REDUCING STEREOTYPE THREAT: THE EFFECT OF AFFIRMATION
INTERVENTION ON STANDARDIZED TEST SCORES
Except where reference is made to the work of others, the work described in this project
is my own or was done in collaboration with my Advisor. This project does not include
proprietary or classified information.
________________________________________________________________________
Chance M. Giddens
Certificate of Approval:
____________________________________
Donald R. Livingston, Ed.D
Associate Professor and Co-Project Advisor
Education Department
REDUCING STEREOTYPE THREAT: THE EFFECT OF AFFIRMATION
INTERVENTION ON STANDARDIZED TEST SCORES
A project submitted
by
Chance M. Giddens
to
LaGrange College
in partial fulfillment of
the requirement for the
degree of
SPECIALIST IN EDUCATION
in
Curriculum and Instruction
LaGrange, Georgia
July 4, 2011
Abstract
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………...iii
Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………....iv
List of Tables and Figures………………………………………………………………....v
Chapter 1: Introduction……………………………………………………………………1
Statement of the Problem………………………………………………………….#
Significance of the Problem……………………………………………………….#
Theoretical and Conceptual
Frameworks………………………………………….#
Focus Questions…………………………………………………………………...#
Overview of Methodology………………………………………………………...#
Human as Researcher……………………………………………………………...#
Chapter 2: Review of the Literature……………………………………………………….#
Chapter 3: Methodology…………………………………………………………………..#
Research Design…………………………………………………………………...#
Setting……………………………………………………………………………..#
Sample / Subjects / Participants…………………………………………………...#
Procedure and Data Collection Methods………………………………………….#
Validity and Reliability Measures………………………………………………...#
Analysis of Data…………………………………………………………………..#
Chapter 4: Results…………………………………………………………………………#
Chapter 5: Analysis and Discussion of
Results……………………………………………#
Analysis……………………………………………………………………………#
Discussion………………………………………………………………………...#
Implications……………………………………………………………………….#
Impact on Student Learning………………………………………………………#
Recommendations for Future Research…………………………………………..#
References………………………………………………………………………………..#
Appendixes……………………………………………………………………………….#
CHAPTER ONE-INTRODUCTION
Statement of the Problem
This study explores how reducing stereotype threat amongst African American
high school students will affect their scores on the Georgia High School Graduation Test
in social studies. Minority students underperform their counterparts in the majority
population on nearly all measures of learning. From standardized test scores to grade
point average to graduation rates, there is an “achievement gap” between Black and
White students in the United States. Bifulco (2007) notes that “among the most persistent
issues in American education are the racial segregation of students and the achievement
gap between black and white students” (p. 1). The problem is, in fact, a national one.
Though socioeconomic status also has stratification, with high SES individuals
consistently outperforming low SES individuals, the most common factor in the
achievement gap is race. As Bali (2004) states “the ‘race gap,’ usually studied as the
difference between Black and White students’ achievement scores, clearly and repeatedly
arises across the nation” (p. 1). In light of this evidence, this study seeks to answer the
following research question: Will reducing stereotype threat among African American
students result in higher standardized test scores for them?
Significance of the Problem
If the achievement gap between black and white students is not narrowed, the
ramifications will continue to be far-reaching. Left unabated, the gap will ensure that
schools cannot meet Adequate Yearly Progress as proscribed in No Child Left Behind as
graduation rates for minorities, often the most important part of the equation for overall
graduation rate (a central component of AYP),will continue to decrease. Beyond
immediate concerns, the long-range denouement can be nothing other than a further
entrenchment of what has become generational poverty. Previous research has suggested
that skills reflected in test-score performance on tests such as the Armed Forces
Qualification Test (AFQT) can account for some of the racial differences in average
wages (Blackburn, 2004). To put it simply, less academic achievement translates into
less earning power for the individual, or, in this case, the group. The academic
achievement gap is a reality that impedes social and economic advancement for the
African American family. In order to strengthen the African American family via
academic achievement and educational attainment, the amelioration of the gap must be a
primary goal of the educational establishment (Leach, 2007).
Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks
This study is germane to the LaGrange College Education Department’s
Conceptual Framework (2008) in three important ways. Tenet 1 states that when
“teachers implement the principles of constructivism in their teacher preparation
programs, they transform their candidates and stimulate them to develop their own
personal understandings of constructivism” (pg. 3). The idea of stereotype threat is rooted
deeply in the social constructivist view that learning has many outside factors influencing
it; that education does not happen “in a vacuum.” Central to this overarching philosophy
is a critical theory view regarding education and how the group holding power
determines, in effect, the educational achievement of the group that does not. The fact
that low SES students in general and African American students in particular are outside
the power structure and are thusly affected by outside forces over which they have no
control is an important context of this study. Students who have internalized the popular
myth that their particular group has less academic acumen than other groups are bound to
“live down” to that stereotype. Jost and Banaji, as cited by Spencer (2007), posit the
notion that System Justification Theory suggests “members of both high and low status
groups are motivated to maintain the status quo and legitimize the existing social
structures through the use of stereotypes, whether positive or negative” (p. 38).
Furthermore, because critical theory holds that transmission of education is not “value
free,” the dominant group within society determines what values are transmitted. By
reducing stereotype threat this study is designed to help students not only overcome an
artificial barrier but also to help them navigate their world by having a deeper, critical
view of it.
