CHAPTER 4
Ancient Egypt and Nubia
Chapter Preview: People, Places, and Events
3500 B.C.
Nile River
The Nile River creates a long strip of green, fertile land in the desert. Lesson 1, Page 92
2800 B.C.
Life Along the Nile
Can you tell what this person is doing? Lesson 1, Page 93
2100 B.C.
Egyptian Life
Egypt had a well-developed civilization and left many records of daily life. Lesson 2, Page 96
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Lesson 1
The Geography of the Nile
Main Idea Conditions along the Nile River were ideal for the development of the ancient Egyptian and
Nubian civilizations.
Key Vocabulary
delta
cataract
Key Places
Nile River
Egypt
Nubia
Two Egyptian hunters stand motionless in their boat. Before them stretches the vast
expanse of the Nile, the world's longest river. A source of many things, the Nile
provides food, water, and the reeds used to make paper, furniture, and building
materials. It is also a watery highway that transports people and goods.
The two hunters wait in their boat. From the nearby reeds, birds rustle and call. Fish
dart through the sparkling waters. Yesterday, the hunters easily caught some of
both. Today, they have their sights set on something far more dangerous.
At last, they spot him! The enormous hippopotamus surfaces suddenly, threatening to
upset the fragile craft with his thrashing. Their spears at the ready, the hunters
launch their attack. The battle is on!
---This golden mask is from the tomb of Tutankhamun, the boy pharaoh.
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A River Through the Desert
Focus What are the special features of the Nile Valley?
This scene could have happened 5,000 years ago in ancient Egypt or Nubia, which were
located in northeastern Africa. This area was mostly dry and forbidding, with one
important exception. Flowing through the arid desert valleys was the mighty Nile
River.
The Nile flowed down from its source in the mountains of central Africa, running north
to its mouth at the Mediterranean Sea. Every year in July at the start of central
Africa's rainy season, the river swelled. As its water level rose, the Nile flooded,
depositing a rich layer of silt on the surrounding land.
In September, the rainy season ended, and a wide ribbon of fertile soil was left on each
side of the river. This soil was then plowed and planted. Harvests were plentiful in
the Nile Valley. Watered by the river, vegetables, fruits, and grains grew well.
Because of the desert to the east and west, travel in Egypt went mainly downstream
with the Nile's current (north) and upstream against the current (south). Winds in
this area generally blow from north to south. If an Egyptian needed to travel north
from Thebes to Giza, his boat would be carried by the current, moved faster by the
work of rowers. Coming south to get home, he would put up the sails on his boat.
Wind would push the boat upstream, against the current, back to Thebes. You can
trace the traveler's route using the map to the left.
The city of Thebes was in a region known as Upper Egypt, farther south on the river.
Giza was in Lower Egypt. At the mouth of the river, at sea level, was the Nile's
delta, a triangular area of fertile land formed by silt that the river deposited.
---The soil of the Nile River Valley was rich and fertile. The land away from the Nile was a vast desert.
Map Skill: What geographic features kept visitors and invading armies out of Egypt?
---See the Nile River Valley map on p. 92
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Scenes from Life Along the Nile
---You can tell which direction a boat on the Nile is traveling by looking at its sail. The wind only blows
from north to south. Science: If this model boat were on the river, which direction would it be
traveling?
---Egyptians hunted birds in the reeds along the river's edge. Science: How many different animals can
you identify? If you wanted to make more detailed identifications, how would you go about doing
the research?
---Refer to images on p.93
Along the Nile River to the south of Egypt lay Nubia. It, too, was divided into an upper
and lower region. South of Aswan, the Nile had a series of six dramatic turns and
rocky rapids called cataracts which were extremely difficult to navigate. The first
of these cataracts served as a natural border between Egypt and Nubia. The Nile did
not flood in Nubia as much as it did in Egypt. As a result, Nubia's land was far less
fertile than Egypt's.
Lesson Review: Geography
1. Key Vocabulary: Write a description of the Nile Valley, using the following terms:
delta, cataract.
2. Focus: What are the special features of the Nile Valley?
3. Critical Thinking: Interpret As far as historians know, the language of the ancient
Egyptians contains no word for "bridge." What does this tell us about life along the
Nile in ancient Egypt?
4. Theme: Lasting Beginnings How did the geographic features of the Nile Valley
encourage settlement in Egypt and Nubia?
5. Geography/Art Activity: Make a map for a river traveler in ancient Egypt and
Nubia. Outline the northern coast of Africa and the path of the Nile River. Mark the
locations of towns and cities the traveler might wish to visit.
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LESSON 2
Ancient Egypt
Main Idea The Egyptians developed a complex civilization that lasted for many centuries.
Key Vocabulary
nomad
pharaoh
dynasty
papyrus
hieroglyphics
afterlife
The palace of the Egyptian king was alive with the sounds of the many people who had
been called to serve the royal family. Scribes arrived to record faithfully their
accounts of daily life in the court. Sculptors were summoned to produce works of
art from ivory, wood, bronze, gold, and turquoise. Cooks and bakers worked hard
preparing royal meals. Long after these people came and went, the palace remained
full of officials busily attending to the needs of their king.
Royal life was far from being all work and no play. It also included sports and
entertainment. The king enjoyed hunting, fishing, and riding in chariots, twowheeled vehicles pulled by horses. He provided an enthusiastic audience for
wrestling matches between his soldiers and Egyptian slaves.
Key Events
3100 B.C. Egypt united under one king
2650 B.C. First pyramid built in Egypt
---In this scene, the queen offers the king a small jar of oil or perfume. Arts: How can you tell that these
people are royalty?
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Life Along the Nile
Focus What was life like for Egyptian rulers and common citizens?
Egypt was not always organized into well-run cities ruled by kings and officials.
Around 7000 B.C., nomads, people who moved from place to place in search of
food and water, lived in small camps in the Nile Valley. They hunted animals,
fished, and gathered the plentiful wild fruits and vegetables of the area.
Later, the Egyptians began farming and domesticating animals. These small farms grew
into village communities that eventually became part of two separate kingdoms
called Upper and Lower Egypt. Legend says that in about 3100 B.C., more than
5,000 years ago, the two regions were united by King Menes (MEE neez), the ruler
of Upper Egypt. This was the first time that a national government was formed
anywhere.
---Egyptians believed that their kings received power directly from the gods. In this statue, the king is
receiving power from the hawk god, Horus, a sky god who had the power to overcome evil.
Ancient Egyptian Government
Throughout most of its history, Egypt was ruled by kings. These kings were thought to
be representatives of the gods. Using the king's name directly was considered
disrespectful, so people referred to him by his residence. They called him the "per
aa," or pharaoh, which meant "great house" in Egyptian. (You can read about
famous pharaohs in the article that begins on page 106.)
