Key Idea 4 | France in Revolution 1774-1815
Napoleon Bonaparte
1799-1815
Napoleonic Rule in France, 1799–1815
• The establishment and consolidation of Empire
• Napoleonic rule within France: the impact of social, religious, legal and administrative
reforms
• Economic policies, including the issue of taxation
• The extent to which Napoleon had transformed France by 1815
NAPOLEON
NAPOLEON Bonaparte was born in Corsica in 1769. He went to a military college in France
and became an officer in the Artillery. Napoleon supported the French Revolution, and
as a clever young officer he was useful to its leaders. In 1793, he was sent to Toulon,
which had turned against the Revolution and had asked the British for help. Napoleon,
with his guns, drove the British out of the port and crushed the enemies of the
Revolution.
By 1795, most Frenchmen were tired of the violence and bloodshed which had become so much a part of
the politics of Paris. A new and more moderate Government was set up. Paris rose again in revolt, but
Napoleon dispersed the rebels with a 'whiff of grapeshot' and saved the Government.
France was still at war with Austria and Britain, and the new Government gave Napoleon command of a
French Army which was sent to attack the Austrian forces in Italy. The young General had two years of hard
fighting in Italy (1795-1797), but he won great victories. With Austria defeated, only Great Britain held out
against France. Napoleon was sent to Egypt, to cut off the British from their Empire in India. He sailed
through the Mediterranean with his army, and arrived at Cairo in July, 1798. He won the Battle of the
Pyramids in Egypt, but Nelson's victory at the Battle of the Nile cut off his supplies and made
reinforcements impossible. He returned to France in August, 1799, lucky to escape capture by the British
Navy.
In Paris, however, only his victories were
remembered, and the brilliant young General
was a very popular figure. The political leaders
of France were quarrelling among themselves,
and Napoleon used his popularity and his
troops to sweep aside a tottering Government.
In 1799, he became First Consul and, with his
army behind him, the real ruler of France. His
power rested on his victories, and again and
again he took his soldiers into Europe to beat
down any threat offered to France by her old
enemies Austria and Prussia.
In 1804, he became Emperor of France, but danger threatened again
from abroad. Great Britain still defied him, and she made a new alliance
with Austria, Russia and Prussia, to strike at Napoleon. Though the
Emperor failed to invade England in 1805, he certainly showed Europe
when he broke camp at Boulogne that if England were 'Mistress of the
Seas', he was certainly 'Master on Land'. He broke the Austrian armies at
Austerlitz in December, 1805 crushed the Prussians at Jena in October,
1806 and smashed the last Russian resistance at Friedland in June, 1807.
The Alliance which England had so patiently gathered together crumbled
into fragments. Napoleon, Master of Europe, was at the height of his
power.
Things to do: A. Answer these questions:
1 Where and when was Napoleon born?
2 Why did he go to France?
3 What did he do at Toulon?
4 How did he save the government in 1795?
5 Whom did he defeat in Italy?
6 Where did he go in 1798?
7 Why did he return to France?
8 Why was 1804 an important year for him ?
9 What did he try to do in 1805?
10 Whom did he defeat on land between 1805 and 1807?
B. Describe in your own words Napoleon's rise to power.
Napoleon’s Reforms
Contents
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The Law and Legal Reforms
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Economic and financial reforms
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Religious Reform and the Concordat
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Educational Reforms
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Public Works
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Industrial Reforms
The Law and Legal Reforms
Before Napoleon
Napoleon inherited significant problem with the whole structure and content of the legal system. Men and
women were been severely punished in parts of France for offences that were perfectly legal a few miles
away. Across France there was a tangle of local laws, layers of royal laws, edicts and proclamations as well
as church laws and baronial laws. The problem was first reviewed during the Revolution 1789-99. Several
committees of lawyers had met, reviewed and made recommendations. A decision had been taken to draw
up a single book of all laws – a code. However little progress had been made by 1799 when Napoleon took
power as Consul.
Napoleon’s Actions
In 1800 Napoleon set up a new committee who started on a new Code of laws. Drafts of this new Code
were reviewed by senior politicians, Napoleon personally oversaw many (36) of these 84 meetings which
eventually approved the Code.
Successes
The Napoleonic Code contained several notable successes, particularly by guaranteeing equality before the
law. This was a concept born in the revolution, but a gain never enshrined in law before. The Code also
ended unfair royalist laws and taxes, as well as stopping privileges of the nobles and priests. Notably the
Rights of peasants and their ownership of land was secured by Napoleons’ Code. The Code Napoleon was
followed by a series of more detailed Codes: Code of Civil Procedure (laws guiding Civil Servants),
Commerical Code (laws for protecting business and customers), and lastly a Criminal Code (laws protecting
criminals and prison-keepers).
The Code also paved the way for émigrés and ‘enemies of the Revolution’ to return. These were mostly
nobles and political opponents of Revolution-era figures. This was an important element of Napoleon’s rule
that is difficult to assess and assign importance to. An attitude of reconciliation and new beginnings was
significant after the horrors and blood-letting of the Revolution.
