The Atlantic Slave Trade
During the 17th and 18th century, the demand for slaves was at its peak. European slave
traders quickly provided the labor needed. The potential of earning a small fortune in the
slave trading business was enough of a profit for traders to put aside the fact that Africans
were humans. In 1760, in some markets, a trader could sell a male slave for 50 pounds,
which was enough to live comfortably for one year. With the promise of making a more
than a decent living from the slave trade, it became a profitable career.
Traders could not have been successful without the formation of a relationship with the
Africans who provided them with other Africans to enslave. African captors kidnapped
their countrymen and brought them to slave factories on the west coast of Africa. The
journey was long and it is estimated that of 20 million slaves, half did not make it to the
coast.
Captured Africans could spend as little as a few weeks and to up to a year in a factory. In
return for providing human cargo to the slavers, African kidnappers received guns,
textiles, iron bars, and other products.
African slaves were placed on ships and began the long journey to the Americas. It was
known as the Middle Passage because it was the middle leg of a three-part voyage. The
voyage began in Europe where the ship was packed with goods to bring to Africa. These
items were exchanged for African slaves. The slaves were sailed to North America, South
America, and the Caribbean and exchanged for sugar, tobacco, and other products that
were shipped to Europe.
The trip from Africa to the Americas took at least six weeks. A ship often had 30
crewmen and carried about 300 slave men, women, and children. For the slaves, it was a
long horrible trip. Not only did they worry about what the future held for them, but also
they endured inhumane conditions on the ship. Each slave had both feet shackled to other
slaves. The sleeping area, which was below the deck, was composed of un-sanded plank
floors that had only 18 inches or less of headroom. The narrow space, lacked light and
fresh air, sitting was impossible, and it was difficult to change positions without hurting
one's neighbor.
Things were worse when bad weather was encountered. During these times, slaves stayed
below for extended periods. After the storm, seamen often found dead Africans
intertwined with others who were still alive. Because the journey was so long and disease
was easily contracted, about 10 to 20 percent died on the way to the Americas.
Not all Africans went without a fight. Some wanted to die rather then face an unknown
fate. It was not uncommon for a desperate man or woman to try to jump overboard.
Others took a more slow approach by refusing to eat. This method often caught on and
other Africans followed. Crewmen reacted quickly to prevent them from starving to
death. In these cases, they forced them to eat by beating and torturing them, force
feeding, or using thumbscrews. Because slaves were thought of as valuable property, it
was important to keep them alive. Therefore, crewmen tried not to cause death or
permanent harm.
In 1807, the British Parliament banned the Atlantic slave trade. Not long after, the United
States banned it in 1808. In 1815, after pressure from the British, France and the
Netherlands agreed to ban the slave trade and Portugal agreed to end it after a few years.
In 1817, Spain signed a treaty agreeing to immediately end the slave trade north of the
equator and south of the equator in 1820. Despite agreements and legislation, some slave
trading still continued
Depending on which colony slaves lived in, the way they were treated and the work they
performed varied. Slaves in southern colonies typically worked under harsh conditions,
while slaves in the middle and New England colonies were fewer, had more freedom, and
were treated more humanely.
Virginia
While slavery in Virginia eventually became quite large, in its early beginnings the
colony did not depend upon slave labor. In 1619, there were 20 Africans in Jamestown,
who held positions similar to indentured servants. By 1651, census records indicate that
Africans who finished their indentured servitude were assigned land and were considered
free.
While this system ensured the growth of the free black population, it also contributed to
the need for laborers. Work in the field was labor intensive and could be expensive,
especially when indentured servants eventually were granted their freedom.
To offset a portion of the expense, some Africans were made into servants for life and
Indians were used as laborers. However, the colonists soon learned that this did not work
and began to look toward slavery. Virginians became convinced that slavery was the
answer to their labor problems after they heard about the success of slavery in the
Caribbean. From thereafter, there was movement toward implementing it.
In 1661, Virginia officially recognized slavery by statute. A year later, a Virginia statute
declared that children born would have the same status as their mother. With the lawful
support of slavery, slaves were brought into the colony by ship. By the end of the 17th
century, more than a thousand slaves per year were brought. In 1708, there were 12,000
blacks and 18,000 whites. By 1756, the black population had increased to 120,156 and
the white population was 173,316.
Because of the harsh labor conditions, male slaves were brought more often than female
slaves were. However, by the 18th century, this view changed. Women were brought just
as often and were required to perform the same labor as men.
As the slave population increased, so did the fear of slave insurrections. In order to
prevent revolts, Virginia enacted slave codes. Slave codes restricted the movement of
slaves and dictated the punishment for offenses. For example, slaves were not allowed to
leave the plantation without written permission from their master, robbery and other
major offenses was punishable by 60 lashes and placement in a pillory where the slave’s
ears were cut off, and for the commission of petty offenses, the individual was whipped,
branded, or maimed.