The union of Upper and Lower Egypt under one pharaoh marked the start of the
kingdom's first dynasty. A dynasty is a group of rulers over several generations
descending from the same family. Thirty-one different dynasties ruled Egypt for
nearly 3,000 years. Historians divide the dynasties into periods, which are listed in
the Fact File below. During periods called the Old Kingdom, the Middle Kingdom,
and the New Kingdom, Egypt prospered. The First and Second Intermediate
periods were times of unrest.
The pharaohs controlled every aspect of life in Egypt. The pharaoh was considered the
kingdom's most important high priest. He was also a lawmaker and a leader in
battle. Officials called viziers (vih ZIHRS) were selected by the pharaoh to actas
judges, mayors, and supervisors of tax collectors. Next highest in rank was the
chief of the treasury, who managed the tax money.
---See fact file on page 95
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The death of a pharaoh was mourned by his people. It was usually his son (or,
occasionally, his daughter) who took over as the next ruler. In this way, the royal
family continued.
Curious Facts
In ancient times, Egyptians had many dental problems, the most common of which was worn-down teeth.
Sand and grit got into the flour they used to make bread, possibly because it was ground outside.
When people chewed the baked bread, the sand and grit wore away their teeth.
Daily Life of Citizens
It is morning, and an Egyptian nobleman is already out the door of his home, thinking
ahead to the plans for the temple he is designing. As he leaves, he passes the
family's servants entering the home and heading back to the kitchen, ready to be
assigned their daily tasks.
Heading off to the temple classroom for his first day of school, the nobleman's fouryear-old son is ready to learn to read and write as he begins his training as a scribe.
His parents are proud — after all, this is one of the most respected occupations in
Egypt. If he excels at his lessons, the boy can go on to become an official scribe for
the court. He could even become the pharaoh's vizier one day. His older sister
remains at home where she will learn cooking, sewing, and other household skills.
The children's mother has no time to waste. There is grain to be ground and bread to be
baked. She will oversee the preparation of this evening's meal. The family will dine
on beef, a variety of vegetables, such as onions, leeks, beans, chickpeas, radishes,
spinach, and carrots, and fruits, such as figs, grapes, dates, and pomegranates.
After the servants have served and cleared dinner, the family may spend the evening at
home. The parents can relax over a board game called senet, and the children may
play leapfrog or outdoor games. Or the family might decide to take to the streets
and enjoy the music of harp players. Or they could go for a swim in the Nile before
the sun sets on their busy day.
---Egyptians used cattle and oxen to help them farm. This man is plowing his field. A farmer's wealth was
measured largely by the number of cattle he owned. Arts: Why would a large number of cattle
indicate wealth?
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---Eating Well
In some villages in Egypt, bread is still made today as it was thousands of years ago.
Playing Games
Parents as well as children liked to play board games. One of the most popular was senet, a game for two
players. This senet board has a special drawer for holding the playing pieces.
Looking Good
Most Egyptians kept their hair short. This wooden comb may have been used to decorate wigs, which
were worn by both men and women. Men and women also used a black eyeliner called kohl. It
helped to shield their eyes from the glaring sun and may have helped to protect against eye disease.
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Families like this one belonged to Egypt's upper class. The kingdom also had a middle
and lower class. Merchants, manufacturers, and craftspeople made up the middle
class. Poor farmers and unskilled workers were part of the lower class. In the
bottom-most class were prisoners who had been enslaved at war and brought to
Egypt.
Cultural Contributions
Focus What were some of the key achievements of ancient Egypt?
Pyramids, the 365-day calendar, reed boats. What do these things have in common?
They were just a few of the Egyptians' many accomplishments. The Egyptians also
taught themselves how to set broken bones. They invented sails and established
many libraries to house scrolls that covered a wide range of subjects.
From River Plants to Paper
Before they had paper, people in ancient times usually wrote on clay tablets or stone
chips. While they served the purpose, these tablets and stones were heavy and hard
to carry around. In about 3000 B.C., the Egyptians came up with the idea of making
a kind of paper from the papyrus (puh PY ruhs) plants that grew along the Nile.
Papyrus sheets were used for writing books in the form of scrolls, letters, and legal
documents. The word "paper" comes from the word "papyrus."
Writing with Pictures
For the Egyptians, writing was important. There were accounts to be kept, directions to
write, and marks of ownership to be noted. In addition, scribes recorded events
from everyday life and wrote religious texts. Many professions required a
knowledge of reading and writing. If you wanted to amount to anything in Egyptian
society, the first thing you had to do was acquire these skills.
---How Papyrus Sheets Were Made
The papyrus stalks were cut, peeled, and sliced.
The thin slices were laid closely side by side. Another layer was placed on top at a right angle to the first
layer. The strips were pounded as they dried.
To make long rolls, sheets could be glued together side by side.
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---Jean Francois Champollion (1790-1832)
The Egyptian method of writing, hieroglyphics (hy ehr eh GLIF iks), was based on
hieroglyphs, or pictures that stood for sounds, objects, or ideas. For example, a
hieroglyph might stand for the sound of the letter "T." Or it might be a picture of
writing tools, which meant "scribe." Anyone who wanted to read and write had to
master more than 700 signs in the hieroglyphic system. These pictures were time
consuming to draw and were mainly used for carvings on monuments and in tombs.
For everyday writing, a simpler cursive form called hieratic script (hy uh RAT ihk)
was used. It was written with a reed pen on sheets of papyrus.
Egyptians used hieroglyphics for almost 4,000 years. Centuries later, people had
forgotten how to read hieroglyphics. Then, in 1799, an important link with the past
was found near the town of Rosetta in Egypt. It was a partially broken stone carved
with a message written in three different languages. One of those languages was
ancient Greek,
Tell Me More
How Did Champollion Break the Code?
Jean Francois Champollion was a nine-year-old in France the year the Rosetta Stone was found. As an
adult, he joined the ranks of those trying to crack the Egyptian hieroglyphic code. Champollion
began working with cartouches (kar TOOSH ez), which are hieroglyphs enclosed in an oval
representing the names of Egyptian kings and queens. Other historians had already determined
which cartouches stood for the names Ptolemy (TAHL uh mee) and Cleopatra. Champollion was
able to figure out which hieroglyphs in Ptolemy's cartouche stood for which sounds. The lion
symbol, for example, stood for an "L" sound. Comparing Ptolemy's cartouche with Cleopatra's, he
found the same symbols for the same sounds. For example, the lion hieroglyph is repeated in
Cleopatra's cartouche. He went on to decipher all the images in the hieroglyphic code.