The goal of this study aligns nicely with Tenet 2 of the Conceptual Framework
insofar that “we believe that learning is mostly an affective, dramatic, and emotional
event and that it requires learners to construct new connections” (p. 5). That is, for a
critical understanding of the world around them, students must take an active role in their
education. The best way to do this is to connect their education to the world around
them. The implementation of avenues to overcome stereotype threat will be an emotional
exercise. Only by confronting externalities that serve as impediments to learning,
however, will students be able to excise them. In so doing, the idea that the brain, much
like a muscle, will grow when exercised will allow students to construct those new
connections.
Tenet 3 of the Conceptual Framework asserts that “through action research,
positive classroom practices, and on-going research in school communities, candidates
can affect policies and practices around them” (p. 8). The reason for this study is to
affect the lives of children in a real and long-term way. Teaching children mechanisms to
reduce stereotype threat will lead to positive outcomes in both school and the real world.
Further, this study is aligned with the theoretical and conceptual underpinnings of
the Five Elements of the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education 2000
Standard I for Initial Programs. The Five National Board for Professional Teaching
Standards Core Propositions for Experienced Teachers, specifically Proposition 5, that
teachers are members of learning communities, is reflected in this study as well.
Focus Questions
This study is guided by three focus questions. Question one explores the
quantitative effect of the study and is concerned with the overarching research question,
namely how reducing stereotype threat will impact student achievement on standardized
exams. Question two explores the effect on student perception when presented with
affirmation intervention and is designed to glean pertinent information from the students
affected. From a pedagogical perspective, question three investigates how the study will
affect the culture of the school as seen through an administrative lens.
The three focus questions are:
1.
Will reducing stereotype threat amongst black students in eleventh grade
government classes result in a markedly better score for this group on the
Georgia High School Graduation Test in social studies? What effect will
critical theory views have on this subgroup’s achievement?
2. How will black students respond to a campaign specifically designed to
increase achievement on standardized tests? How will reducing stereotype
threat affect test scores for black students?
3. How will school leaders feel about the processes used to reduce stereotype
threat with regards to the stated goals of the school improvement plan for
social studies? How will this study affect future course offerings and/or
placement of teachers with regards to remediation?
Overview of Methodology
In Comparative Education, Arnove (2003) suggests that “the goal of comparative
education has been to contribute to theory building; to the formulation of generalizable
propositions about the working of school systems and their interactions with their
surrounding economies, politics, cultures, and social orders “(p. 86). This study is
centered on the comparative approach of reducing stereotype threat.
This study will be conducted in three sections of 11th grade government at Troup
County Comprehensive High School. The male to female ratio will be equal with a
preponderance of students in a low SES level. The students will be exposed to various
methods to reduce stereotype threat prior to the Georgia High School Graduation Test in
social studies.
The study will utilize both quantitative and qualitative measures of assessment.
Quantitatively, a Likert scale questionnaire and a dependent t-test to examine pre and
post test results between and amongst Black and White students will be implemented in
response to focus question one. Students will be given an exam similar to the GHSGT in
social studies prior to stereotype reduction methods being implemented. Once stereotype
reduction methods have been implemented, students will take both a post-test and the
GHSGT in social studies. Qualitatively, the study will utilize surveys and interviews.
Students will be given surveys to assess how they felt about the methods used in response
to focus question two. Similarly, administrators will be interviewed to assess their
feelings about both the efficacy of the procedure and the results thereof in response to
focus question three.
Human as Researcher
In my ten years in front of the classroom, I have taught many different courses
within the social studies curriculum from remedial social studies to AP European History.
In that time I have seen first-hand the achievement gap in play. As a member of the
School Improvement Team (or varying iterations thereof) for all ten years, I have been
privy to data that proves the achievement gap between the races is not only pervasive, but
growing. As a social scientist, I am also keenly aware of historical factors that continue
to play a part in the achievement gap. As a parent, I’m concerned with how this gap, if
left unattended to, will affect the country my children inherit. Reducing stereotype threat
to narrow the achievement gap meshes my experiences, knowledge, and desires in a
research-based approach that I hope will prove fruitful.
Table 3.1 Data Shell
Focus Question
Literature
Sources
Will reducing
stereotype threat
amongst black
students in eleventh
grade government
classes result in a
markedly better
score for this group
on the Georgia High
School Graduation
Test in social
studies?
How will black
students respond to
a campaign
specifically
designed to increase
achievement on
standardized tests?
How will school
leaders feel about
the processes used
to reduce stereotype
threat with regards
to the stated goals of
the school
improvement plan
for social studies?
Grimsley, M.
(2000)
Ipka, V. (2003)
ZiomekDaigle, J.
(2009)
Type of
Method and
Data
Method:
assessment,
Data:
quantitative
OlszewskiKubilius, P.
(2006)
Vohs, K.
(2009)
Method:
Survey
Aber, M.
(2007)
Method:
Interview,
focus group,
reflection
Data:
interval
Data:
interval
Why these
data provide
valid data
How these data are
analyzed
Dependent T Test,
Independent T Test
(comparing
GHSGT scores in
social studies from
SY 09/10 to those
in SY 10/11 for
whole groups and
for black and white
sub-groups.)
