating a climate
that does not tolerate bullying removes the social power of bullies.)
Access to an activity or item. Some students use bullying as an excuse to get what
they want (e.g., extortion, intimidation).
A lack of understanding of social, cultural, psychological, or physical differences.
Planning for Safe Schools
A safe school is the result of careful planning and research, and a thorough understanding
of the school's environment and community is critical to its success. Many schools have
found it helpful to begin by creating an antibullying planning worksheet to ensure all
avenues have been considered. This multisystem approach sends a clear and consistent
message to bullies and victims alike that bullies are not in charge and all children deserve
to be safe.ref
The Olweus Bullying Prevention Program created by Dan Olweus has been identified as
one of the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration's Model
Programs (http://modelprograms.samhsa.gov/) as well as one of 10 model violence
prevention programs by the Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence
(www.cspv.org). The core elements for school-level interventions in this program
include:ref, ref
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Assessing school needs and goals by using an anonymous questionnaire to poll
the student body on the nature and extent of bullying problems
Forming a bullying prevention coordinating committee
Providing in-service days for teachers to review findings of the questionnaire,
discuss the problem, and plan the prevention efforts
Holding school-wide events to launch the program and incorporating antibullying
themes and activities into the curriculum
Increasing supervision in areas that are known "hotspots" for bullying, including
the cafeteria and playground
Developing school-wide rules and consistent consequences for violations against
bullying
Developing a system to reinforce positive behaviors
Holding staff discussion groups to enhance understanding and motivation
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Involving parents in school activities and ensuring parents and schools are aware
of available resources in the community
The Olweus program also involves class-level interventions (e.g., class meetings about
bullying) and individual-level interventions.
If adults do not provide the intervention students need, then students will take matters
into their own hands. ref
The Maine Project Against Bullying has designed a tool called the Grade 3 Survey. This
survey was given at 165 schools in Maine to establish some baseline data on bullying in
that state. Counselors can adapt this survey to help assess the bullying problem at their
particular school, or it can be used at multiple schools in a given county to provide a
broader picture of the problem.
The purpose of the survey is to help school teams make a brief assessment about:
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The nature and extent of bullying
How children have reacted to bullying and what the consequences have been (in
terms of their feelings of safety and well-being)
Whether they have informed others, and if so, what were the outcomes?
Students' perceptions of their own aggressive behaviors at school
Gender differences in all of the above
Choosing the correct bullying prevention program for a particular school can be
confusing and overwhelming. Olweus's Bullying Prevention Program has been
incorporated into many school systems nationwide. However, other programs may better
fit the needs of a particular school. Schools can start the process of choosing a bullying
prevention program by asking the right questions.
A condensed version of this page is available as a Fact Sheet in HTML and PDF
formats.
Antibullying Policies
When trying to reduce bullying in a school, the entire school administration should agree
on and develop its own policy and procedures for dealing with discipline, which is
followed by all school staff. In addition to implementing consistent discipline, all adults
should model respectful and appropriate behavior. Procedures may include:ref, ref
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Intervene immediately. Stop the bullying behavior as soon as you see it or hear
about it.
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Talk to the bully and the victim separately. If more than one
child is involved, talk to each of them individually, in quick
succession.
 If a peer mediation program is already in place, be careful
with referrals where bullying is involved because of the
power imbalance between bully and victim. The target may
feel additional intimidation and/or may not have the communication or
assertiveness skills necessary for successful mediation.
Consult with other school personnel to understand the wider implication of the
new policies within the larger school community.
Expect the bully to minimize or deny his or her actions. Inform all bullies of
the school policy and rules, class codes, the school sanctions, and the expectations
for behavior.
Reassure the victim. He or she needs to know that measures will be taken to
address the bullying behavior.
Inform the parents immediately about the incident.
Follow up until the situation is resolved.
For students who are the victims of bullying:ref
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Involve them in groups and situations to make friends and develop social skills
(e.g., peer support group, new student orientation, or cooperative learning group).