Failures
The Code Napoleon also represented an assault on personal freedoms. There was a limit to people’s
involvement in the political process. This took the form of increased policing from 1804. From 1810
Napoleon restored the lettres de cachet in a new form meaning he could imprison opponents at will,
without trial. He also established legislation that stopped freedom of the press and freedom of speech,
especially by censorship. In 1800 there were 73 journals in Paris, and by 1810 only four remained.
Economic and Financial reforms
Before Napoleon
There were significant problems here. France had been bankrupt from over twenty years when Napoleon
seized power in 1799. One of the main causes of the Revolution had been the Monarchy’s inability to
manage the country’s finances and the economic situation could not be reversed by the constant changing
regimes during the Revolution.
Napoleon’s Actions
 Napoleon immediately reassessed the land tax.
 All new officials were to be appointed and controlled centrally by Paris.
 In 1800 he established the National Bank, the Bank of France.
 Napoleon managed to balance the book for the first time in 1802. Now amount spent equalled the
amount collected in taxation!!
 Napoleon also drastically ended Government expenditure and wastage as well as corruption.
Successes
Perhaps the most lasting reform was the establishment of the Bank of France. This was to be a hugely
successful long-term institution that survives today. The economic stability generated from the
establishment of the National Bank, more accurate taxation of the land and Napoleon’s ability to handle
the economy encouraged trade (which meant more tax revenue). More confidence tempted foreign
investors and brought more money into the French economy stimulating it further. Increasing confidence
brought a cycle of economic prosperity.
Failures
By 1803 Napoleon was back at war. This was draining money away and also made investors unsure, dinting
confidence which slowed the cycle of prosperity. The more war the more uncertainty and Napoleon could
only rely on taxation of the land which represented a small amount of the money he needed.
Napoleon had an Extraordinary Domain which was like a personal bank account. It was a huge reserve of
cash for him alone to use to solve problems as they arose. This forward planning helped out, but it relied
on money extracted from conquered countries and subject states. He managed the Domain well, financing
all his military campaigns from it.
By 1814 the National Debt was 60 million francs. Whilst small by comparison to earlier years and rulers it
was still a significant obstacle to the smooth running of a prosperous country.
Religious Reform and the Concordat
Before Napoleon
The Revolution had sanctioned the murder and imprisonment of priests, bishops and other clergy as well
as the theft of monies and antiquities belonging to churches by poor and starving peasants. Land had been
seized by the Revolution to be given freely among the peasants. This had caused a huge rift between the
Papacy and France. The church was sheltering French intellectuals opposed to the Revolution, and the
church actively assisted the Counter-Revolutionaries.
Napoleon’s Actions
Napoleon was untainted as he was not in power during the Revolution and so he was able to propose a
settlement. Again reconciling useful enemies of the Revolution to his own regime was one of Napoleon’s
popular tactics. The Concordat was signed in 1801, also the power and finances of the church needed to be
reformed so they fit in in Napoleon’s new France.
Successes
Napoleon managed to solve a huge crisis in the lives of the majority of French people at a single stroke. He
reunited his people with their Church. The Concordat recognised that the majority of French people were
Catholic. Napoleon also announced freedom of worship for Jews and Protestants so not appear biased.
Napoleon also had a political ulterior motive. The Concordat successfully and officially brought relations
with the Papacy to a good state. The Church stayed out of politics, supporting Napoleon, and Napoleon
kept out of church matters and supported the church. Napoleon saw religion as important as it was like the
glue that kept the people in society glued together and happy. The Papacy now no longer supported antiNapoleonic royalists who were fast running out of supporters.
Failures
Whilst not a failure the Concordat was ‘not as lasting as some domestic reforms.’ Additionally the extremes
of opinion were not pacified by the Concordat. For hardline Catholics there was no restoration of church
privilege, land or treasures plundered by individuals and the Revolutionary Governments. For extreme
Revolutionaries any negotiation with the Church was a reverse step. Any element of French life that
involved religion was not to be tolerated. Many religious divisions were not solved or mentioned by the
Concordat.
Educational Reforms
Before Napoleon
The Revolution destroyed the old system of education. In its place it managed to set up several secondary
schools in France’ larger cities. Much education by 1799 was done in the home, and by the church and
some funded by wealthy locals.
Napoleon’s Actions
Napoleon’s scheme for state-controlled Lycees was France-wide and quite brilliant. It was however
imperfectly implemented. The schools that were created or reformed had military discipline and places
reserved for sons of soldiers, officers and civil servants. There was a curriculum to prepare the boys for
command and state-craft.
Successes
 Schools of medicine, law and pharmacy were established.
 1808 ecole militaire speciale and ecole normale were created as schools to train teachers
 In 1808 the Imperial University was established as the prime University in France and regulated all
Lycees and colleges. It proved a durable institution.
Failures
 There were only 45 lycees in total, and many areas had none. This was insignificant to cater for the
Middle Classes it was aimed at. Importantly women and their education did not figure in his plans,
and the bulk of French people were peasants and there was virtually no provision for these people.