Survey,
Likert scale results
examined via Chi
Square
Coded for themes
Rationale
Strengths/
Weaknesses
CHAPTER TWO—LITERATURE REVIEW
This study focuses on three research questions: Will reducing stereotype threat
amongst black students in eleventh grade government classes result in a markedly better
score for this group on the Georgia High School Graduation Test in social studies? How
will black students respond to a campaign specifically designed to increase achievement
on standardized tests? How will school leaders feel about the processes used to reduce
stereotype threat with regards to the stated goals of the school improvement plan for
social studies? To imbue the study with the proper credentials, research and review of
available literature concerning each question was undertaken.
Stereotype threat arises when members of a group internalize negative
connotations about said group with regards to completion of or excelling at specific tasks.
This negativity is manifested by a fear of reinforcing the negative stereotype. Black high
school students exhibit stereotype threat in the face of meeting or exceeding statemandated “cut-off” scores on standardized exams. The stark achievement gap between
the races on these types of assessments lends credence to the theory. To reduce
stereotype threat, then, is to narrow the achievement gap.
Affirmation intervention techniques have been used in various guises in numerous
studies in an effort to disabuse black students of the notion they are incapable of
academic achievement. The task is all the more difficult when confronted with the stark
reality that the achievement gap first arises in the primary grades. Poor starts causing an
early achievement gap often result in an exponential growth of the gap with grade-tograde progression (Chapin, 2007). Couple the knowledge that many black students carry
with them about past performance with the trepidation all adolescents have for
assessments of any kind and underperformance because of stereotype threat becomes an
all too-real possibility. As the National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional
Assistance found (REL 2009–No. 076), “Although a test-taking situation may seem
objectively the same for all students, some students, because of their social identity, may
experience it in a very different way” (p. 2).
Focus Question One
What then to engender positivity in black test takers? Use of instruments
designed to assess student perceptions of race and the achievement gap is a necessity.
One-on-one conversations, group discussions, surveys, questionnaires, and fostering an
environment of trust in conjunction with or because of the use of such techniques have
proven successful (Bruce, 2009). Group dynamics in this sense are a positive. The
negative group dynamic, the one that gives rise to stereotype threat, can and must be
overcome. Using affirmation intervention techniques can mitigate the negative group
dynamic by replacing it with a positive group dynamic through relationship building
within and across the group.
To this end, an effort to re-educate the student about educational attainment is of
paramount importance. Students who have all too often had negative experiences in
school need to be taught that school can and should be a positive experience. And while
it is true that different kinds of students may require different pedagogies of improvement
(Steele, 1999), it is also true that all students can benefit from learning about the
malleable nature of the human brain and its capacities. Teaching students that their mind
is like a muscle—that it becomes stronger or “smarter” with exercise—can lead to
improved performance across any number of educational assessments (Aronson, 2004).
Such interventions can ultimately lead to success outside the schoolhouse as well. Serna
(1998) posits that “Ultimately, teachers may be able to teach social/resiliency/selfdetermination skills so that children can advocate for themselves and exhibit behaviors
that promote independence and success in school, family, and community settings” (p.
49). Thus, improving the self-perception of the student can improve test scores,
graduation rates, and life-long earning potential for the student.
Beyond discussions about and lessons devoted to learning potential, though, other
affirmation intervention techniques are needed to help reduce stereotype threat.
Affirmation intervention can be both teacher-directed and student (or self) directed. By
understanding motivational urges and how to harness self-control, self affirmation is sure
to follow (Schmeichel, 2009). As stereotype threat afflicts members of a group, group
affirmation is also important to reduce the threat. Peer support is invaluable to these ends
(Olszewski-Kubilius, 2006). When students can point to another who is, ostensibly, just
like themselves but different in that the other has attained educational success, students
can begin to imagine themselves matching said achievement. Furthermore, parental
involvement in the affirmation intervention is of paramount importance (Darling, 2008).
Frequent contact with the parent by the teacher in a concerted effort to improve the
student’s self-worth and self-perception of ability on regimented educational tasks leads
to improved performance. Beyond this, the counselors of the school should be engaged
in similar efforts (Brigman, 2007).
What then of actual classroom instruction? Research indicates that specific
reading and writing tasks work to reduce stereotype threat. The use of authentic reading
materials has shown to be effective to this end. When students are allowed to read
materials that are at their reading level and in an area of interest to them, educational
awareness and, most importantly, self esteem are raised (Erickson, 2008). When Black
students are allowed to write about their values and interests, there tends to be an
improvement in achievement as well (Cohen, 2009).
Labeling, though, is perhaps most important in this area. Just as stereotype threat
affects performance on assessments, labeling bias does as well. When tests are labeled in
different ways, it affects performance on them (Jencks, 1998). By describing a test as a
measure of intelligence, for example, the instructor may be unwittingly setting his Black
students up for failure. Even if the test measures intelligence quotient, labeling it as
something else improves the performance of minority students (Sackett, 2004). To
reduce stereotype threat one must be cognizant of these findings. Focused lessons that
are attuned to both group dynamics and individual perceptions of ability must be
employed along with the focused efforts of parents and counselors to do the same.
Focus Question Two
How then will Black students feel about efforts to reduce stereotype threat?