Encourage them to participate in assertiveness training.
For students who bully:ref
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Reeducate them as to their behavior, its impact, and resulting consequences.
Determine what situations require sanctions, such as removing privileges,
detention, etc. Some schools mandate that aggressive children must complete
social skills modules designed to reduce aggression and build empathy during
detention.
For students who are witnesses:ref
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Educate witnesses on the difference between tattling and reporting.
Encourage witnesses to support victims rather than bullies.
What About Teachers?
Teachers are the single most effective deterrent to bullying. Schools that have actively
reduced bullying have teachers that are committed, can recognize bullying, and know
how to safeguard their students against it.ref Teachers need to use their influence to get
curricula to implement that promotes kindness, communication, cooperation, and
empathy.ref
Teachers can also:
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Discuss and post rules as to how to behave. Increase student
ownership of rules by soliciting input from students.
 Implement immediate consequences for aggressive behavior and
immediate rewards for inclusive behavior. Possible sanctions
include having the bully:ref
1. Discuss the incident with the teacher, principal, and/or
parents.
2. Pay for damaged belongings.
3. Spend time in the office or another classroom.
4. Forfeit recess or other privileges.
Conduct class meetings to discuss bullying and what to do about it.
Model respect for individual differences and develop empathy.
Explain that "reporting" and "tattling" are not the same.
Acknowledge improved behavior by those who bully.
Institute a "bully box" for students to report bullying instances confidentially.
Teach bystanders to make friends with the victims of bullying.
Keep a log of bullying incidents to identify patterns in bullying behavior.ref
Do not expect students to resolve things themselves. Mediation between victim
and bully has been shown to be ineffective. ref, re
What Can Parents Do?
Parents are an essential element in the school's effort to create a safe and orderly learning
environment.
Parents can do the following:ref, ref, ref
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Set standards of behavior, limits, and clear expectations for their child, in and out
of school.
Provide a secure attachment for their child.
Be as positive as possible with the child. The goal for parents is to provide five
positive comments for every negative one directed at a child.ref
Monitor their own behavior and aggression. Demonstrate behavior at home
between adults that is not bullying or aggressive. Children copy parents'
behaviors--good or bad.ref
Provide appropriate models of conflict resolution.
Model empathetic behavior.
Offer suggestions/advice for dealing with problematic peers.
Encourage children who are bystanders to bullying to act appropriately.
Be concerned and responsive regardless of whether their child is the reported
bully or the victim. Offer support, but do not encourage dependence.ref
Become involved in their child's school life by reviewing homework, meeting
teachers, reading with their child, and attending school functions.
Build a network of other adults, parents, and students to discuss school safety and
other issues.
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Give children the social skills they need to navigate through their own school
experience.
Teach children to have respect for differences.
Explain the difference between an assertive and an aggressive response.
Be an advocate for bullying prevention in brownie and scout groups, athletic
programs, and other youth activities.
Share stories about their own childhood experiences with bullying.
For the Child Being Bullied
Children who are bullied tend to be scared and fragile and should never be blamed for the
incident.
The behavior of parents will differ depending on whether their child is being bullied or is
the child who is bullying. Children who are bullied tend to be scared and fragile and
should never be blamed for the incident. All children deserve to be treated with respect
and courtesy.ref If a child has been a victim of a bully, parents should:ref, ref
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Find out in detail what happened. Listen to the child and do not interrupt until he
or she is finished.
Contact the child's teacher, school counselor, and school administrator to alert
them to the incident and ask for their cooperation.
Avoid blaming anyone, especially the victim.
Refrain from encouraging the child to be aggressive or strike back.
Discuss assertive alternatives to responding to bullies and role-play responses
with the child (see What Students Can Do).
Be prepared to contact an attorney if the bullying continues and if the school does
not take appropriate action for the child.
Encourage the school to work collaboratively with you and others to take the
bullying seriously and investigate the facts.