 Napoleon gave education insufficient prominence or time.
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The majority of secondary school provision was under clerical or private control. Therefore beyond
Napoleon’s control.
Most parents seem to have preferred schooling by priests rather than state lycees.
Public Works
Before Napoleon
Artistic works and statues were largely for edification and egos of kings and the nobility. They were used as
propaganda by the more astute royals, but only disseminated to the nobility. The Revolution obligingly
removed many statues, public works of art – these were gaps Napoleon happily filled.
Napoleon’s Actions
Napoleon erected statues of himself, his victories and he named streets and boulevards for himself, his
achievements and his heroes. He built bridges, canals and roads sometimes for military reasons but the
main civil improvement was great advances in communication.
He also extended state patronage of art and sculpture. The Louvre was finished.
Napoleon cleared the centre of Paris and the long straight roads to converge on his greatest public work.
The Tuilleries Palace gardens were cleared and made into public space all of which began the
transformation of Paris into a large, beautiful modern city.
Successes & Failures
It is difficult to assess the level of success of a buildings project as its uses and impact are so various and
diverse. Perhaps Napoleon could be criticised for putting his image and propaganda before his proper
financial management of France – but the lasting nature of so many of his Public Works actually suggest
that he was held in extremely high regard by his contemporaries as well as since. Few of his fellowFrenchmen can have seen these Works as squandering money as so many survive unscathed. Some of the
works were also technological and economic advancements such as roads and canals, which further
complicates our assessment of their significance and level of success.
Industrial Reforms
Before Napoleon
As with the financial and economic management France was backward by comparison to her European
neighbours, few factories, little mass or mechanised production few transport advances had been made.
What industry there was, was centred around Paris.
Napoleon’s Actions
Napoleons successfully stimulated industrialisation by establishing technical schools and encouraged
innovations – awarding prizes to inventors. There were also international exhibitions to share industrial
ideas and showcase products and techniques that were newly developed.
Successes
 Noteworthy successes were the Lyons silk industry flourished following the introduction of a new
loom. French Chemists developed new dyeing, tanning and bleaching techniques, lastly the
Consulate actively supported agents who imported new machinery from Britain using taxpayers
money.
 Many parts of France experienced significant prosperity.
 High customs barriers meant French goods captured the market easily. Other industries such as
sugar beet and cotton industries were well protected by low taxation for employers and high
customs duties on imported goods.

Where Napoleon had encouraged mechanisation of certain processes many other Europeans
feared the results and discouraged their merchants not to invest in machines. Client states like
Holland was forced to accept French imports without any import tax, making them cheap there too.
Failures
 Slow pace of advancement – only in 1815 was France as industrialised as Britain had been in 1780.
 Economic measures entirely dictated by political (often military) need
 Napoleon’s economic and so industrial policies were not long-term. They began to fail in the long
run. His constant interference and insistence on command-led direction hindered the development
of industry. The high tariffs made many products too expensive for customers and producers.
Above all it made smuggling certain items very lucrative, also breaking the boundaries of the
Continental System undermining his starvation of Britain’s economy.
In conclusion Napoleon had mixed successes and was always a political opportunist solving intractable and
messy problems when they suited his purpose and often developing other policies from the Revolution
originating from more able thinkers and politicians. Cowie best summed up his reforms as bringing ‘order,
efficiency and prestige’ these were sorely needed. Notice that Cowie does not pass judgement, nor
suggest France is any better, more successful or most importantly even changed under Napoleon’s
Consulate.
Tasks
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Questions
The Law and Legal Reforms
o What is a Code?
o What Codes were there, and what were they for?
o How was the Code important in reconciling old opponents and émigrés?
Economic and financial reforms
o Why did Napoleon order a re-evaluation of France?
o What did it mean when Napoleon balanced the books?
o Why was the National Bank (Bank of France) so important?
Religious Reforms and the Concordat
o What was the key reform of 1801?
o Why was it so important?
Educational Reforms
o What were the ecoles for?
o What L___ is the name of a state secondary school?
o How important was the Church in education in France after 1799?
Public Works
o What public works did Napoleon begin?
o How important was reform and technology in the design of Public Works?
Industrial Reforms
o How did Cowie characterise Napoleon’s domestic reforms?
Essays
1. Explain why Napoleon established the Legion of Honour in 1802. [12 marks]
2. Explain why Napoleon’s rule came to an by 1815. [12 marks]
3. How far were Napeon’s reforms his original ideas? [24 marks]
4. How successful were Napoleon’s domestic policies? [24 marks]
Identify that reform
Educational / Religious / Economic / Legal
E
Bread prices are controlled artificially.
Concordat of 1801.
Establishment of the Bank of France.
Napoleonic Code.
Re-evaluation of the nation – for tax revenue
Establishment of the Legion of Honour.
Lycees started in many French cities.
Coinage is set on a sound metallic base to strengthn the value of the currency.
Workers are controlled by using a pass book system.
360 local codes and ancient laws are abolished.
Ecoles Militaire and military academies are set up.
Women are left out of state-run schools, they are taught in Church schools.