Racial inequality in educational attainment is not something that is simply rooted in the
past. Opportunities within schools are often racialized knowingly or unknowingly by the
school leaders (Pollock, 2008). The key to assuring buy-in by minority students toward
affirmation intervention techniques lies in the overall climate of the school. The better
Black students feel about the racial climate in their particular school, the more likely the
achievement gap there is narrower than at a school with a poor racial climate (Mattison,
2007). The fact is, racial climate within a school is indicative of achievement by
minorities. Students who attend integrated schools do better than those who attend
schools dominated by one race (Ipka, 2003). Being aware of this factor should help
students appreciate efforts designed to help them overcome internalized feelings of
deficiency.
To that end, expressing the idea of educational capital in explicit terms will help
Black students understand the importance of accepting affirmation intervention. By
maximizing experiences in school students can gain additional “capital”, or tools to help
them be successful in all areas of their life (Lewis, 2003). The trick is to get Black
students to accept such theory. To have a positive experience in school and thusly be
positively affected by learning, Black students and their families need to take pro-active
roles in their education (Leach, 2007). By reaching out to parents when implementing
affirmation intervention techniques, teachers can have a positive impact on the perception
of parents with regards to their child’s education. Insistence on academic achievement
and family environment play a critical role in how a student views his education
(Mandara, 2009). The question of how Black students will respond to efforts at
stereotype reduction through affirmation intervention can largely be answered by what
type of home life the student has. Not only are attitudes about education within the home
important, but the educational attainment of the mother has a direct impact on her child’s
educational journey (Darling, 2008). To assess the feelings of Black students these
variables must be taken into account.
To what degree students view intelligence as malleable influences how they will
react to affirmation intervention (Aronson, 2003). In situations where stereotypes exist,
this information is vital. By determining the nature of individuals’ achievement goals,
one can focus attention on patterns of behavioral variables (Smith, 2004). This relates
directly to minority students in two important ways. One, there must be positive rolemodels present to emulate; two, positive attitudes toward education are of significant
importance. When there is evidence of educational attainment by visible minority
populations, youth within those populations have higher achievement (Krahn, 2005).
Students who can point to someone similar to themselves having success in education are
more likely to believe success is possible for them. Possessing a positive attitude is
instrumental in educational achievement for all students, but especially so for minority
students. In Canada, for example, only two percent of the population is Black, but an
achievement gap still exists between Black Canadians and White Canadians. That gap is
narrowed, however, when positive attitudes about education manifest themselves within
the minority population. When students and their parents feel good about education,
academic successes follow (Smith, 2005).
Focus Question Three
Assessing how students feel about change processes is one thing; assessing how
school leaders feel about the same change process is something altogether different.
Multi-racial schools need strong leadership in place to affect change with regards to the
achievement gap. To reduce alienation of minority students, the leadership must be proactive in making the school climate one where all students can feel comfortable (Shah,
2008). This fact must go hand in hand with parental involvement. As Roscigno (1999)
states, “Family and school, rather than being independent institutions, likely overlap and
intrude on one another” (p. 160). This is especially true when the discussion is about
how to narrow the pervasive achievement gap. When stake-holders work together to
implement strategies designed to ameliorate a problem such as the achievement gap, the
outcomes are invariably better than if those stake-holders are at odds with one another.
For the educational institution, how to address the problem is the matter at hand.
The school has to figure out if the problem is one of structure blaming or one of culture
blaming (Sperling, 2009). Structure blaming encompasses a belief that the problem is
systemic, that is, that the root cause of the achievement gap lies within the school and its
pedagogical and/or disciplinary practices. Culture blaming posits the notion that the
“culture”, in this case one of a supposed callous disregard by Black parents for the
educational attainment of their children, is the primary factor in the achievement gap.
Whatever the case might be, perception of school climate by students and their parents is
directly correlated to the size of the achievement gap (Aber, 2007). With that in mind, it
is incumbent upon school leaders to foster an atmosphere of openness, equity, and high
expectations. Without such institutional mores, stake-holders cannot have the buy-in
necessary to narrow the achievement gap.
How then to enhance programs that work or to implement new ones for those that
do not? For schools, and more importantly for school leaders, this is the crux of the
matter. To put it simply, school policies can help narrow the achievement gap (Alvarez,
2004). In today’s era of high-stakes testing, student scores are scrutinized from many
different angles. The scores of White students are compared to those of Black students.
The scores of economically-disadvantaged students are compared to those of students
who come from high socio-economic status families. And while state polices matter,
(Dorn, 2006), it is what happens within the walls of each school that truly make a
difference in narrowing the achievement gap. Schools cannot simply focus on “content
standards” in an effort to address the gap. A holistic approach is necessary to make any
real gains (Rothstein, 2004). That is, while schools must operate under the direction of
an overseeing body and conform to whatever constraints their policies put in place, it is
each school itself that must determine how to address the gap within its walls. Just as no
two classes are the same even if the subject matter is, no two schools are just alike even if
the achievement gap is.
School choice has become de rigueur as of late with those who blame the schools
themselves (structure blaming) for the failings of their students. Allowing parents to
move their children to the school of their choice is seen by some as a step in the right
direction to narrowing the achievement gap. However, Bifulco (2006) notes that “How a
particular school choice program affects students from disadvantaged groups will depend
both on the new schooling options that the program makes available and on the choices
made by their parents” (p. 32). Taken in that context, school choice is on par with
parental choices regarding expectations for their children. School choice is not confined
to schools in the United States, either. School choice is a big issue in the Netherlands,
too. There, however, it is believed that schools make the best choices for themselves;
i.e., on how to improve student achievement (Vedder, 2006). The Dutch further believe
that it is the parent who makes the best choices for their children.