Keep a log book (with the child if possible) describing the incidents of harassment
or bullying, when they occurred, who took part, and what was said and done. This
can strengthen a parent's case when contacting the school principal and/or
teachers.
Be patient. If often takes time for someone to change negative behaviors and
interactions.
For the Child Who Bullies
Parents of children who bully must work closely with the school to resolve the situation.
Although it is difficult for most parents to hear something negative about their child's
behavior, it is very important in a bullying situation for the parents to act immediately.
Children who are aggressive toward their peers are at high risk for other anti-social
behaviors such as criminality and misuse of alcohol.
Parents need to remember that, as noted earlier, children who are
aggressive towards their peers are at high risk for other anti-social
behaviors such as criminality and misuse of alcohol, tobacco, and
illegal drugs.ref
Steps parents can take include:ref, ref
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Find out in detail why your child is bullying.
Listen. It is hard to listen to criticism of your child, but remember, the well-being
of your child is at stake.
Spend more quality time getting to know who your child's friends are and what he
or she does with them. Children need to feel their parents listen to them.
Do not blame others for your child's behavior.
Point out that bullying behavior is not acceptable in the family.
Try to model appropriate methods for handling issues of power or the inequality
of power.
Specify the consequences if the bullying persists.
Teach and role-play appropriate behavior.
Follow up with the teacher and administration and track improvements.
Try to channel the aggressive behavior toward something positive like sports,
where teammates need to play by the rules. Explore other talents the child may
have and help him or her develop them.
What Can Students Do?
Students play a very important role in helping a school eradicate bullying. Students may
not know what to do if they witness a bullying incident or become the target of bullying
themselves. Students can:ref, ref, ref
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Seek immediate help from an adult. If adults do not hear about the incidents, they
cannot act to disrupt and stop the behavior.
Report bullying/victimization incidents to school personnel.
Speak up and/or offer support for the victim.
Participate in the development of school safety planning through committees and
organizations.
Encourage their parents to become involved in school activities.
Become a buddy for a younger or quieter student.
What Victims/Bully Victims Can Do
It is important that students learn appropriate tools to address bullying. Any adult,
including teachers, school counselors, and parents, can help provide students with the
skills necessary to deal with bullying. Students can be taught to:ref
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Ignore the bully's behavior whenever possible.
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Use social skills, such as assertiveness, negotiating, sharing, taking turns, inviting
others to participate, assisting others, and asking for permission instead of using
aggression and intimidation (when the victim is also a bully).
Leave the situation.
Rebuff in a firm manner.
Protect themselves emotionally and physically (without using retaliation).
Request that the bully stop, and then walk away; if this does not work, then tell
the teacher.
Use humor.
Agree with the bully (this takes the power away from the bully).
Spend time in groups.
Practice what to say in front of a mirror or with friends.
What Victims Should NOT Do
These children can be taught, through role-playing, specific ways to help them NOT
to:ref
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Cry or act hurt in front of the bully.
Lose their temper.
Escalate the situation.
Return the aggression.
Get others to gang up on the bully.
Tease back.
Call the bully names.
Bring weapons to school.
A condensed version of this page is available as a Fact Sheet in HTML and PDF
formats.
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Home | Courses | How
For Children who Bully
Children who bully should be:ref
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Monitored and rewarded for appropriate behavior and for improvements (e.g.,
reduced incidents of bullying and increasingly longer periods of no bullying).
Given clear sanctions for acts of bullying. (Punishing bullying behavior without
acknowledging the experience of the victim can foster frustration and more
aggression. Support bullies when they are victims.)
For Witnesses and Bystanders
Witnesses and bystanders can play a large role in stopping bullying at a school. They can
be taught to:ref, ref
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Request that the bully stop.
Seek immediate adult help if the bully does not stop.
Speak up and/or offer support to the victim (e.g., pick up his or her books, offer
words of kindness).
Privately support those being hurt with words of kindness.
Take the bully aside and ask him or her to "cool it."
Express disapproval of the bullying behavior by not joining in the laughter,
teasing, or spreading rumors or gossip