Equality and the right to a fair trial is guaranteed in law.
R
Econ
L
Word Match
Lycees
Concordat
Bank of France
Absolute power
Bastille
Bourgeoisie
Clergy
Counterrevolutionaries
Coup d’état
Divine Right
Émigrés
Estate
Guillotine
Lettre de cachet
Liberty
Mob
Nobility
Peasant
Revolution
Code napoleon
Agreement with the Pope of 1801 to settle the religious dispute within
France
State secondary schools set up and run by Napoleon, centrally from
Paris.
sealed letter’. The king simply had to write a person’s name on one of
these special letters and that person could be imprisoned or exiled for
life.
people who are against the revolution.
a violent or illegal seizure of power. An example would be when
Napoleon made himself ruler in 1799 by overthrowing the Directory.
French for ‘Middle class’
belief that God has given kings the authority to rule.
an angry crowd
the name of the royal prison in Paris
The Code Napoleon guaranteed equality before the law, meaning for the
first time everyone was punished the same whoever you were. No
getting away with stealing just because you were titled or clergy.
Freedom
A set of laws designed to make laws in all of France the same
everywhere.
Established in 1800 to regulate credit and strengthen the currency.
a level of society in France. There were three estates – the First (Clergy),
Second (Nobility) and Third Estate (Everybody else).
those nobles and clergy who fled from France to live in other European
countries during the revolution.
Napoleon’s branch of military expertise. Using cannons against your
enemies.
nobles were people with titles such as Duke, Count or Prince. They were
powerful, often very wealthy and had special privileges.
a countryman or countrywoman who usually worked on the land and
was generally poor.
a complete change in government and society brought about by force.
a execution machine for severing heads
equality
people who work for the church (e.g. priests, bishops, archbishops,
monks etc.)
artillery
total power
Match and identify these characters:leader
George IV
Tsar Alexander
Duke of
Wellington
Napoleon
Bonaparte
Joseph Bonaparte
General Gerhard
von Blucher
country
Title / picture
Napoleon’s Dictatorship: The 5 Ps
Contents
 Propaganda
 Police
 Plebiscites
 Prefects
 Protection of Information (Censorship)
Propaganda
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Under the direction of Napoleon’s director of artistic patronage, a cohort of official artists was
assigned to produce works of art that celebrated Napoleonic triumphs.
The regime was determined to commemorate its power, not least the power of military victory and
imperial aggrandisement. Antoine-Jean Gros was constantly employed to paint battles and military
portraits.
Napoleon published his own versions of events vie Le Moniteur the national newspaper.
He shut down many newspapers – restricting the freedom of the press.
He published handbills in Paris which contained his ordres de jour (Orders of the Day)
He also went togreat lengths to rewrite the Battle of Marengo to show it as a great personal
triumph
He used the Education system he reconstituted
He built great public works such as the Arc de Triomphe celebrating France’s victories
He looted art treasures from conquered countries for the admiration of the French people (stored
in the Louvre)
Police
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Napoleon inherited two police forces from the Revolutionary governments which he soon moulded
to suit his own regime: the Gendarmerie, which became a model for police forces throughout
Europe in the nineteenth century, and the infamous ‘administrative police’, a civilian force which
served partly, but not entirely, as the secret police of his sinister Minister of Police, Joseph Fouché
(from 1800 to 1810).
The two forces were deliberately different in character and often at odds with each other, but
together they formed the most effective system of policing yet seen in any European country.
The Gendarmerie was a paramilitary force, devoted to policing the countryside.
Plebiscites
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At the height of his own popularity, at crucial periods in his career, Napoleon used plebiscites to
legitimate his military and imperial ambitions. These were loaded questions opened up to a
restricted band of Frenchmen designed to approve the Consul and later Emperors decision and
actions.
He was keen to be the "representative" of the Nation, and to be seen as in step with the needs and
desires of his people. He utilized the Plebiscites to claim this representative status, in fact he was
meticulous in that after every annexation or key policy decision there was a plebiscite to ratify his
actions. Notably on his ascension as First Consul, and in 1804 as Consul For Life.
The creation of the Consulate in 1799 the 20% turnout in the plebiscite was disastrous (although
not advertised). Learning from his oversight Bonaparte was careful in his planning of subsequent
public votes, which were more successful - more than 40% for the plebiscite of the Year Ten and in
approving the establishment of the Empire.
Prefects
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Known for its centralising tradition, Napoleon’s France was a country where decisions were taken in
Paris and implemented throughout the country by State-appointed representatives, notably préfets
(Prefects).
The office of préfet was created in 1800 by Napoleon Bonaparte. His préfet "governed his
department alone".
Until the mid-nineteenth century, the préfet still wielded the full power of the State.
The préfet also had control of the Gendermerie in his Departement.
A fretful Napoleon established the Paris Police Prefect, telling him, ‘I am more worried by a cold in
Paris than an epidemic in the provinces.’