Schools, then, are left to determine what is in their best interest while adhering to
the restrictions the law has placed upon them. In order to affect positive change, schools
must change from within. To become an agent of change the school must utilize
research-driven “best practices.” By implementing said best practices to narrow the
achievement gap, the school becomes the main driver of change (Olszewski-Kubilius,
2006). Teaching students is one thing; teaching teachers how to teach better is something
altogether different. For this sea change to become a reality, schools have to get
information to their teachers on best practices. More importantly, schools must show
teachers how to implement those best practices in front of students. Professional learning
is the best avenue to retrain teachers. Closing the achievement gap, ultimately, is the
responsibility of the school. For this to happen, four components are key: strengthened
teaching, courageous conversations, student-teacher relationships, and positive energy
concerning the solutions to the problems (Hirsch, 2005). These components are,
obviously, best handled “in-house.” To affect the kind of change one would like to see
concerning the achievement gap, school leaders can and should take the lead on these
issues. By focusing on strong curricular, instructional, and assessment design, schools
leaders can help close the gap (Cooper, 2006). The question then becomes one of faculty
involvement in and mastering of new techniques designed to affect the desired change.
This study takes into account the complexities of narrowing the achievement gap
by focusing on three areas with the gap at its heart. By introducing affirmation
intervention techniques in the classroom designed to reduce stereotype threat in Black
students, I hope to affect change by increasing standardized test scores for those students.
By assessing how those students felt about the intervention, I hope to be able to refine the
techniques implemented for future use by other educators. By finding out how the
educational leaders at my school viewed the research, I hope to be able to affect an
institutional change that will narrow the achievement gap between our students.
CHAPTER THREE—METHODOLOGY
Research Design
This project is a combination of an action research design and an evaluation
research design. As such, the study is designed both to resolve an issue in the classroom
and to affect change at the institutional level.
By using an inductive approach to qualitative research the study will focus on the
gains made by students on standardized test scores. And while quantification of said
gains is important, this type of research undeniably has the person as the focus. The
emphasis is on words rather than numbers (Maxwell, 2005). The immediate goal is an
improvement in test scores; the long-term goal is an improvement in the self-perception
of the students. Last year’s GHSGT scores will be compared to the student’s scores on
this year’s GHSGT and will be disaggregated by race. Further, surveys to assess student
feelings about the study will be utilized to assess the efficacy of the study with regards to
self-perception.
To determine the effectiveness of affirmation intervention, the study also
incorporates an evaluation research design. Benefit maximization principles dictate that
the decision about whether or not to expand the techniques used in the study be based on
utilitarian philosophy. The best decision is the one that results in the greatest benefit for
the most people (Cohen, 2007). Surveys and interviews of school leaders will determine
the overall efficacy of the study with regards to implementation of the employed
techniques by a greater number of faculty.
Table 3.1 Data Shell
Focus Question
Literature
Sources
Will reducing
stereotype threat
amongst black
students in eleventh
grade government
classes result in a
markedly better
score for this group
on the Georgia High
School Graduation
Test in social
studies?
How will black
students respond to
a campaign
specifically
designed to increase
achievement on
standardized tests?
How will school
leaders feel about
the processes used
to reduce stereotype
threat with regards
to the stated goals of
the school
improvement plan
for social studies?
Grimsley, M.
(2000)
Ipka, V. (2003)
ZiomekDaigle, J.
(2009)
OlszewskiKubilius, P.
(2006)
Vohs, K.
(2009)
Aber, M.
(2007)
Type of
Method and
Data
Method:
assessment,
Data:
quantitative
Method:
Survey
Data:
nominal
and/or ordinal
Method:
Interview,
focus group,
reflection
Why these
data provide
valid data
How these data are
analyzed
Rationale
Strengths/
Weaknesses
Dependent T Test,
Independent T Test
(comparing
GHSGT scores in
social studies from
SY 09/10 to those
in SY 10/11 for
whole groups and
for black and white
sub-groups.)
Survey,
Likert scale results
examined via Chi
Square
Coded for themes
Data:
interval
Setting
The research will be conducted at a public high school with 1382 students located
in west-central Georgia. Fifty students from the school will be participants. Mirroring
both school and community demographics, the study group will be approximately 60%
White and 40% Black with 35% overall identified as being at a low socio-economic
level.
The school was chosen as the site to conduct the research by virtue of the fact that
the researcher is employed there. Permission to use the students as participants in the
study has been granted by both the principal of the school and the school improvement
specialist and assessment coordinator at the district level. Further, the Institutional
Review Board of the cooperating college has accepted the application for the study.
Sample
50 students from 165 students taking 11th grade government classes at the
participating high school will be participating in the study. The sample number was
determined by the number of students in the researchers’ two government classes.
Subjects
The students at the focus of the study will be in two sections of 11th grade
government classes taught by the researcher. Between 16-19 years of age, 50% male and
50% female, 60% white and 40% black, the students were selected to be the subjects of
the study by being enrolled in the researchers’ two government classes.
Participants
School leaders at the cooperating high school will be participants in the study.
