Biology 211 Exam 2 Study Guide
Chapter 20
The Cardiovascular System: The Heart
INTRODUCTION
1. State the reasons for continuous circulation of blood by the heart and
the phenomenal amount that is pumped in a minute, day, and year.
ANATOMY OF THE HEART
Location of the Heart
2. Describe the location and orientation of the heart within the thorax and
mediastinal cavity, and then give the anatomic dimensions.
3. Trace the outline of the heart on the surface of the chest.
4. Discuss why CPR is effective.
Pericardium
5. Define the terminology and function of the pericardial serous
membrane, then portray the physical structure and anatomic position
around the heart.
6. Define and discuss pericarditis and cardiac tamponade.
Layers of the Heart Wall
7. Examine the histological features of the three layers of the heart wall,
with emphasis on intercellular connections.
Chambers of the Heart
8. Describe the chambers of the heart and the sulci.
Right Atrium
9. Describe the features of the right atrium and the blood flow to and from
this chamber.
Right Ventricle
10. Describe the features of the right ventricle.
Left Atrium
11. Describe the features of the left atrium and the blood flow to and from
this chamber.
Left Ventricle
12. Describe the features of the left ventricle.
Myocardial Thickness and Function
13. Explain the functional differences between the right and left sides of
the heart.
Fibrous Skeleton of the Heart
14. Describe the role of the dense connective tissue that forms the fibrous
skeleton of the heart.
HEART VALVES AND CIRCULATION OF BLOOD
15. Explain the basic function of the heart valves.
Operation of the Atrioventricular Valves
16. Describe the anatomically common and distinct features of the two
atrioventricular valves, and then discuss how these valves work during
a beat cycle of the heart.
Operation of the Semilunar Valve
17. Describe the difference in structure of the semilunar valves compared
with the atrioventricular valves, and show how they operate under
higher pressure conditions.
18. Discuss the various heart valve disorders.
Systemic and Pulmonary Circulations
19. Compare and contrast the systemic and pulmonary circulations.
Coronary Circulation
20. Explain why the heart muscle requires its own blood supply even
though the body’s entire blood volume passes through the chambers
very minute.
Coronary Arteries
21. Describe the major coronary arterial vessels, their distribution, and
interconnected nature.
Coronary Veins
22. Describe how the primary coronary veins converge in the coronary
sinus.
23. Examine how reperfusion may damage the myocardium.
CARDIAC MUSCLE AND THE CARDIAC CONDUCTION SYSTEM
Histology of Cardiac Muscle
24. Describe the histology of the cardiac muscle and the role of the
intercalated discs.
Autorhythmic Cells: The Conduction System
25. Explain the structural and functional features of the conduction system
of the heart.
26. Describe the sequence in which the cardiac action potential spreads
through the conduction system.
27. Indicate how the timing of chamber stimulation and contraction
synchronizes the flow of blood, and the consequences of failure of
different segments of the conduction system.
28. Examine the possible effects of an ectopic pacemaker.
Action Potential and Contraction of Contractile Fibers
29. Describe an action potential in terms of depolarization, plateau, and
repolarization.
ATP Production in Cardiac Muscle
30. Describe the ways in which myocardial fibers produce energy.
Electrocardiogram
31. Explain how the passage of depolarization through different areas of
the heart is related to specific components of the wave pattern of an
electrocardiogram (ECG), and how the amplitude and intervals can be
of diagnostic importance.
Correlation of ECG Waves with Atrial and Ventricular Systole
32. Demonstrate how the various components of the ECG correlate to the
events occurring within the chambers of the heart.
THE CARDIAC CYCLE
33. Define the cardiac cycle
Pressure and Volume Changes During theCardiac Cycle
34. Explain how the contraction and relaxation of the heart chambers
creates a pressure gradient that enables the blood to flow from high
pressure to low pressure.
Atrial Systole
35. Examine the events that occur during atrial systole.
Ventricular Systole
36. Examine the events that occur during ventricular systole.
Relaxation Period
37. Examine the events that occur during the relaxation period.
Heart Sounds
38. State why the sounds of atrioventricular and semilunar valves closing
occur at exact times in the cardiac cycle, and why they have different
characteristics.
39. Discuss what various alterations in the usual heart sound indicates.
CARDIAC OUTPUT
40. Define cardiac output (CO), describe the factors that affect it, and note
changes with exercise in relation to cardiac reserve.
Regulation of Stroke Volume
41. Describe the chamber volumes that affect the calculation of stroke
volume, and state the physical conditions that modify these volumes.
Preload: Effect of Stretching
42. Relate the two key factors that determine the end-diastolic-volume that
controls heart preload as defined by the Frank-Starling law of the
heart.
Contractility
43. Describe how positive and negative inotropic agents operate to alter
heart contractility and stroke volume.