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which people could still read. Thinking that the other two languages repeated the same
message, scholars set to work trying to decode these Egyptian hieroglyphics. In the
box on the previous page, you can read more about Jean Francois Champollion
(sham paw lee AWN), the man who unlocked the mystery.
---Egyptian gods often assumed human, or part-human, forms. To the left is Anubis, the god of
mummification. To the right is Isis, the goddess of magic.
Gods and the Afterlife
Focus What were the Egyptians' religious beliefs, and how did these beliefs affect daily life?
Like the Mesopotamians, the ancient Egyptians were polytheists. They prayed to
hundreds of gods and goddesses. Each village had its own major god, in addition to
several minor gods. There were also some gods and goddesses that all Egyptians
worshipped. Pictures and statues of these gods and goddesses showed them in
various forms. Some looked like humans; others were shaped like creatures that
lived in the Nile Valley. Still others were combinations of the two.
Osiris was an important god. Egyptians believed that he had ruled as the Egyptian king
until he was murdered by his jealous brother, Seth. According to the Egyptians'
beliefs, Osiris was brought back to life by his wife Isis and became the king who
ruled over the dead in the underworld. Horns, the son of Osiris and Isis, challenged
and defeated his wicked uncle Seth. Horus then took over as ruler of Egypt.
One of the major Egyptian gods was Ra, the sun god. He was sometimes portrayed as a
young falcon god; at other times, he took the shape of a wise, old man. During the
New Kingdom Period, Egyptians wrote a hymn to Ra and inscribed it on a stone
monument:
Hail to you Ra … You stir to rise at dawn, and your brightness opens the eyes of the flock; you set in the
western mountain, and then they sleep as if in death.
The Egyptians built numerous temples. Each temple was thought to be the home of a
particular god or goddess. Sometimes, temples were dedicated to the memory of a
pharaoh. The king was believed to be a god come to earth in a human form or the
physical son of a god. Inside the temple, only the high priests were allowed to
approach the god or goddess, who was often represented by a gold statue. The
priests washed,
Then & Now
Ramesses II, who ruled in the 1200s B.c., built more temples and statues than any other Egyptian king.
His largest temple was
built in a sandstone
cliff. In the 1960s, the Aswan High Dam
almost flooded this temple. People all over the world sent money to move it to higher ground. The
huge temple was entirely ground. The huge temple was entirely rebuilt 215 feet above its original
site.
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dressed, and decorated the statue with jewels before making daily offerings of food and
drink.
Ordinary Egyptians were not allowed to enter the temples, so they prayed at home to
their favorite gods and goddesses. The only time the people might have caught a
glimpse of the god or goddess was when priests carried the statue through the
streets during festivals.
Life After Death
The Egyptians hoped that Osiris, the god who rose from the dead, would grant them life
after death, too. Burial practices reflected this wish.
Egyptians believed that they were born with a ka, a spirit or life force that stayed with
them throughout the course of their lives. They thought that the ka had an afterlife,
that is, it continued to live after death. They believed that it remained in the tomb
with the body. Priests and relatives of the dead person gave the ka daily offerings
of food. Tombs were often filled with a variety of items considered necessary for
the afterlife: furniture, scrolls, games, clothing, and jewelry.
The Egyptians also thought that it was important for the ka to recognize its former body.
To keep the body unchanged in its appearance and intact for the next life, the
Egyptians developed a system of preservation
How Mummies Were Made
1. The lungs, stomach, liver, and intestines are removed and placed in special containers called canopic jars.
2. The body is packed inside and out in a strong drying salt called natron so that it
does not rot.
3. The body is rubbed with spices and oils and decorated. Then it is wrapped with
strips of linen.
4. One or more coffins are made, usually out of wood. In royal burials, the coffin
then fits inside a large stone coffin called a sarcophagus.
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known as mummification. (You can read about mummy making at the bottom of the
previous page.) Some mummies were so well preserved that their teeth, hair styles,
and even facial expressions are still intact. Modern scientists can learn about
diseases, causes of death, and other facts of Egyptian life from these ancient bodies.
---For thousands of years, the pyramids of Egypt were the tallest structures on Earth. Math: What other
tall buildings could you add to this chart?
--- see graph “How Tall Is It?” on page 102
Pyramids
In very early times, Egyptians had simply surrounded their dead with the food, clothing,
and weapons they would need in the afterlife and buried them in the sand. But this
simple burial offered no protection against sandstorms or roving animals. For this
reason, Egyptian kings and nobles began to build burial places that were more long
lasting.
Tell Me More
How Did They Build the Great Pyramid?
Built by the pharaoh Khufu during the Old Kingdom period, the Great Pyramid was originally 481 feet
high. Its tremendous base covered an area of about 13 acres. It was constructed of about 2.3 million
enormous limestone blocks, some as tall as 5 feet. All together, the stones in the pyramid weighed
about 7 million tons.
When the blocks arrived from nearby quarries by boat, workers unloaded them onto sledges, wooden
sleds with runners. Using ropes made from palm fibers, teams of men then pull the blocks to the
pyramid site.
Layer by layer, the stones were put into place. As the pyramid grew higher, workers built ramps around
the structure so they could drag stones to each new level. As the pyramid went up, they constructed
passageways and a room that would be the pharaoh's burial chamber. They then added more
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In approximately 2650 B.C., Imhotep (ihm HOH tehp), an architect and statesman, built
the first pyramid. This structure, which is still standing, was a tomb for the pharaoh
Djoser (DZOH suhr). It is referred to as a step pyramid because it was constructed
as a series of terraces that resembled steps. The first smooth-sided pyramid was
built about 2600 B.C. It still stands today at Medum. The pyramid's shape was
thought to imitate the sun's rays as they shone down from the heavens.
Before building these tombs, architects had to choose a suitable location. They found a
rock plateau, a flat elevated stretch of land, located near the Nile. Other decisions
had to be made: which direction the pyramid would face, how steeply the pyramid's
side would slope. River rafts then brought blocks of stones directly from quarries to
the building site. Once these blocks arrived, thousands of workers could begin
building.
layers of stone, completely enclosing the room and tunnels as they built higher.
When the construction was completed, workers covered the pyramid with a smooth casing of fine
limestone. A knife blade could not even pass between the stones of the outermost wall. Ramps were
knocked down, leaving the enormous monument to the pharaoh gleaming in the desert sun.
--- see diagram on page 103
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In Giza in Lower Egypt, three of the largest pyramids remain standing. Ancient
travelers considered the tallest of the pyramids, the Great Pyramid, one of the
Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. You can read about the construction of the
Great Pyramid on the previous pages.