Maryland
Unlike in Virginia, Maryland had slaves shortly after the establishment of its first
settlements in 1634. Although slavery existed, it was not recognized by law until 1663.
The first statute enacted attempted to enforce a law that all blacks, even those who were
free, would be slaves and all blacks born would be slaves regardless of the status of their
mother. In 1681, a new law changed this and established that children born to free black
women and black children of white women would be free.
In order to ensure that slaves would maintain their status as slaves, a law declared that
slaves who converted to Christianity would not become free. With the enactment of this
new law, slave owners felt secure, and the importation of slaves increased. In 1750, there
was a population of 40,000 blacks and 100,000 whites.
As the slave population increased, the fear of slave insurrections also became a concern.
Like in Virginia, Maryland enacted laws that restricted the movement of free blacks and
slaves. One law declared that slaves would be punished by death, branding, or whipping
if found guilty for murder, arson, larceny, association with whites, insolence, and
traveling without permission.
North and South Carolina
From the beginning of the existence of the Carolina colony, slavery was encouraged. The
four proprietors of the colony were members of the slave trading company, the Royal
African Company. In 1663, the proprietors encouraged settlers to have slaves by
promising that they would be given 20 acres of land for every black male slave and 10
acres for every black female slave brought to the colony within the first year.
This encouragement worked. By 1683, the black population was equal to the white
population. South Carolina, which became a separate colony in 1712, relied heavily on
slave labor. By 1715, blacks outnumbered whites by 10,500 to 6,250. Less then ten years
later, in 1724, there were three times as many blacks as whites.
Like the other slave holding colonies, because of the sizeable slave population, South
Carolina was in fear of slave insurrections.
In order to help keep slaves from revolting, slave codes prohibited the sale of alcohol to
slaves. In addition, to prevent cruelty to slaves, thereby dissuading rebellion, owners were
prohibited from working slaves more than 15 hours between March 25 and September 25
and not more than 14 hours between September 25 and March 25.
North Carolina, on the other hand, had a large Quaker population that was opposed to
slavery. Even though the slave population was small, Quakers established regular
religious meetings for slaves and urged slaveholders to treat them well. In 1770, Quakers
sought the prohibition of slavery. Unlike other slaveholding colonies, North Carolina did
not have a concern about slave insurrections. There was not a slave rebellion until the
19th century.
New York
New York, originally called New Netherland by the Dutch who settled it, did have
plantations that used slave labor. By 1638, it was common to have slaves. Slavery under
the Dutch was different from in the South. Treatment of slaves was more humane and
manumission was commonly granted to slaves who served loyally for a long time.
In 1664, New Netherland was taken over by the English. After slavery was recognized as
legitimate in 1684, the slave population grew. In 1698, there were 2,170 blacks out of the
total population of 18,067. By 1723, the slave population had grown to 6,171 and in
1771, there were 19,883 blacks out of a total population of 168,007.
Like its southern counterparts, New York had slave codes. Their concern was also on
ensuring that slaves did not escape or become free because of conversion to Christianity.
In 1706, according to one slave code, a slave who was baptized did not become free as a
result. In 1715, to deter slaves from escaping to Canada, slaves that were caught 40 miles
north of Albany would be executed based upon the oath of two credible witnesses.
Despite attempts to control slaves with slave codes, insurrections did happen. In 1712, 23
slaves in possession of guns and knives, set fire to the home of a slaveowner. The slaves
then killed nine and injured six whites. The slaves responsible were captured and put on
trial. Twenty-one of the slaves were found guilty and executed.
New Jersey
New Jersey also encouraged their citizens to own slaves, especially once the English
came to dominate the colony. Unlike southern states, their slave population was never
large and grew slowly. In 1726, the black population was 2,581, in 1738, it had only
grown to 3,981, and in 1745, and there were 4,606 blacks out of the total population of
61,000.
Pennsylvania
The slave population in Pennsylvania grew extremely slowly, largely because of Quaker
opposition. In 1721, the black population was 2,000 and by 1751, it had only grown to
3,000. In 1790, there were 10,274 blacks, and of these, 6,537 were free and 3,737 were
slaves.
Pennsylvania was unique in that there was an early manumission movement. The colony
was also distinctive in its belief in the humanity of blacks. Schools, churches, and
marriage were open to the black population. The black family achieved some level of
stability, and the community was generally free from violence.
While the treatment that colonial slaves endured could vary depending upon location, the
desire for freedom was a commonality all slaves wanted. Colonists also had some
commonalities. Most colonists were concerned about their investment in slaves and
sought to prevent escape and slave insurrections with slave codes. Even though
Pennsylvania took the lead in the manumission movement, the freedom of all slaves
would not come until the Civil War.