Afterload
44. Describe how afterload is related to blood pressure and vascular
health.
45. Describe what happens when one ventricle is weakened and cannot
pump the same amount of blood during each stroke compared with the
other ventricle.
Regulation of Heart Rate
46. Explain that change in heart rate is controlled by the CNS and
hormones so as to influence cardiac output and blood pressure, and
consequently total blood flow, in response to needs of the body under
varying conditions.
Autonomic Regulation of Heart Rate
47. Describe how the autonomic nervous system interacts with the
cardiovascular center, receptors, and higher CNS centers to modulate
heart rate.
Chemical Regulation of Heart Rate
48. Discuss the chemical, hormonal, and ionic conditions that directly
impact function of cardiac muscle tissue and thus influence their rate of
contraction.
Other Factors in Heart Rate Regulation
49. Survey the effects of age, gender, level of fitness, body temperature,
and nutrient supply on heart rate.
EXERCISE AND THE HEART
50. Explain the benefits of regular exercise on the heart.
51. Examine the various medical options which can be used to treat the
failing heart.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE HEART
52. Describe the developmental anatomy of the heart.
DISORDERS: HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES
53. Discuss the following disorders: coronary artery disease, myocardial
ischemia and infarction, congenital heart defects, arrhythmias, and
congestive heart failure.
MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY
54. Define medical terminology associated with the heart.
Chapter 21
The Cardiovascular System: Blood Vessels And Hemodynamics
INTRODUCTION
1. Discuss the focus of study in this chapter.
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF BLOOD VESSELS
2. Identify the different types of blood vessels in the body and their
connections to each other.
Arteries
3. Describe the structure of arteries and their functional properties.
Elastic Arteries
4. Describe the role of the elastic arteries as a pressure reservoir.
Muscular Arteries
5. Explain the function of muscular arteries.
Arterioles
6. Compare and contrast arteries and arterioles.
Capillaries
7. Explain how the structure of capillaries is ideally suited to its function to
permit nutrient and waste exchange between the blood and tissue
cells.
8. Distinguish among the different types of capillaries.
9. List the four routes materials can use to cross blood capillary walls.
Venules
10. Describe the structure and function of venules.
Veins
11. Compare and contrast the structure of veins and arteries.
12. Explain what happens when vein valves become leaky.
Anastomoses
13. Define anastomosis and explain the function of anastomoses.
Blood Distribution
14. Describe the distribution of blood in the body.
CAPILLARY EXCHANGE
15. List the three ways substances enter and leave capillaries.
Diffusion
16. Describe the substances that use diffusion as a capillary exchange
method.
Transcytosis
17. Explain vescicular transport and the types of substances to be
transported.
Bulk Flow: Filtration and Reabsorption
18. Discuss the importance of bulk flow, the pressures involved in bulk
flow, and the pressure changes that occur for bulk flow to happen.
19. Define edema and list some of its causes.
HEMODYNAMICS: PHYSIOLOGY OF CIRCULATION
20. State the overall function of the cardiovascular system.
Blood Pressure
21. Explain how blood pressure changes throughout the cardiovascular
system and describe the factors that determine mean arterial blood
pressure.
Resistance
22. Explain the factors that determine systemic vascular resistance.
Venous Return
23. Explain how the return of venous blood to the heart is accomplished.
Velocity of Blood Flow
24. Explain the factors that regulate the velocity of blood flow.
25. Discuss the nature of syncope and its causes.
CONTROL OF BLOOD PRESSURE AND BLOOD FLOW
26. Discuss the need for control of blood pressure and blood flow.
Role of Cardiovascular Center
27. Describe the structure and function of the cardiovascular center.
28. Identify the sources of input to the cardiovascular center.
29. Identify the outcome of sympathetic and parasympathetic output from
the cardiovascular center.
Neural Regulation of Blood Pressure
Baroreceptor Reflexes
30. Describe the role of baroreceptors in the aortic and carotid sinus
reflexes and the purpose of these reflexes.
31. Describe the effect of carotid sinus massage on syncope.
Chemoreceptor Reflexes
32. Discuss the types of chemicals to which chemoreceptors react and the
response of the blood regulatory system to each.
Hormonal Regulation of Blood Pressure
33. Examine the effects of renin-angiotensin, aldosterone, epinephrine,
norepinephrine, ADH and ANP on blood pressure.
Autoregulation of Blood Pressure
34. Describe the physical changes and chemical mediators that inact
appropriate responses through vascular smooth muscles in various
organs and tissues.
CHECKING CIRCULATION
Pulse
35. Describe locations on the body where a pulse is commonly taken and
classify abnormal heart rates and pulse characteristics.