Protection of Information (Censorship)
•
•
Napoleon was among the first to understand the importance of the press as tool of government
and war weapon. He had the maximum attention for the newspapers, probably because since he
was young he had been witness of the enormous effectiveness of the press in revolutionary epoch.
Since the first campaigns, Bonaparte has care that newspapers were printed for his troops, but also
for the new occupied countries and, even, for the Arabic populations of Egypt.
However, Napoleon effected a strong censorship towards the press and in 1800 he let close more
than fifty newspaper in Paris, while on the remaining ones he managed a strong careful control not
to let spread any idea against the republic or against the allied countries.
Find three Questions for each of these answers.
Answers:
Questions
Fouche
The name of Napoleon’s sinister Minister of Police; first name Joseph…..
Censorship
Plebiscite
Information
Propaganda
Police
Prefect
Totalitarian
Fill in the 5Ps to show much of a Dictator Napoleon was…..
P
P
P
P
P
T/F
Trafalgar was a decisive defeat for France in 1805
Napoleon was born on Sardinia
Dying in 1821 Napoleon left a significant legacy.
The majority of Napoleon’s reforms and policies were not his own ideas
Napoleon married his relatives into Royal Families across Europe.
In 1802 Napoleon made himself Consul for Life.
In 1812 in Russia, Moscow was a set as a firetrap for the French.
Britain fought Napoleon ceaselessly for nine years until 1815
Elba was Napoleon’s exile destination in 1815
Napoleon died mysteriously, on St Helena
Polish Princess Marie Walewska was Napoleon’s second wife.
Josephine was Napoleon’s lasting love.
Napoleon’s country hosue was called Malmaison
The Empire was declared in 1804.
T/F
T/F
T/F
T/F
T/F
T/F
T/F
T/F
T/F
T/F
T/F
T/F
T/F
T/F
Why was Napoleon so successful to 1807?
Contents
 Strengths of the French Army
 Weaknesses of Napoleon’s enemies
 Napoleon’s abilities as a diplomat, general and statesman
Strengths of the French Army
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Preparation. Napoleon was a meticulous planner. The 1812 Russia campaign was two years in the planning –
amassing two million pairs of boots in Prussia ready for the invasion next door; Russia.
He had a new style of fighting: by dividing his forces he could use a pincer movement to trap his enemy
between his forces. He often encircled enemy troops forcing them to fight on two fronts. Eventually
Wellington figured this out and exploited the fact that NB divide up his army, and at Waterloo Wellington
kept them apart and defeated them separately.
Largest armies ever seen, warfare now fought on an unprecendented scale.
Conscription or levee en masse was an old Revolution law Napoleon perpetuated to keep his armies large.
However keen volunteers were signed up before unwilling conscripts.
New tactics were encouraged: Officers were allowed to develop their own tactics and use their own
initiative.
Good store of veterans from Revolutionary Wars
Single source of excellent quality military academies and system of training officers
Use of Order Mixte – system where French and non-french and veterans and ‘green’ troops mixed into
together to make a loyal and experienced fighting unit
Attacking in Columns proved different and difficult to stop a relentless march.
Mobility. Napoleon’s armies marched faster than any army had been known to move
Inventions and innovations such as canned food helped, but mainly Napoelon’s divisions lived off the land.
Napoleon’s interest in science helped development of new tools, weapons and inventions.
His background in artillery meant that his method of fighting always exploited the use of artillery
His background in artillery also meant he was used to accurate and useful map-making (typically in order to
move cannon), this meant improved reconnaissance and preparation.
Weaknesses of Napoleon’s enemies
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Divided: Napoleon was able to deal with each one in turn, playing them off against each other, buying
Prussian neutrality during his suppression of Austria with a share in the spoils.
Key weakness is of their divisions: a disunited enemy is half an enemy. The Allies were fighting for different
reasons (some only because Britain paid them to fight), in different areas of Europe, using different ideas
and techniques to say nothing of their lack of cohesion, single command or style of fighting.
Most European armies were underequipped, underfed, and poorly led by comparison to French armies.
Napoleon’s abilities as a diplomat, general and statesman
Napoleon as a general was at times genius, and others blunderer. Marshal Davout three times saved Napoleon at
different times he had to fight against superior numbers. He often left subordinates to sacrifice themselves and their
men to guarantee victory. Napoleon was a military genius. As a strategist, he had a phenomenal memory and the
ability to concentrate and work really hard. He became expert in manoeuvring large armies of about 200,000 men
across Europe, calculating which roads and what speeds the different detachments needed to take. This enabled him
to outwit his slower opponents by arriving on a battlefield of his choice with more military units than them. The trick
was to disperse forces so that the enemy wouldn't know where his army was going. In 1805, for example, he
quartered his various army corps of 20,000 men each all over Western Europe and brought them together with
meticulous timing to encircle the Austrians at Ulm. Then he dispersed his men before converging rapidly on the
Austrians and Russians at Austerlitz.
Tactics
In terms of battlefield tactics, Napoleon was an expert in concentrating his forces. For example, he was trained as an
artillery man and developed the use of light, mobile field guns that could dash from one part of a battlefield to
another and focus maximum fire power. He also used heavy cavalry to break through enemy lines. Such shock tactics
won him his early victories.