These participants include the principal, the registrar, and the district academic coach for
social studies. The principal is in his 2nd year at the school and his 21st in education, the
registrar is in her 3rd year in the school and her 13th in education and the academic coach
is in her 5th year at her current capacity and has been in education for 18 years. The
participants were selected both for their ability to give pertinent feedback about the study
and their ability to affect institutional change should the study warrant doing so. Further,
permission was needed from the principal as the instructional leader at the school and
from the registrar as the administrator in charge of the researcher’s department at the
school to allow the study.
Procedures and Methods
This study is designed to reduce stereotype threat in Black students through
affirmation intervention techniques in an effort to improve standardized test scores.
Focus Question 1 addresses the quantitative aspect of the evaluation research design.
Will reducing stereotype threat amongst black students in eleventh grade government
classes result in a markedly better score for this group on the Georgia High School
Graduation Test in social studies? A pre-test similar to the GHSGT in social studies will
be administered prior to affirmation intervention techniques being applied. Data from
that assessment will be compared to the actual GHSGT in social studies taken at the
conclusion of the study. Further, test scores from the previous year will be compared to
the GHSGT scores of the participants for a greater body of data to be disaggregated. The
pre-test administered at the beginning of the study is found in the appendices (See
Appendix A) .
Focus question 2 will determine the affective-reflective outcomes of the study.
How will black students respond to a campaign specifically designed to increase
achievement on standardized tests? Specific instruments used in affirmation intervention
are found in the appendices (See Appendix B) of the study along with the surveys and
reflection questions designed for this study and given to the students. Essentially, the
program of affirmation intervention will utilize three overarching platforms. Those
platforms are: 1) Instructing the students that the brain is like a muscle and can be
strengthened with “exercise.” Affirmation intervention through group discussion and
one-on-one conversations held within the parameters of the social studies curriculum is
aimed at getting students to buy-in to the idea that intelligence is malleable rather than
immutable. 2) Disabusing the students of the notion that prior performance in school is a
predictor of their current abilities, i.e. just because success has not been had does not
mean that it cannot be had. Assignments, early in the semester, that foster this notion
through subjective rather than objective grading will be utilized. 3) Focusing the students
on attributes they possess that are equally as important as their educational acumen. To
this end, differentiated dissemination approaches as well as differentiated assessments
that give opportunities for non-traditional learners to showcase their talents will be
utilized.
Focus question 3 deals with the change process at the institutional level. How
will school leaders feel about the processes used to reduce stereotype threat with regards
to the stated goals of the school improvement plan for social studies? The surveys,
reflection questions, and interview prompts used by and on the participants in the study
are found in the appendices. Said instruments are designed to assess both the success of
affirmation intervention itself with reducing stereotype threat amongst the subjects and
the efficacy of extending the procedures used to the faculty at large in hopes of affecting
institutional change.
References
Bruce, A., Getch, Y., & Ziomek-Daigle, J. (2009). Closing the Gap: A Group Counseling
Approach to Improve Test Performance of African-American Students. Professional
School Counseling, 12(6), 450-457. Retrieved from Vocational and Career Collection
database
Darling, S. (2008). Family Must Be a Part of the Solution in Closing the Achievement
Gap. Clearing House, 81(6), 245-246. Retrieved from Vocational and Career Collection
database.
Demack, S., Drew, D., & Grimsley, M. (2000). Minding the Gap: ethnic, gender and
social class differences in attainment at 16, 1988–95. Race, Ethnicity & Education, 3(2),
117-143. doi:10.1080/13613320050074005.
Erickson, E. (2008). A READING PROGRAM TO NARROW THE ACHIEVEMENT
GAP. Reading Improvement, 45(4), 170-180. Retrieved from Professional Development
Collection database.
Horton, A. (2004). The Academic Achievement Gap Between Blacks and Whites: The
Latest Version of Blaming the Victim?. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social
Environment, 10(2), 57-70. doi:10.1300/J137v10n02_03.
Ikpa, V. (1994). The effects of school desegregation policies upon the achievement gap
between African American.. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 21(1), 49. Retrieved
from Professional Development Collection database.
Ipka, V. (2003). At Risk Children in Resegregated Schools: An Analysis of the
Achievement Gap. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 30(4), 294-304. Retrieved from
Sociological Collection database.
Leach, M., & Williams, S. (2007). The Impact of the Academic Achievement Gap on the
African American Family: A Social Inequality Perspective. Journal of Human Behavior
in the Social Environment, 15(2/3), 39-59. doi:10.1300/J137v15n02_04.
Mandara, J., Varner, F., Greene, N., & Richman, S. (2009). Intergenerational Family
Predictors of the Black-White Achievement Gap. Journal of Educational Psychology,
101(4), 867-878. Retrieved from ERIC database.
Mattison, E., & Aber, M. (2007). Closing the Achievement Gap: The Association of
Racial Climate with Achievement and Behavioral Outcomes. American Journal of
Community Psychology, 40(1/2), 1-12. doi:10.1007/s10464-007-9128-x.
Olszewski-Kubilius, P. (2006). Addressing the Achievement Gap Between Minority and
Nonminority Children. Gifted Child Today, 29(2), 28-37. Retrieved from Professional
Development Collection database.