Long after their pharaoh was laid in his pyramid, the Egyptians liked to think that their
ruler's good favor continued to shine down on them. Still considered a god after he
had died, the pharaoh was buried as he had lived: surrounded by possessions,
jewelry, and treasure.
---This pendant is from the tomb of the young King Tutankhamun (toot ahng KAH muhn), now called
King Tut. The treasure of King Tuts tomb, found in 1922, captured the interest of people all over the
world. It gave rise to Egyptian fashions in clothing, jewelry, and architecture. Cultures: In what
other ways might an archaeological discovery influence people?
Grave Robbing and the Valley of the Kings
The pharaohs of the Old Kingdom spent a huge amount of Egypt's wealth to build their
pyramids. Over the centuries, these enormous tombs were easy targets for thieves,
who robbed them of their treasures. To better hide their tombs, the pharaohs of the
New Kingdom carved their tombs deep into cliffs in the Valley of the Kings, across
the Nile from the city of Thebes. Some scholars think the location was chosen
because it contained a huge rocky peak similar in shape to the earlier pyramids.
This royal cemetery was used for over four hundred years, and more than 60 tombs
have been discovered there. Over time, however, even these hidden tombs were
robbed. Starting in the 1500s, many people believed that mummies could be used
as medicine. Hundreds of tombs were robbed at that time. Powdered mummy was a
popular medicine until the 1700s, especially in Europe, where people used it to
treat bruises, wounds, and even stomachaches!
Today, scientists can learn much about people in ancient times by carefully studying
mummies and the treasures of tombs. Many museums preserve fragile remains and
rare objects so that people will be able to study and admire them in the future.
Some people, however, think that mummies and their treasures should not be
disturbed or even displayed in
---The Valley of the Kings was a deep gorge in the desert near the city of Luxor. Many kings were buried
there, including King Tutankhamun, who died at the age of 19 in about 1325 B.c.
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museums. They believe that this is disrespectful to the memory of the dead. The
Egyptian Museum in Cairo, Egypt, removed its collection of mummies from public
view for more than a decade because of the controversy. The mummies are now
back on display.
Exciting discoveries are still being made in Egypt. One of the largest Egyptian tombs
ever found was discovered in the Valley of the Kings in the spring of 1995. It
contains the tombs of some of Ramesses II's 52 sons. Archaeologists were
exploring the site because the area was supposed to become a parking lot. You can
read more about it in the TIME magazine article "Secrets of the Lost Tomb," which
begins on the next page.
---Today, scientists can study mummies without unwrapping or damaging them. At top right, a medical
device called a CAT scanner is used to study the remains of a mummy. At far left, a cross section
shows the outline of the coffin and the skeleton.
---Technology: Why is it better to study mummies without unwrapping them?
Lesson Review
3100 B.C. Egypt united under one king
2650 B.C. First pyramid built in Egypt
1. Key Vocabulary: Use these vocabulary words in a paragraph: pharaoh,
hieroglyphics, dynasty, afterlife.
2. Focus: What was life like for Egyptian rulers and common citizens?
3. Focus: What were some of the key achievements of ancient Egypt?
4. Focus: What were the Egyptians' religious beliefs, and how did these beliefs affect
daily life?
5. Critical Thinking/Interpret Make a chart of the advantages and disadvantages of
dynastic rule.
6. Theme: Lasting Beginnings Why might Egyptian culture have lasted for so many
centuries?
7. Citizenship/Writing Activity: You are a scribe in the court of the pharaoh. Make a
record of a day in the king's life.
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From the Pages of Time
Secrets of the Lost Tomb
A mammoth mausoleum uncovered in Egypt may hold up to 50 sons of the greatest of the pharaohs
by Michael D. Lemonick
Egyptologists had long since lost interest in the site of Tomb 5, which had been
explored and looted decades ago, and was about to give way to a parking lot. But
for that parking lot, in fact, no one would have ever known the treasure that lay
only 200 ft. from King Tut's, resting place, just beyond a few rubble-strewn rooms
that previous excavators had used to hold their debris.
Wanting to be sure the new parking facility wouldn't destroy anything important, Dr.
Kent Weeks, an Egyptologist with the American University in Cairo, embarked in
1988 on one final exploration of the old dumping ground. Eventually, he was able
to pry open a door blocked for thousands of years — and last week announced the
discovery of a lifetime. "We found ourselves in a corridor," Weeks remembers.
".On each side were 10 doors, and at the end there was a statue of Osiris, the god of
the afterlife." Two more corridors branched off from there, with 16 more doors on
each one.
Although the tomb is mostly unexcavated and the chambers are choked with debris,
Weeks is convinced that there are more rooms on a lower level, bringing the total
number to more than100. That would make Tomb 5 the biggest and most complex
tomb ever found in Egypt — and quite conceivably the resting place of up to 50
sons of Ramesses II, perhaps the best known of all the pharaohs, the ruler believed
to have been Moses' nemesis in the book of
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---God Of Afterlife The statue of Osiris lies deep within the tomb. Its missing face may lie in the rubble
below.
---A Tomb Fit For 50 Sons
---Tomb 5 contains at least 62 chambers and was intended as the burial place for many of Ramesses II's
sons. Evidence of stairways and some collapsed columns suggest that there is a lower level of rooms
where mummies may be entombed.
--- see diagram on page 107
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---From Tomb To Tour Stop
Ramesses II's mummified body now reigns at Cairo's Egyptian Museum
--- see picture on page 108 (top)
Exodus. Says Emily Teeter, an Egyptologist with Chicago's Oriental Institute Museum:
"To find large tombs is one thing, but to find something like this, that's been used
for dozens of burials, is absolutely amazing." The cheeky London Daily Mail
carried this headline: PHARAOH'S 50 SONS IN MUMMY OF ALL TOMBS.
"Egyptians do not call him Ramesses II," Sabry Abd El Aziz, director of antiquities for
the Qurna region, told TIME correspondent Lara Marlowe last week, as she and
photographer Barry Iverson became the first Western journalists to enter the tomb
since the new discoveries were announced. "We call him Ramesses al-Akbar –
Ramesses the Greatest."
No wonder. During his 67 years on the throne, stretching from 1279 B.C. to 1212 B.C.,
Ramesses could have filled an ancient edition of the Guinness Book of Records all
by himself: he built more temples, obelisks and monuments; took more wives
(eight ...) and claimed to have sired more children (as many as 162, by some
accounts) than any other pharaoh in history. And he presided over an empire that
stretched from
---Rulers of The Nile
--- see timeline on pages 108-109
The Great Pyramid at Giza
One of the seven wonders of the ancient world, it was built by the 4th Dynasty pharaoh Khufu (also
known as Cheops). It covers 13 acres and contains more than 2 million blocks of stone.