For two hundred years, 1440-1640, Portugal had a monopoly on the export of slaves
from Africa. It is notable that they were also the last European country to abolish the
institution - although, like France, it still continued to work former slaves as contract
labourers, which they called libertos or engagés à temps. It is estimated that during
the 4 1/2 centuries of the trans-Atlantic slave trade, Portugal was responsible for
transporting over 4.5 million Africans (roughly 40% of the total). During the
eighteenth century however, when the slave trade accounted for the transport of a
staggering 6 million Africans, Britain was the worst transgressor - responsible for
almost 2.5 million. (A fact often forgotten by those who regularly cite Britain's prime
role in the abolition of the slave trade.)
The triangular trade
Expanding European empires in the New World lacked one major resource -- a work
force. In most cases the indigenous peoples had proved unreliable (most of them
were dying from diseases brought over from Europe), and Europeans were unsuited
to the climate and suffered under tropical diseases. Africans, on the other hand,
were excellent workers: they often had experience of agriculture and keeping cattle,
they were used to a tropical climate, resistant to tropical diseases, and they could be
"worked very hard" on plantations or in mines.
Africans had been traded as slaves for centuries -- reaching Europe via the Islamicrun, trans-Saharan, trade routes. Slaves obtained from the Muslim dominated North
African coast however proved to be too well educated to be trusted and had a
tendency to rebellion.
Between 1450 and the end of the nineteenth century, slaves were obtained from
along the west coast of Africa with the full and active co-operation of African kings
and merchants. (There were occasional military campaigns organised by Europeans
to capture slaves, especially by the Portuguese in what is now Angola, but this
accounts for only a small percentage of the total.) In return, the African kings and
merchants received various trade goods including beads, cowrie shells (used as
money), textiles, brandy, horses, and perhaps most importantly, guns. The guns
were used to help expand empires and obtain more slaves, until they were finally
used against the European colonisers. The export of trade goods from Europe to
Africa forms the first side of the triangular trade.
Trans-Atlantic exports by region
1650-1900
Number of slaves
accounted for
%
Senegambia
479,900
4.7
Upper Guinea
411,200
4.0
Windward Coast
183,200
1.8
Region
Gold Coast
1,035,600
10.1
Blight of Benin
2,016,200
19.7
Blight of Biafra
1,463,700
14.3
West Central
4,179,500
40.8
470,900
4.6
South East
Total
10,240,200 100.0
Data derived from tables 1.1, 3.2, 3.4, 4.1 and 7.4
as presented in:
Transformations in Slavery
by Paul E. Lovejoy
Cambridge University Press, 2000,
ISBN 0-521-78430-1
The transport of slaves from Africa to the Americas forms the middle passage of the
triangular trade. Several distinct regions can be identified along the west African
coast, these are distinguished by the particular European countries who visited the
slave ports, the peoples who were enslaved, and the dominant African society(s) who
provided the slaves.
So, for example, Senegambia includes the Wolof, Mandinka, Sereer and Fula; Upper
Gambia has the Temne, Mende, and Kissi; the Wndward Coast has the Vai, De,
Bassa, and Grebo. (A forthcoming article will look in more detail at the people and
kingdoms involved in the slave trade.)
Slaves were introduced to new diseases and suffered from malnutrition long before
they reached the new world. It is suggested that the majority of deaths on the
voyage across the Atlantic - the middle passage - occurred during the first couple of
weeks and were a result of malnutrition and disease encountered during the forced
marches and subsequent interment at slave camps on the coast.
Conditions on the slave ships were terrible, but the estimated death rate of around
13% is lower than the mortality rate for seamen, officers and passengers on the
same voyages. (Again, a forthcoming article will discuss 'mortality rates of the transAtlantic slave trade'.)
Trans-Atlantic imports by region
1450-1900
Number of
slaves
accounted for
%
Brazil
4,000,000
35.4
Spanish Empire
2,500,000
22.1
British West Indies
2,000,000
17.7
Region
French West Indies
1,600,00
14.1
British North America and
United States
500,000
4.4
Dutch West Indies
500,000
4.4
Danish West Indies
28,000
0.2
Europe (and Islands)
200,000
1.8
Total
11,328,000 100.0
Data derived from table II as presented in:
The Slave Trade
by Hugh Thomas
Simon and Schuster, 1997,
ISBN 0-68481063-8
As a result of the slave trade, five times as many Africans arrived in the Americas
than Europeans. Slaves were needed on plantations and for mines and the majority
was shipped to Brazil, the Caribbean, and the Spanish Empire. Less than 5%
travelled to the Northern American States formally held by the British.
The third, and final, leg of the triangular trade involved the return to Europe with the
produce from the slave-labour plantations: cotton, sugar, tobacco, molasses and
rum.
The statistics presented in this article are derived from various tables published in
the following books:
Transformations in Slavery by Paul E. Lovejoy, Cambridge University Press, 2000,
ISBN 0-521-78430-1, 367 pages.
The Slave Trade by Hugh Thomas, Simon and Schuster, 1997, ISBN 0-68481063-8,
908 pages.