Roscigno, V. (1999). The Black-White Achievement Gap, Family-School Links, and the
Importance of Place. Sociological Inquiry, 69(2), 159-186. Retrieved from SocINDEX
with Full Text database
Schmeichel, B., & Vohs, K. (2009). Self-Affirmation and Self-Control: Affirming Core
Values Counteracts Ego Depletion. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 96(4),
770-782. Retrieved from SocINDEX with Full Text database
Smith, A., Schneider, B., & Ruck, M. (2005). “Thinking About Makin’ It”: Black
Canadian Students’ Beliefs Regarding Education and Academic Achievement. Journal
of Youth & Adolescence, 34(4), 347-359. doi:10.1007/s10964-005-5759-0.
Spencer, B., & Castano, E. (2007). Social Class is Dead. Long Live Social Class!
Stereotype Threat among Low Socioeconomic Status Individuals. Social Justice
Research, 20(4), 418-432. doi:10.1007/s11211-007-0047-7.
Sperling, R., & Vaughan, P. (2009). Measuring the Relationship between Attribution for
"The Gap" and Educational Policy Attitudes: Introducing the Attributions for Scholastic
Outcomes Scale-Black. Journal of Negro Education, 78(2), 146-158. Retrieved from
ERIC database
Taylor, D. (n.d). Class and Schools: Using social, economic, and educational reform to
close the Black–White achievement gap. School Effectiveness & School Improvement,
16(4), 445-449. doi:10.1080/09243450500333716.
Vedder, P. (2006). Black and White Schools in the Netherlands. European Education,
38(2), 36-49. Retrieved from ERIC database.
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT QUESTIONNAIRE
To what extent do the following behaviors, thoughts, and feelings describe
you? Please rate each of them on the following scale:
5 = very characteristic of me
4 = characteristic of me
3 = moderately characteristic of me
2 = not really characteristic of me
1 = not at all characteristic of me
1. _____ Raising my hand in class
2. _____ Participating actively in small group discussions
3. _____ Asking questions when I don’t understand the instructor
4. _____ Doing all the homework assignments
5. _____ Coming to class every day
6. _____ Going to the teacher’s office hours to review assignments or tests, or to
ask questions
7. _____ Thinking about the course between class meetings
8. _____ Finding ways to make the course interesting to me
9. _____ Taking good notes in class
10. _____ Looking over class notes between classes to make sure I understand
the material
11. _____ Really desiring to learn the material
12. _____ Being confident that I can learn and do well in the class
13. _____ Putting forth effort
14. _____ Being organized
15. _____ Getting a good grade
16. _____ Doing well on the tests
17. _____ Staying up on the readings
18. _____ Having fun in class
19. _____ Helping fellow students
20. _____ Making sure to study on a regular basis
21. _____ Finding ways to make the course material relevant to my life
22. _____ Applying course material to my life
23. _____ Listening carefully in class
Source: Handelsman, M. M., Briggs, W. L., Sullivan, N., & Towler, A. (2005). A
measure of college student course engagement. Journal of Educational
Research, 98, 184-191.
Interview Questions
1) Please tell me your name, title, and how many years you have been in education.
2) How does the achievement gap impact our school’s ability to achieve AYP?
3) What do you think can be done to close the gap?
4) What programs are currently in place at the school or district level to address the needs
of our underachieving students?
5) What legal obligations do we have in meeting the needs of students who underperform
on the GHSGT in social studies?
6) How do you view the affirmation intervention techniques employed in 11th grade
government classes?
7) Do you think affirmation intervention techniques designed to reduce stereotype threat
could be extended to other classes?
8) Is there anything I’ve missed that you think we should discuss?
Pre-Test
1. How did the scientific method differ from the way in which the ancient Greeks tried to
understand nature?
A. It used logic as its main tool.
B. It relied on the teachings of the Church.
C. It advocated observation and experimentation.
D. It challenged the concept of natural laws.
2. What effect did the success of the American Revolution have on France?
A. It led to the execution of the French royal family.
B. It caused the French colonies to break away from France.
C. It resulted in large-scale French immigration to the United States.
D. It encouraged many French people to demand changes in their own government.
3. What effect did the environment have on the early Arctic peoples?
A. It led them to become hunters.
B. It caused them to migrate to Asia.
C. It encouraged them to develop agriculture
D. It encouraged them to trade with neighboring cultures.
4. While Panama is a small nation with few natural resources that would interest highly
industrialized nations, it is strategically important to the United States and other world
powers. What makes Panama so important?
A. It serves as a buffer between two hostile nations.
B. It has historically supported the United States during times of war.
C. It is close enough to the United States to provide a safe haven in times of danger.
D. It provides a quick and therefore economical link between the Atlantic and Pacific
Oceans.
5. In the 1840s, traveling to California was a long and difficult overland journey or a
dangerous one by sea around Cape Horn. Yet, California was settled rapidly. Why was
this the case?
A. Gold was discovered in California.
B. Cotton growers wanted more land for cotton plantations.
C. Many people wanted to move away from the growing controversy over slavery.
D. The United States government paid settlers to colonize the newly acquired territory.
6. Which best explains the appearance of political parties in the United States shortly
after the adoption of the Constitution?
A. Washington disliked Jefferson.
B. The Constitution required the development of a multiparty system.
C. Great Britain had a two party system.
D. Differences arose over economic and political issues.
7. Which document explains the reasons for the colonies’ act of separation from
England?