The Great Sphinx and the Second Pyramid were built at Giza by Khafre, Khufu’s son. The Sphinx is
thought to be a likeness of Khafre, and is the oldest known large-scale royal portrait.
Hatshepsut
One of the few women to rule Egypt, she took power during the reign of her stepson Tuthmosis III while
he was a child. The outstanding monument erected under her direction was her mortuary temple at
Deir el-Bahari.
Tuthmosis III
Under his rule, Egypt reached the height of its power. Now known as the Napoleon of ancient Egypt, he
led military campaigns into western Asia and brought Palestine, Syria and Nubia into his empire.
During the last 10 or so years of his reign, Egypt was settled and prosperous.
Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV)
He established the monotheistic cult of the sun god Aten and forced the Egyptians to abandon all other
gods. He also moved the capital from Thebes to Akhetaten (now el-Amarna). He is often depicted
with a misshapen skull, a stoop, and broad hips; some scholars think he suffered from a tumor of the
pituitary gland. Images of his queen, Nefertiti, attest to her great beauty.
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present-day Libya to Iraq in the east, as far north as Turkey and southward into the
Sudan.
Because of his marathon reign, historians already know a great deal about Ramesses
and the customs of his day. But the newly explored tomb suddenly presents
scholars with all sorts of puzzles to ponder. For one thing, many of the tombs in the
Valley of the Kings are syringe-like, plunging straight as a needle into the steep
hillsides. For reasons nobody yet knows, says Weeks, this one "is more like an
octopus, with a body surrounded by tentacles."
The body in this case is an enormous square room, at least 50 ft. on a side and divided
by 16 massive columns. Anyone who wants to traverse the chamber has to crawl
through a tight passage, lighted by a string of dim electric light bulbs, where the
dirt has been painstakingly cleared away. "It's like crawling under a bed," says
TIME's Marlowe, "except that it goes on and on, and the ceiling above your head is
studded with jagged outcroppings of rock that are in danger of caving in."
At the end of this claustrophobic journey lies the door Weeks found, and the relatively
spacious corridors beyond. It is here, as well as in two outermost rooms, that ...
artifacts were discovered — most of them broken. "Clearly," says Weeks, "the
tomb was pretty well gone over in ancient times."
Additional artifacts could lie buried if, as Weeks believes, the tomb had an unusual
split-level design. The ceilings of the corridors to the left and right of the statue of
Osiris slope downward and then drop abruptly about 4 ft. — strong evidence of
stairways. Says Weeks: "I think there are more rooms on the lower level."
Moreover, while the doors that line the corridors all lead to identical 10-ft. by 10-ft.
chambers, the openings themselves are only about 2 1/2 ft. wide, too narrow to
accommodate a prince's sarcophagus. That suggests to Weeks that the rooms
weren't burial chambers but rather "chapels" for funeral offerings. And cracks in
these rooms and in four of the massive pillars in the larger chamber are clues that
the floors are unsupported — that hollow areas lie below. Could they contain intact
sarcophagi
Tutankhamun
He restored the old religion of Amun and moved the capital back to Thebes. His reign was short (nine
years), but he is famous today because his tomb, filled with spectacular artifacts, was found intact.
Ramesses II
Ramesses the Great reigned for 67 years. His peace treaty with the Hittites, which was cemented by a
marriage between Ramesses and a daughter of the Hittite king, put an end to years of unrest. He
had many wives and claimed to have had more than 100 children. He also built many monuments,
including the Great Temple at Abu Simbel.
Cleopatra VII
With her death in 30 B.C., the Ptolemaic Dynasty came to an end and Egypt became a province of Rome.
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---Helpful God
---The ushabti statuette this fragment came from was supposed to serve the dead princes in the hereafter.
--Hands of a Pharaoh
---Ramesses II presents incense to the gods in this painting found in the tomb.
with mummies inside? "I'm hoping," says Weeks.
"It's unique," asserts Weeks. "We've never found a multiple burial of a pharaoh's
children. And for most pharaohs, we have no idea at all what happened to their
children." Archaeologists either have to assume that Ramesses II buried his
children in a unique way, Weeks says, or they have to consider the possibility that
they've overlooked a major type of royal tomb. "It's very obvious," he says, "that
there are whole areas that have to be looked at more closely, and not just in Luxor."
Before that happens, though, there is still an enormous amount of work to do in Tomb
5. Archaeologists still haven't resolved many basic questions — when the tomb
was built, for example, and over what period of time was it used.
Some answers could pop up as the excavations progress. Says Kenneth Kitchen, a
professor of Egyptology at the University of Liverpool in England: "Let's hope the
tomb yields a whole lot of new bodies. Then the medicos can get to work on them
and find out what these princes were like, whether they had toothaches, how long
they lived."
And what happened to Ramesses' dozens of daughters? Were they buried in a similar
mausoleum, perhaps in the Valley of the Queens, a few miles to the southwest?
That is where many pharaohs' wives and princesses and some princes are buried.
"Why not?" asks the Oriental Institute Museum's Teeter. "The daughters of
pharaohs were certainly important. The Valley of the Queens hasn't been as
thoroughly explored as the Valley of the Kings, so there
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could be a lot of surprises there.”
Weeks’ team, meanwhile, plans to return to Tomb 5 for the month of July. Their goal is
to get far enough inside to explore the staircases and the lower level. Weeks
estimates that it will take at least five years to study and map the entire tomb,
protect the decorations, install climate controls and electricity and shore up the
precarious sections. Says Abdel Halim Nur el Din, secretary-general of Egypt’s
Supreme Council of Antiquities: “We’re in no hurry to open this tomb to the
public. We already have 10 or 12 that they can visit.”
The recent find gives scholars hope, though, that more can be discovered even in this
most-explored of Egypt’s archeological sites. Notes the antiquities department’s
Abd El Aziz: “We still haven’t found the tombs of Amenhotep I or Ramesses VII,”
he says. “We have 62 tombs in the Valley of the Kings, but in the Western Valley,
which runs perpendicular to it, we have discovered only two tombs.”
The pharaohs would be pleased to know they have held on to a few of their secrets.
After all, they dug their tombs deep into hillsides, where the crypts would be safe,
they hoped, from the rabble and robbers. What they never counted on was the need
for parking lots.
Response Activities
1. Predict Predict what effect the discovery of the tomb of the sons of Ramesses
II will have on our knowledge of ancient Egypt and on the economy of modernday Egypt.
2. Narrative: Write a Report Suppose you are Dr. Weeks and have just
discovered the tomb described in the article. Write a report for the Egyptian
government about why your find is so important.
3. History: Draw a Diagram Make a diagram of the tomb. Label areas and features that suggest to archaeologists that another layer of chambers may exist
below the one already found.