'An army marches on its stomach'?
The French travelled light, marching 20 miles a day without any cumbersome baggage trains. They lived off the land,
both buying food from local people and stealing it. Each soldier could expect 24 ounces (680 grams) of bread, 8oz
(227g) of meat and some vegetables every day. Most soldiers slept in their bedrolls in the open, since tents were too
heavy to carry. But the rich farmlands of Western Europe were easy to plunder – the Grande Armée found it very
difficult to find enough food when it invaded Russia.
Morale
He made sure that his volunteers were well trained, and was skilled at exploiting their revolutionary fervour. He
created élite corps, such as the Imperial Guard, and introduced new decorations. He gave his soldiers booty and
women. And he made the army open to talent – four of his marshals rose from the lowest ranks.
Were the French invincible on land?
As Napoleon's great victories against various coalitions of Prussians, Austrians and Russians at Austerlitz (1805), Jena
(1806) and Wagram (1809) show, his military genius reigned supreme. But it depended on Napoleon's personal
leadership and his tactical innovations, as well as his well-trained troops and their ability to live off the land. When
his opponents saw how successful he was, they copied his tactics. As for Napoleon, when he started to run out of
well-trained volunteers after 1806, he had to rely on disgruntled conscripts; and when he tried to conquer Russia, he
was unable to live off the land. The result was the tragic 1812 retreat from Moscow. Finally, his genius deserted him
at Waterloo in 1815, which he fought badly and lost to Wellington.
Napoelon’s diplomacy was non-existant. He saw war as the only way of dealing with other countries – much of what
he wanted he force. Many of the Treaties were so punitive they actually encouraged further conflict.
Tasks
Questions
1. How important was the order mixte to French military strengths?
2. How was Napoleon’s method of feeding his army from the land doomed to failure?
3. How did Napoleon organise his armies, and how did this help him to victory?
4. Explain what Napoleon’s innovative tactics were.
5. How important was the levee en masse to French military strength?
6. Account for Napoleon’s enemies’ weaknesses.
7. How successful a diplomat was Napoleon?
8. How did Napoleon’s military background prove useful to him fighting the armies of Europe?
9. How did Napoleon perpetuate the cycle of war?
10. Which of the following was most crucial to Napoleon’s continuing success?
a. Napoleon’s ability as a general, diplomat and statesman
b. Weakness of his enemies
c. Strengths of the French army
11. How big a factor was Napoleon himself in this run of success to 1807? Answer briefly.
12. How successful might Napoleon have been had his enemies been more united?
13. Why did Napoleon decide to conquer on land?
Napoleon’s Demise: What factors lead to the downfall of
Napoleon?
Why did Napoleon lose?
• Napoleon's early successes were based on a
number of factors:
– the energy of a revolutionary citizen army
– his personal charisma and outstanding
ability,
– Military mobility and artillery fire power
– the division of France's enemies.
As he changed from liberator to conqueror
these factors began to be outweighed by
others.
Contents








Diplomatic
Oppostion
War with Britain and Russia
Navy
Failure of the Continental System
Ailing and ill
Liberation of the Iberian Peninsula
Leader of all – too much for one man to manage!
How did this lead to Napoleon’s
downfall?
1806
Berlin Decrees were announced. The Continental
System began to shut down Britain’s trade. No
European country was allowed to trade with Britain.
1807
__
1808
Napoleon invaded Spain to force Portugal to join in
the Continental System. Large areas of Spain were in
revolt and partisans fought with Wellington who had
arrived to liberate the Iberian Peninsula from
Napoleon.
1809
__
1810
1811
1812
1813
1814
1815
Russia broke the Treaty of Tilsit (1807) and refused to
enforce or obey the Continental System. Napoleon
was furious and demanded the Tsar obey him. He
now planned to invade and conquer Russia.
Wellington had freed most of Spain from French
control. He was about to invade France.
The Invasion of Russia began. The Tsar refused to do
Battle with Napoleon and robbed him of victory. He
simply retreated out of the way. A battle at Borodino
was inconclusive, the clever Russian general Kutusov
was in charge. The Russians destroyed crops and
food to starve Napoleon into defeat (‘scorched earth
policy’), combined with the harsh winter and
temperatures of minus 40, it was very effective.
Napoleon abandoned the army as it retreated. He
had to get to Paris to defend himself as his internal
enemies attempted to get rid of him.
The Prussian army was newly reformed (and
restructured along French style) and attacked
Napoleon’s retreating army and defeated the
remnants of the French at Leipzig (Battle of Nations).
The Allies enter Paris. Napoleon is forced to abdicate
as the Allies occupy Paris. Napoleon is sent packing in
exile to the Mediterranean island of Elba.
After three months Napoleon reinvades with his
bodyguard and Frenchmen and women rally to his
side. The new Monarchy of Louis XVIII crumbles
before the popular hysteria surrounding Napoleon.
After a Hundred Days of Napoleon’s second Empire
he is defeated by Wellington and the Prussians at
Waterloo.