Measuring of Blood Pressure (BP)
36. Discuss the blood pressures, show how they are measured, and
contrast the clinical significance of systolic, diastolic, and pulse
pressure.
SHOCK AND HOMEOSTASIS
37. Define shock and its general consequences.
Types of Shock
38. Discuss four causes of shock.
Homeostatic Responses to Shock
39. Describe the homeostatic responses to shock.
Signs and Symptoms of Shock
40. Describe the characteristic signs and symptoms of shock.
CIRCULATORY ROUTES
41. Briefly describe the systemic, coronary, cerebral, hepatic portal,
pulmonary, and fetal circulations.
Systemic Circulation
42. Outline the location and routes of the major divisions of the aorta, two
levels of arterial branches that extend from the aorta, and the regions
of the body they supply.
43. Review the routes and regions of the body drained by the major veins
of the systemic circulation.
Hepatic Portal Circulation
44. Diagram the vessels and direction of blood flow through the hepatic
portal circulatory pathway.
Pulmonary Circulation
45. Describe the circuit of arteries and veins that direct the primary blood
volume through the lung tissue for the purpose of gas exchange.
Fetal Circulation
46. Emphasize the unique vessels and pathways of blood flow in the fetal
system that allow blood to mainly bypass the lungs and liver and
circulate through the placenta for exchange of essential materials.
47. Indicate the changes that occur in the specialized fetal circulation upon
birth.
DEVELOPMENT OF BLOOD VESSLS AND BLOOD
48. Describe the development of blood vessels and blood.
AGING AND THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
49. Explain the effects of aging on the cardiovascular system.
FOCUS ON HOMEOSTASIS: THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
50. Examine the role of the cardiovascular system in maintaining
homeostasis.
DISORDERS: HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES
51. List the types, causes, effects, and treatments for hypertension.
MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY
52. Define medical terminology associated with blood vessels.
Chapter 23
The Respiratory System
INTRODUCTION
1. Discuss the cooperative effect of the respiratory and cardiovascular
systems to maintain homeostasis.
2. Define respiration and the three basic processes of respiration.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM ANATOMY
3. Identify the structures of the respiratory system and indicate whether
they are a part of the upper or lower respiratory regions.
Nose
4. Describe the structure and function of the internal and external nose.
5. Discuss rhinoplasty.
Pharynx
6. Describe the distinct structures and epithelium found in the three
regions of the pharynx and relate these structures and epithelia to their
purpose in ventilation and swallowing.
Larynx
7. Discuss the arrangement of cartilage that supports the laryngeal soft
tissue components.
The Structures of Voice Production
8. Describe the operation of the vocal tissues within the larynx in sound
production.
9. Discuss how the pitch of the sound can be changed, and explain what
happens when whispering occurs.
10. Discuss laryngitis and cancer of the larynx.
Trachea
11. Describe how the connective and epithelial tissue structures of the
trachea maintain an open airway and help keep the lungs clear of
small particles.
12. Discuss tracheostomy and intubation and why such procedures might
be performed.
Bronchi
13. Describe the changes in the cartilaginous support, smooth muscle, and
epithelium as the bronchi progressively branch into smaller regions
and how their duties are modified.
Lungs
14. Discuss how the lungs are generally positioned and related to the
serosal membrane of the pleural cavity.
15. Describe the gross features of the lung structure and the connections
to the other organ systems.
Lobes, Fissures, and Lobules
16. Discuss the relative positions of the lobes of the lungs as divided by
fissures, and explain why there are an unequal number of lobes on
each side.
17. Describe the physical relation of the lobules to the bronchioles,
vessels, and alveolar components.
Alveoli
18. Discuss how the different types of cells that populate the alveoli work
together, and explain the structure of the alveolar-capillary membrane
and its function in the diffusion of respiratory gases.
19. Examine the role of nebulization in treating respiratory diseases.
Blood Supply to the Lungs
20. Describe the route and alternative duties of the two vascular systems
that permeate lung tissue.
PULMONARY VENTILATION
21. Define the three basic steps of respiration: pulmonary ventilation,
external respiration, and internal respiration.
Inhalation
22. Discuss how Boyle’s law works through the action of the diaphragm
and external intercostal muscles in the production of pressure
gradients that move air into the lungs.
23. Discuss the properties of the intrapleural space that hold the lung
tissue against the chest wall during lung volume changes.
Exhalation
24. Describe the characteristics of the lung tissues that assist the internal
intercostal muscles in contraction of the lungs during expiration.
Other Factors Affecting Pulmonary Ventilation
Alveolar Surface Tension
25. Discuss how surface tension develops in alveolar fluid and how
surfactant limits the tension and collapse during expiration, as well as
eases expansion of the alveoli during inspiration.
26. Discuss what happens if an injury of the chest wall allows air to enter
the intrapleural space.