---Exacting Excavation
Egyptologist Weeks was the first to discover how huge the tomb is, with many corridors beyond the
entrance shown above.
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Skills Workshop
Analyzing Points of View
Voices from the Past
When you want to understand an event from the past, it helps to read or hear the words
of the people who experienced the event. It also helps to find out what's been
written by people who weren't there, but who have studied the facts. To understand
the devastating famines of ancient Egypt, for example, you can read one account by
the King of Sumer and another by a modern historian. It's important to recognize
that every source - sometimes even a secondary source — has its own point of
view.
1.
Here's How
Read the two accounts of a seven-year famine in ancient Egypt.

Study each source. Does the author directly state feelings, beliefs, or opinions?
Or does the account include only or mostly facts?

Are there particular words that might be a clue to the author's feelings or beliefs?

How is the information in each source the same or different? Are facts left out of
one source? Does that tell you anything about the author's point of view?
2.
Think It Through
How is reading more than one point of view valuable in learning about events?
3.. Use It
1. List the words in the primary source that show it is a personal point of view.
2. List the facts in the secondary source.
3. Find a news article that is an example of a primary source, or eyewitness account.
What is the author's point of view? How do you know?
Primary Source
These excerpts are from the Amarna Letters, ancient Egyptian clay slabs found over a century ago.
“The sons, the daughters, have come to an end ...Give me I have nothing... There is no something to feed
them… I have nothing… There is no grain for our support. What shall I say to my peasants? There
is nothing to give for deliverance….”
Secondary Source
“This famine overshadowed all other events of that time; the mark of hunger was impressed on the entire
period... The famine was so great that children were sold for bread. After the sons and the
daughters had been sold into slavery to save them and the remnants of the population from
starvation, the implements of the households also went in exchange for food.... “
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Lesson 3
Ancient Nubia
Main Idea Nubian culture reflected the unique achievements of its people as well as an exchange of ideas
with Egypt.
Key Vocabulary
caravan
ore
smelting
Key Events
1500 B.C. Egypt conquers Nubia
724 B.C. Nubia conquers Egypt
270 B.C. Golden Age of Meroe begins
What people, according to the Romans, could carve an entire temple from a single
stone? Who were "the most just of men; the favorites of the gods," according to
Homer, a famous Greek poet? Whom did the Greek historian, Herodotus, describe
as being "the tallest and most handsome of men?" Answer: the Nubians, some of
the earliest known inhabitants of what is now the country of Sudan in Africa.
The Nubians were respected throughout the ancient world. Their soldiers were so well
known for their talent with a bow and arrow that Egyptians called Nubia "Ta-Seti"
(ta SEE tee), which meant "land of the bow." The Nubians developed a successful
trade with Egypt and other neighbors. They were also skillful artists and
craftspeople. Their civilization continued for 5,000 years, outlasting the Egyptian
empire.
Crossroads of Cultures
Focus Why was Nubia an important center of trade?
As you read in Lesson 1, Egypt and Nubia were connected by the Nile River. The
Nubians, unlike their Egyptian neighbors, did not have uninterrupted stretches of
smooth waters and fertile land along the river banks. Upstream from Aswan, the
Nile was full of twists and turns. It
---Four princes from Nubia are shown on this wall painting from a tomb in Thebes.
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churned over large boulders at its six cataracts. One particular stretch was so dangerous
that the local people called it the "Belly of Rocks."
The area between the First and Second cataracts was called Lower Nubia. Upper Nubia
began at the Second Cataract and ended near the location of the modern-day city of
Khartoum.
Travelers heading south, or upstream, from Egypt often had to stop at the cataracts, take
their boats out of the water, and carry them around the rapids. At the places where
they stopped, people began trading. In time, communities grew up there.
Another common means of transport in Nubia was the caravan, a group of people and
camels moving across the desert. Camels were well suited to desert travel because
they could walk for long distances without having to stop for water. The caravans
allowed people to avoid the dangers of navigating the Nile. Also, going by land
instead of by water could mean a shorter distance to travel. Meroe (MEHR oh ee),
one of Nubia's southern cities, became a busy meeting place for desert caravan
travelers.
As use of desert trade routes grew, so did Nubia's wealth. The Nubians charged
Egyptian traders a fee as they passed through Nubia. In addition, the kingdom's
resources were in great demand in Egypt and the
---The map above shows the major cities of Nubia. Map Skill: Why do you think a separate culture
developed at the southern end of the Nile River?
--- see map “Ancient Nubia” on page 114
---In this fragment from a Nubian tomb painting, the man at center holds a bunch of giraffe tails in his
left hand. The man at right carries the skin of a leopard (shown above). Live baboons are at his feet
and on his shoulder. Nubians also traded elephant tusks, ostrich eggs, and feathers. The man at far
left carries gold, shaped into rings. Economics: Why might the gold have been shaped into rings?
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Middle East. Gold, granite, iron ore, ivory, ebony, vegetable oils, and leopard and
panther skins were plentiful in Nubia. They brought great riches to the kingdom
when they were traded.
Nubia's gold became so famous that the kingdom soon became known as "the land of
gold." In fact, some historians think that the word "Nubia" comes from the
Egyptian word for gold. The kingdom was also referred to as Kush — which was
originally the Egyptian name for Upper Nubia — in the Egyptian, Assyrian,
Persian, and Hebrew languages. Historians still do not know what name the
Nubians gave themselves.
Curious Facts
Images of elephants have been found throughout the Nubian city of Meroe. The people of Meroe may
have believed that elephants were gods. One story suggests that the palace at Meroe was built on a
wheeled platform and pulled by elephants. There might even have been a school for training
elephants for use by the army.
The Nubian Empire
Focus How and why did Nubian culture change over time?
Throughout its long history, different kingdoms flourished in various regions of Nubia.
Three of the most important capital cities were Kerma (KER mah), Napata (NAH
pah tah), and Meroe.
Kerma
From 2000 B.C. to 1550 B.C., one of the first and greatest Nubian kingdoms prospered.
The kingdom was named for its capital, Kerma, which was located south of the
Third Cataract. Its territory included much of what we now call northern Sudan, as
well as parts of southern Egypt. Kerma was wealthy: Its gold trade with Egypt was
brisk. The Nubians built forts in order to protect their trade routes, and they began
charging the Egyptians more for Nubian goods. Some Egyptian traders even settled
in Kerma.
---Crocodiles circle around this clay vessel from Meroe. The wood-and-rawhide bed at left is a
reconstruction of a bed found at a royal Kerma burial site. The bed is decorated with animals
carved from ivory.