Factor
D
O
Keyword
Explanation of factor
Diplomatic
Napoleon’s significant blunder was to allow himself to be
outmanoeuvred and therefore have united enemies
surrounding him in the shape of the Fourth Coalition.
Opposition
Nationalism, interference, arrogance and Francification led
peoples and elites to unite against Napoleon. They united in
defence of their country and opposed Napoleon.
W
War with Britain
and Russia
N
No Navy
F
Failure of the
Continental
System
A
Ailing and ill
Britain fought France from before 1806 – undefeated by sea.
In 1812 Napoleon tried to invade Russia. The error of tyrants
in every age, it proved disastrous for Napoleon. The Russian
winter proved Napoleon’s nemesis. With the World’s largest
army he still failed.
A lack of a Navy meant Britain could not be invaded and so
defeated. Nelson defeated the combined Navies of France
and Spain in 1805 at the Battle of Trafalgar. Without a navy
Napoleon could not properly enforce his Continental System.
This method of economic warfare against Britain was meant
to stifle trade. The idea was no European country controlled
by Napoleon would buy from, or sell to Britain. Britain
suffered, she would then be unable to fight France and so
Napoleon would be free of his oldest enemy, things were not
so simple in practice however.
Announced in 1806 in the Berlin Decrees. Napoleon
mismanaged this policy and weakened French industries and
war machine. It also alienated the luxury-loving middle
classes Napoleon relied on for his support base.
Napoleon was ageing – more and more arduous military
campaigns in addition to the weighty burden of power took
their toll on the absolute master of Europe.
L
Liberation of the
Iberian Peninsula
Liberating Spain and Portugal and bringing them into the
Empire was a task Napoleon underestimated and gave scant
time or energy to. His brother Joseph was hugely unpopular
and the threat to Portugal enough for them to invite British
forces for protection. The invasion of Spain in 1808 set in
train a series of disastrous defeats especially at the hands of
the Spanish peasant guerrilla fighters.
L
Leader of all.
Too much for one man to govern in Napoleon’s preferred
detail and with his energy.
Cross Stick
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Cross Stick Clues
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Type of warfare Napoleon used against Great Britain
Napoleon faced widespread o_______ after 1810
Napoleon was forced to leave his throne twice; called an a_______
The ________ Coalition
Style of fighting used by Spanish peasants
Name of British general : Napoleon’s military nemesis
Description of results of Continental System: B________
When peoples join together to defend or promote their nation.
Extent of Napoleon’s power in ruling France.
Invaded this country in 1808: Joseph made king.
1813 Battle of Nations.
Time between been exile in 1814, and return as Emperor in 1815
A lack of this meant Britain was saved from invasion.
Spanish fighters who chose to help Wellington.
1813 Battle at Leipzig.
Island of his last exile.
Wellington was Napoleon’s ________ nemesis.
Tick the correct phrase.
 The Continental System was economic warfare against Britain, designed to
cripple her economy.

The French and Spanish combined forces were victorious against the Royal
Navy off Cape St Vincent, Spain.





Napoleon stirred nationalist feelings by his interference.
As sole leader Napoleon had too much pressure. It was too big a job.
Russia in 1812 was the only factor in Napoleon’s fall from power.
Napoleon’s judgement faltered in the later years of his rule.
Napoleon invaded Spain in 1806 to defeat Wellington.
True or False?
 There were eight key factors in Napoleon’s downfall.
 The French policy of constant war was destined to fail.
 1812 was the start of Napoleon’s decline in power.
 Napoleon exploited the conquered countries for the benefit of the French
economy and war-machine.
 Goliath was one of Napoleon’s nicknames.
T/F
T/F
T/F
T/F
T/F
Cloze Paragraph
Napoleon’s ________ begun with the devastating ________ of Spain in 1808. A long term
problem Napoleon described as ‘the Spanish ________.’ However France was not winning
the battles against Britain which had been running from before 1806.
The Continental System was designed to strangle Britain’s trade but backfired on Napoleon
and France and the conquered countries of the ________. This caused unrest and
widespread ________ all over Europe.
Defeated by the winter in the 1812 Russian campaign, the ________ formed against him in
the ________ ________. Napoleon’s ________ failed as being leader and his age took
their toll on him. Napoleon was forty-three in 1812 and his best years and ________ were
behind him.
Invasion
Empire
Fourth Coalition
downfall
opposition
Ulcer
victories
judgement
Allies
Down
1. Napoleon’s method of economic warfare
designed to starve Britain of trade and
weaken her as an enemy.
2. in diplomacy when Napoleon’s enemies
combined in 1812-13 against him they
formed the _______ __________
4. British island where Napoleon was sent
to die.
5. country invaded in 1808
7. word meaning someone is complete ruler;
one holding absolute power
9. Spanish peasants who worked with the
British in Portugal and Spain to defeat
French
11. country we know as Germany
12. ‘The Spanish ______’ a term Napoleon
used to describe the Spanish situation
from 1809.