A. Mayflower Compact
B. Articles of Confederation
C. Declaration of Independence
D. Constitution of the United States
8. The Republican Party was first associated with northern interests and abolitionism.
Because of this association, how did the South view the election of Abraham Lincoln as
President?
A. with mixed feelings since Lincoln was not well known in the South.
B. with fear that he might attempt to destroy slavery and other Southern institutions
C. as the best choice since he stated he was no abolitionist and would not do away with
slavery in the Southern states.
D. with indifference since Congress was dominated by Democrats and would check any
of Lincoln’s attempts against the South.
9. Between 1868 and 1890, southern states wrote new constitutions. Voting requirements,
such as the poll tax and literacy test, were instituted. Jim Crow laws were passed. The
Democratic Party, which had controlled the South before the Civil War, was once again
in power. Which conclusion is best supported by this evidence?
A. The percentage of African-American voters increased.
B. New state constitutions ensured African-American rights.
C. Opportunities for African-Americans in state government increased.
D. African Americans lost the political power they had gained during Reconstruction.
10. Raising revenue is a major concern of governments. Since the Progressive Era in the
early 20th century, which has been the primary source of revenue for the federal
government?
A. tariffs on imported goods
B. taxes on luxury items
C. income taxes
D. property taxes
11. Which best describes Franklin Roosevelt's attitude toward the role of government
during the Great Depression?
A. It bears a responsibility for all citizens' welfare.
B. It should encourage people to seek work but should not provide jobs.
C. It should play as small a role as possible in people's lives.
D. It should favor business interests over those of individuals.
12. Which change in U.S. society was a result of World War I?
A. increased tolerance of minorities and recent immigrants
B. large African-American populations in Northern cities
C. integration of African Americans within the armed forces.
D. renewal of the attraction of farm life over city life.
13. The Ninth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution states:
The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not be construed to deny
or disparage others retained by the people. What was the intent of this amendment?
A. to list those rights that can be restricted by the government
B. to show that parts of the Constitution may be contradictory
C. to show that certain rights were less important than others
D. to emphasize that there are rights besides the ones listed
14. Which is a step involved in the process of gaining naturalized American citizenship?
A. filing a formal declaration of intent to become a citizen with immigration authorities
B. showing proof of ownership of real estate in the United States
C. securing employment in the United States
D. joining a major political party
15. What is the main function of congressional committees?
A. to evaluate the merits of the many bills which are proposed
B. to draft legislation in response to lobbyists and interest groups
C. to enlist the President’s support for specific bills
D. to review the constitutionality of bills before they are put to the vote
16. The social contract theory had great significance for the development of the U.S.
political system. According to this theory, when people join together to create a state,
they voluntarily give up some of their individual power in order to ensure the safety and
well being of all. The source of government power, therefore, is the people. Which
conclusion logically follows from this theory?
A. Obedience to the law is voluntary.
B. Majority decisions are correct decisions.
C. Government exists to serve the will of the people.
D. The best government is the one that governs least.
Use this map and cross section to answer question 17 below.
17. What information about the St. Lawrence Seaway does the cross section add to
complement the map above it?
A. the location of the locks and canals of the St. Lawrence Seaway
B. the depths of all the major bodies of water that make up the St. Lawrence Seaway
C. the placement of the locks in order to overcome differences in elevation from one
body of water to the next
D. the importance of the St. Lawrence Seaway to trade between the U.S. and Canada and
between Canada and Europe
Read the passages below and answer the two questions that follow.
Passage A
... Who is the real American? I would say the real American is the one whose forebears
built this nation into what it is today— a place of boundless opportunity for reaping the
fruits of sacrifice and hard work. The foundations of America rest not on the Mayflower
or the Statue of Liberty but on the achievements of generations of people born on
American soil who built their businesses, their factories, their farms, to a level of
productivity that makes America the envy of the twentieth century world. And what has
this accomplished? Instead of other nations emulating our example, we are forced to
receive their castoffs, straining our resources and endangering our prosperity....
Passage B
... It came to me that no man— no one at all— could destroy my faith in America
again. It was something that had grown out of my defeats and successes, something
shaped by my struggles for a place in this vast land, digging my hands into the rich soil
here and there, catching a freight to the north and to the south, seeking free meals in
dingy gambling houses, reading a book that opened up worlds of heroic thoughts. It was
something that grew out of the sacrifices and loneliness of my friends, of my brothers in
America and my family in the Philippines— something that grew out of our desire to
know America, and to become a part of her great tradition, and to contribute something
toward her final fulfillment. I knew that no man could destroy my faith in America that
had sprung from all our hopes and aspirations, ever...
18. How do the two authors differ on their feelings about America's greatness?
A. Author A believes that the cities make America great; Author B believes that the
opportunity for mobility makes America great.
B. Author A believes that the original immigrants made America great; Author B
believes current immigrants make America great.
C. Author A believes that all Americans have contributed to America's greatness; Author
B believes that only a select few have contributed to its greatness.
D. Author A stresses the continuing hard work of generations of Americans in making
America great; Author B stresses that the opportunity for all Americans to contribute to
the country makes America great.
19. Which recurring problem of U.S. history do these passages address?
A. national security and individual liberty
B. national identity and immigration policy
C. isolationism vs. leadership in world affairs
D. sectional differences with regard to the tariff
Georgia Department of Education Student Guide for Social Studies