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With stability and wealth, the Nubians were able to spend time creating art. Kerma
craftspeople were particularly skilled at making pottery. Their delicate, elegant pots
were often black on top and dark red below with a gray band running around the
center.
Another sign of Kerma's wealth was the lavish burials given to royalty. The kings were
not mummified. Instead, they were buried under large circular mounds of earth the
size of a football field. At the center of the mounds, inside the most impressive of
many tomb chambers, the kings' bodies were placed on gold-covered beds. The
tombs were brightly colored and filled with ivory, bronze, and gold objects.
Records show that as many as 400 servants were buried alive with their king!
Biography
King Taharqa
Taharqa was the only Nubian king whose name is specifically mentioned in the Bible. He ruled Nubia
from around 690 B.C. to 664 B.C. Much of that time was spent warding off attacks from the
Assyrians. Within Nubia, Taharqa concentrated his efforts on construction. He was considered the
greatest builder of the Kushite dynasty and left many monuments and temples in both Egypt and
Nubia.
The Napatan Period
In 1550 B.C., the Egyptian armies began a war against Kush which lasted about 50
years. Kerma was destroyed, and Egypt took control over all of Nubia. Ahmose I
(akh MOH zuh), the Egyptian pharaoh, sent a governor to whom he gave the title of
the "King's Son of Kush" to rule Nubia. Nubian princes were taken back to
Egyptian royal courts to learn the ways and culture of Egypt.
Although Nubians opposed these policies, Egypt continued to rule Nubia for more than
four hundred years. Gradually, Egyptian customs became accepted in Nubia. Kings
were mummified and buried in small pyramids. The Nubians began using
hieroglyphics and built Egyptian-style temples. Egyptians held higher-level jobs;
they were priests, army officers, and merchants. Nubians worked as laborers,
soldiers, and police.
In 724 B.C., the balance of power in the area shifted. Egyptian rulers grew weak. The
Kushite King Piye (PEE yeh) took power in Nubia and conquered Egypt. For the
next 60 years, the Nubians ruled Egypt. New temples were built and decorated; old
ones were restored. Art and literature flourished, and many old Egyptian books
were copied and saved. During this period, the two Nubian capitals were in Napata
and Thebes. This time in Nubian history is called the Napatan Period.
The reign of the Nubian kings is known as the Twenty-fifth Dynasty in Egyptian
history. Kushite rule over Egypt ended in 660 B.C. when the Assyrians invaded
Egypt and forced the Nubians back into Nubia, south of the First Cataract.
---This Nubian gold earring of the ram-god Amun is from the sixth century B.C.
The Power of Amun
The Egyptians had long worshipped the god, Amun (AH muhn). This god became very
important to the Nubians, who portrayed him as having the body of a man and the
head of a ram. The temple at Jebel
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Barkal became the center for the worship of Amun. The power of the priests there
increased greatly, because they acted as spokesmen for the god. If the priests did
not like a king, they could say that Amun had commanded the king to give up his
throne. Then they would issue Amun's command about who would rule instead.
This continued until the third century B.C., when King Arkamani (ark ah MAH nee)
ruled Kush. One day, King Arkamani was told by the priests that Amun had
ordered the king to commit suicide. The king refused to obey. Instead, he headed to
the temple and killed the priests.
After this, King Arkamani moved the royal court and his home to the city of Meroe on
the eastern bank of the Nile River. Some historians suggest that the king wanted to
separate himself from the temple and priests. The religious capital continued to be
Napata but royal burials took place at Meroe.
Tell Me More
Nubian Queens
Women played an important role in governing the Nile kingdom.
Women were very important in Nubian culture. In particular, the king's sister played a major role in
determining who would be the next ruler. Usually, a child of the king's sister was chosen to be the
new queen or king.
Many women ruled Nubia during its long history. Some queens from the time of Meroe are shown on
temples as warriors holding swords. These powerful warrior queens are believed to have led their
own troops in battle. In other images, the Nubian queens are shown covered with jewelry and
wearing ornate robes and headdresses.
The silver mask shown here (upper right) shows the queen Malakaye (Mah lah KAY ah), who ruled Nubia
in the 500s B.C. The drawing (right) is a researcher's copy of an Egyptian temple painting. It shows
Kemsit (KEHM ziht) (seated, right), the Nubian queen of Egyptian Pharaoh Mentuhotep II (mehn
too HOH tehp), and the queen's servant.
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The Golden Age of Meroe
Focus What were some of the key achievements of Meroe?
With Meroe as its capital, Nubia's Golden Age had arrived. Trade was brisk and highly
profitable. The Nubians built grand structures of stone and produced beautiful gold
jewelry. They stopped using Egyptian hieroglyphics and developed their own
alphabet.
Daily life for many Nubians meant working on their farms and raising cattle. Tomb
carvings tell us that Nubians enjoyed wrestling. One of the gods they worshipped
during this period was the lion-god, Apedemak (ah PEHD eh mak). He was the god
of war and was usually shown wearing his armor.
The people of Meroe stopped using Egyptian hieroglyphs and developed their own
alphabet. It had 23 symbols that could be written in hieroglyphs or in cursive script.
In this writing system, dots are used to separate words. The sound of each letter is
known but no one yet has been able to read the language.
--- see chart “The Meroe Language” on page 118
Nubian Pyramids
Tombs were first built for Nubian rulers during the Napatan Period. After the capital
moved to Meroe, the Nubians built an enormous burial ground east of the city.
Nobles were buried in small pyramids and kings in larger ones. About 40 of these
structures are still standing today.
The Nubian pyramids were smaller and had steeper sides than the ones built in Egypt.
Servants were often sacrificed and buried with their kings. Sometimes, even a
king's favorite horse was buried at the entrance to the tomb. Robbers looted many
of the Nubian pyramids by cutting off their tops. Archaeologists are still searching
the ruins at Meroe to learn more about the civilization.
---These ruins of Nubian pyramids are at Meroe's northern cemetery. The lighter color stone shows the
work of modern restoration.
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Iron Making and Jewelry Making
The Nubians crafted tools and other objects from iron at a time when few other people
knew how. The land around Meroe was rich in iron ore. ore is rock that contains a
mixture of a metal (in this case iron) and other minerals. The Nubians heated this
ore to high temperatures in wood-fueled furnaces. During this process called
smelting, the other minerals were burned away, leaving pure iron. Archaeologists
have found ruins of iron-making factories and furnaces but very few iron tools and
weapons. Most have rusted away.
Jewelry produced at this time shows that the Nubians were skillful crafts people. Gold,
bronze, semiprecious stones, and enamel were all used in the process. The jewelry
makers produced ornaments for both men and women, who wore necklaces, rings,
bracelets, and anklets. Much of this jewelry survives today and is a reminder of
Meroe's rich culture.