15. able and cunning Russian general
helped to defeat Napoleon
17. also called Battle of Nations of 1813
20. liquid metal used to poison Napoleon
when exiled in 1821.
Across
3. city the Russian burned once
the French were inside.
6. Napoleon’s military nemesis
7. another word for ill
8. key naval battle of 1805
where Napoleon was defeated and
Nelson died, meant no invasion
of Britain
10. battle of 1815 which
conclusively ended Napoleonic
era
13. this was Napoleon’s crucial
natural enemy in his plan to
invade Russia in 1812
14. Napoleon was made Emperor
of this island of his first
(1814) exile.
16. style of mountain fighting
with hit and run tactics, and
ambushes and thieving.
18. Napoleon’s brother he made
King of Spain
19. when a people identify
themselves with their nation in
common cause against a common
enemy
Complete this table of Napoleon’s demise.
Factor
D
O
W
N
F
A
L
L
Keyword
Explanation of factor
Essays
The following are some essay titles from past papers. You must try AT LEAST one from each key idea. It would also be
good practice to plan using bullet points the other essays.
Napoleon’s Reforms | What factors shaped, and what were the effects of, Napoleon's reforms in France
under the Consulate?
•
•
•
•
The purpose of Napoleon’s prgramme of domestic reforms was only to bolster his personal power. How far
do you agree with this assessment? [24 marks]
Explain the significance of the Concordat in reforming France under the Consulate. [12 marks]
Explain why Napoleon created the Napoleonic Code? [12 marks]
How far were Napoleon’s domestic reforms during the Consulate influenced by the principles of the French
Revolution? [24 marks]
Napoleon’s Dictatorship | To what extent was Napoleon a dictator?
•
•
How far was Napoleon’s rule dominated by repression? [24 marks]
Explain why Napoleon was a successful ruler of France 1799-1815? [12 marks]
Napoleon as a Success | Why was Napoleon so successful to 1807?
•
•
•
Napoleon’s success was entirely due to his military innovation. How far do you agree with this statement?
[24 marks]
Napoleon’s success was due to weakness of Napoleon’s external enemies. How far do you agree with this
statement? [24 marks]
Explain why Napoleon’s enemies were so weak before 1807? [12 marks]
Napoleon’s Demise and Downfall | What factors lead to the downfall of Napoleon?
•
•
•
•
•
How much of Napoleon’s downfall is directly related to his actions or inaction?
‘Napoleon’s downfall is due largely to his loss of judgement which ran through every blunder and defeat
after 1806.’ How far do you agree with this assessment of Napoleon’s fall from power? [24 marks]
Explain why the Continental System was pivotal to securing Napoleon’s position in power after 1807. [12
marks]
How important was role of Britain in Napoleon’s downfall? [24 marks]
How important a factor was nationalism in Napoleon’s downfall? [24 marks]
Glossary
Bourgeoisie The new middle class of merchants and businessmen is prospering throughout Europe, and
especially in Britain, which Napoleon describes as a 'nation of shopkeepers'. But France has its
shopkeepers, too, part of a growing bourgeoisie that has grown rich from the abolition of inherited
privilege.
Commissaries Officials who organise food and equipment supplies for soldiers. Their powers of
requisitioning will give a bad name to the title 'commissary' for ever more.
Corps Among the many reforms that make Napoleon's armies among the most effective the world has ever
seen, the creation of the army corps is one of the most important. Self-contained mini-armies, providing
for their own transport and provisions and containing their own infantry, cavalry and artillery, they are
revolutionising the art of warfare.
Gendarmerie They're not there to give you directions. The new French police force, set up by Napoleon
and recruited from the ranks of the army, is there to keep order.
Grapeshot Small balls used as charge in a cannon, which scatter when fired. Made famous by Napoleon's
'whiff of grapeshot', when he put down a royalist rising in Paris in 1795 by ordering the republican troops
under his command to shoot into the crowd.
Guerrillas From the Spanish for 'little war', the word describes the hit-and-run rebels who fight against the
installation of Napoleon's brother Joseph on the throne of Spain in 1808. With help from British forces led
by Wellington, they fight the ultimately successful Peninsular War against the French.
Levée-en-masse Conscription, to be avoided at all costs.
Liberté, égalité, fraternité The most famous slogan of the French Revolution may not ring out quite so
loudly as it did in the early days of revolutionary fervour, but it still captures the imagination in those parts
of Europe that remain under the rule of (often foreign) monarchs.
La Marseillaise France's national anthem and possibly the best marching song ever written. It's worth
learning the words for those long days on the road travelling around Europe.
Shrapnel An early version of the cluster bomb, Henry Shrapnel's invention – the exploding shell – consists
of a shell filled with musket balls and pieces of metal. One of the British army's most ruthless weapons, it is
designed to cause maximum injury to troops when it explodes above.
Tricolor The French flag – blue, white and red.
Waterloo The battle that finally sealed Napoleon's fate, when he suffered devastating defeat after his
return from exile during the Hundred Days. The word 'Waterloo' is entering the lexicon as a description of
an utter failure from which there can be no return.