Compliance
27. Define compliance and the lung tissues that control it, and list some
conditions that compromise compliance.
Airway Resistance
28. List the factors that control airway diameter and consequent resistance
and the effect of air flow rate and required pressure gradients.
Breathing Patterns and Modified Respiratory Movements
29. Discuss the various terms used for different breathing frequencies and
muscle groups employed in distinct respiratory movements.
30. List the known functions and causes for modified respiratory
movements.
LUNG VOLUMES AND CAPACITIES
31. Define the various lung volumes and capacities.
EXCHANGE OF OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE
32. Describe the cell and fluid compartments through which oxygen and
carbon dioxide must diffuse to get from alveolar air to the tissue cells
and out of the body.
Gas Laws: Dalton’s and Henry’s Laws
33. Define Dalton’s law in terms of the partial pressure of a gas and the
units of pressure, and then demonstrate how to calculate the number
of mm Hg produced by a gas with a set partial pressure in a container
with a set total pressure.
34. State and explain the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide in
the air and at pertinent points of the body.
35. Define Henry’s law and its relationship to the solubility of the
respiratory gases in the blood.
36. Discuss how the external pressure of a gas affects the physical state of
that gas dissolved in a fluid.
37. Discuss how Henry’s law can be used to increase the amount of
oxygen in a person’s blood.
External Respiration and Internal Respiration
38. Explain the diffusion of the respiratory gases between the lung alveoli
and lung capillaries.
39. Discuss the factors that affect the rate of external respiration.
40. Explain the diffusion of the respiratory gases between the tissue
capillaries and the tissues.
TRANSPORT OF OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE IN THE BLOOD
41. Discuss the role of the blood in transporting oxygen and carbon dioxide
between the lungs and tissues.
Oxygen Transport
42. Discuss the methods for transporting oxygen in blood.
The Relation Between Hemoglobin and Oxygen Partial Pressure
43. Discuss the effect of oxygen partial pressure on oxygen binding to and
dissociating from hemoglobin.
Other Factors Affecting Hemoglobin Affinity for Oxygen
44. Discuss factors other than the partial pressure of oxygen that influence
the affinity with which hemoglobin binds oxygen.
Comparison of Adult and Fetal Hemoglobin
45. Explain why it is necessary for fetal hemoglobin to have a greater
affinity for oxygen than maternal hemoglobin.
46. Discuss what occurs with carbon monoxide poisoning.
Carbon Dioxide Transport
47. Describe the three main forms by which carbon dioxide is transported
in blood.
48. Explain how these forms change in the lungs versus the tissues.
Summary of Gas Exchange and Transport in Lungs and Tissues
49. Discuss how all the factors that influence oxygen and carbon dioxide
content in the blood interact to facilitate delivery of the gases to their
respective destinations.
CONTROL OF RESPIRATION
50. Cite the location of the neural centers that allow the respiratory system
to provide the disparate amounts of oxygen needed under the extreme
range of metabolic demands.
Respiratory Center
51. Identify the three brain stem centers that regulate respiration.
Medullary Rhythmicity Center
52. Discuss the mechanism by which the medullary rhythmicity center
establishes the basic cycle of ventilation.
Pneumotaxic Area
53. Discuss the interactions between the pneumotaxic area and the
rhythmicity center to initiate expiration and set the rate of breathing.
Apneustic Area
54. Describe how the apneustic area interacts with the rhythmicity center
to control the transition from inspiration to expiration.
Regulation of the Respiratory Center
55. Explain the influences from higher CNS areas and peripheral receptors
on ventilation patterns.
Cortical Influences on Respiration
56. Discuss the means that limit conscious control over respiration.
Chemical Regulation of Respiration
57. Discuss the negative feedback control system through which differing
chemical conditions in the blood regulate the breathing pattern.
58. Give the definition, causes, and effects of hypoxia.
Proprioceptor Stimulation of Respiration
59. State how muscle movements stimulate appropriate changes in
breathing in preparation for exercise.
The Inflation Reflex
60. Cite the components involved in the inflation reflex and their purpose.
Other Influences on Respiration
61. List the other significant factors that influence breathing patterns.
EXERCISE AND THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
62. Describe the effects of exercise on the respiratory system.
63. Discuss why smokers have lowered respiratory efficiency.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
64. Describe the development of the respiratory system.
AGING AND THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
65. Describe the effects of aging on the respiratory system.
FOCUS ON HOMEOSTASIS: THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
66. Examine the role of the respiratory system in maintaining homeostasis.
DISORDERS: HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES
67. Discuss asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, lung cancer,
pneumonia, tuberculosis, coryza and influenza, pulmonary edema,
cystic fibrosis, and acute respiratory distress syndrome.
MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY
68. Define medical terminology associated with the respiratory system.