---Gold work from Nubia is among the most beautiful in the ancient world. This hinged bracelet is made
of gold and enamel.
Ask Yourself
Archaeologists cannot yet read Meroitic writing. They have to study the objects left behind to figure out
what life might have been like for ancient Nubians. What artifacts from your daily life would give
future archaeologists an accurate picture of your world?
Lesson Review
1500 B.C. Egypt conquers Nubia.
724 B.C. Nubia conquers Egypt
270 B.C. Golden Age of Meroe begins
1. Key Vocabulary: Describe Nubian trade using the following words: caravan, ore,
and smelting.
2. Focus: Why was Nubia an important center of trade?
3. Focus: How and why did Nubian culture change over time?
4. Focus: What were some of the key achievements of Meroe?
5. Critical Thinking: Conclude What conditions had to exist for Egypt to fall and for
Nubia to conquer and rule it?
6. Theme: Lasting Beginnings If you were a Nubian during the Napatan Period, which
Egyptian customs would you want to borrow? Why?
7. Geography/Writing Activity: Select two locations on the map of Nubia on page
114. If you were on a journey between the two, what sights would you see? Write a
journal recording the events of your trip.
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Citizenship
Making Decisions
If You Found It, Should You Keep It?
Have you ever found something valuable and wondered what to do with it? As a good
citizen, is it your responsibility to return it to its rightful owner? Or is it all right to
keep it or sell it? Throughout history, people have had to make this decision. The
case study below shows how one man dealt with this issue. Do you think he did the
right thing?
Case Study
Treasures Taken from the Pyramids
In the 1800s, many people became treasure hunters. They went to ancient sites, searched for lost
artifacts, and sold them for profit.
Giuseppe Ferlini (joo SEHP ee fehr LEE nee) was one such treasure hunter. In 1834, he dug under the
pyramid of Amanishakheto (ah mah nuh shah KEE toh) in Meroe, near the Nile River. After two
months of digging, he found a chamber filled with beautiful items of gold, silver, bronze, and many
more treasures. Ferlini returned to Europe with the treasure and sold it in Germany, where it can
still be seen in museums.
Today, many people believe that these artifacts, like the findings of other
be returned to the countries in which they were found.
treasure hunters, should
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Take Action
Communities today must still decide what to do with ancient artifacts. Suppose your
town were building a new library and found some artifacts that had been created by
early settlers. What should the town do? Keep the artifacts and display them in the
library? Return them to the descendants whose ancestors created them? Are there
other alternatives? Here are some steps that you can take to make this decision.
1. In small groups, write down some of the items that might have been found. Then
create a list of the possible actions your town could take.
2. Have each person choose one action and list its pros and cons.
3. Discuss all the pros and cons and decide which action is best.
4. Present your decision to the class. Compare your decision and your reasons for
making it with the decisions of the other groups.
Tips for Making Decisions

Decide what problem needs to be solved.

Think about your goals.

Try to come up with several possible solutions before deciding on one.

List the pros and cons for each possible solution.

Decide which choice will best
help you reach your goals.
Research Activity
Find out if over the last 100 years any artifacts from past settlements have been found in
or near your community. You could contact a local museum, archaeologist,
librarian, town planner, or city building representative for information. What were
the artifacts? Where were they found? What did your community do with them?
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CHAPTER 4
Chapter Review
Chapter Review Timeline
3100 Egypt united under one king
2650 First pyramid built in Egypt
1500 Egypt conquers Nubia
724 Nubia conquers Egypt
660 Assyrians invade Egypt
270 Golden Age of Meroe begins
--- see timeline on page 122
Summarizing the Main Idea
1.
Copy the chart below and fill in the missing information to compare the
civilizations of ancient Egypt and Nubia. (The first row has been filled in.)
--- see chart on page 122
Vocabulary
2.
Using at least eight of the following terms, write a record of a journey taken by a
trader in ancient Egypt.
delta (p. 92)
cataract (p. 93)
nomad (p. 95)
pharaoh (p. 95)
dynasty (p. 95)
papyrus (p. 98)
hieroglyphics (p. 99)
afterlife (p. 101)
caravan (p. 114)
ore (p. 119)
smelting (p. 119)
Reviewing the Facts
3.
Name four geographic features of the Nile River Valley.
4.
What was the pharaoh's role in ancient Egypt?
5.
How did Champollion solve the mystery of the hieroglyphics on the Rosetta Stone?
6.
Briefly describe the ancient Egyptian religion.
7.
What happened to the treasures that were buried in Egyptian tombs?
8.
How did Nubia become a center for trade?
9.
What were some of Nubia's cultural achievements?
10. For how many years did Nubian civilization continue?
122
Skill Review: Analyzing Point of View
11. In your local newspaper, read an account of a recent event. Is the account a primary
source or a secondary source? How can you tell?
12. Describe a typical day in the life of an American student. Is your description a
primary account or a secondary account? Why?
Geography Skills
13. Look at the map of the Nile River Valley on page 92. Why was it difficult to sail
directly from Memphis to Kerma? What did ancient people do about this problem?
14. You are a travel guide in ancient Egypt. Prepare a travel guide for visitors to the
Nile River Valley. Include information about transportation, climate, and historical
landmarks.
Critical Thinking
15. Cause and Effect How did the pharaoh's power influence the way the pyramids
were built?
16. Comparing Then and Now Compare the daily life of an ancient Egyptian family
with your family's daily life. How are your lives similar? How are they different?
17. Predicting Outcomes Ancient Nubians were known for their skill in iron making.
Think about the tools that can be made with iron. How do you think iron making
helped Nubia compete with other cultures?
Writing: Citizenship and History
18. Citizenship Is displaying ancient Egyptian mummies in museums disrespectful to
the dead? Write a persuasive letter explaining what you think.
19. History You are an archaeologist who has just discovered the tomb of an Egyptian
pharaoh. Write a journal entry about your discovery.
Activities
History/Research Activity
The Great Pyramid at Giza is one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Find out
what the other six wonders were and read more about them. What, if anything, do
these wonders have in common?
Culture/Art Activity
Find out more about Egyptian hieroglyphics. Learn the symbols for the sounds in your
own name. Using these symbols, create your own cartouche. Share your cartouche
with your classmates.
Theme Project Check-In
Answer the following questions to see how you have used information about ancient
Egypt and Nubia in your theme project.
•
What kinds of clothing designs became typical in your civilization?
•
What kinds of children's games did you develop?
•
What has been the most challenging part of this project?
Internet Option
Check the Internet Social Studies Center for ideas on how to extend your theme project beyond your
classroom.
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