Confined Space Rescue
Training Topics
I
 II
 III
 IV
 VI
Respiratory Protection Anatomy and Physiology
Confined Space Emergencies
Toxic Atmosphere Monitoring Equipment
Breathing Apparatus Review
Lifting Systems
Training Continued:
 VII Confined Space Rescue Practical Exercises
References
 NFPA 1670 Operations and Training for Technical Rescue Incidents
 NFPA 1006 Professional Qualifications for Rescue Technicians
 Confined Space and Structural Rope Rescue, Michael Roop/Tom Vines/Richard
Wright. Mosby Press 1997
References
 OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146 Compliance Directive for Permit Required Confined Spaces
 Technical Rescue Field Operations Guide, Tom Pendley. Desert Rescue Research
2000
Respiratory Protection
The Respiratory Process
 The exchange of gases (O2 & CO2) between the alveoli & the blood occurs by simple
diffusion: O2 diffusing from the alveoli into the blood & CO2 from the blood into the
alveoli.
Respiratory Process Cont.
 We do this, of course, by breathing - continuously bringing fresh air (with lots of O2
& little CO2) into the lungs & the alveoli.
 Breathing is an active process - requiring the contraction of skeletal muscles. The
primary muscles of respiration include the external intercostal muscles (located
between the ribs) and the diaphragm (a sheet of muscle located between the thoracic &
abdominal cavities).
The Respiratory Process
Confined Space Emergencies
 Confined Space Fatalities:
– 90 % due to asphyxiation
– 60 % of the fatalities are would be rescuers
Ex.-1990: 3 Firefighters die in Pennsylvania from Co poisoning from running
portable pump
Example: PA Deaths
 On May 1, 1990, a 39-year-old male volunteer firefighter died inside a 33-foot-deep
water well in Pennsylvania while attempting to pump water out of the well. Also, two
male volunteer firefighters (ages 40 and 20) died attempting rescue.
 http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/injury/traumacsface.html#1990 (other examples)
C-Space Definition
 OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146
– An OSHA confined space is defined as:
 A. B. C.Examples
 Examples include but are not limited to:
Permit Required C-Space
 A confined space permit is required if the space has one or more of the following
hazards:
– 1.
– 2.
– 3.
– 4.
Non-Permit C-Space
 A non-permit required confined space is:
– 1. Spaces that do not contain,
– 2. Space in which all the hazards
C-Space Entry Risk Profile
 A permit required confined space has less risk if it meets the following criteria:
– A. The internal configuration of the space is
Entry Risk Pro-file cont.
– B. The victim can be easily
– C. Rescuers can pass easily through
– D. The space can accommodate
– E. All hazards in and around the space
C-Space Entry Risk Profile
 A permit required confined space has more risk if any of the following conditions or
other hazardous conditions exist
– A.
– B.
– C.Entry Risk Profile cont.
– D.
(Interpreted from NFPA 1670)
C-Space Hazards
 It should always be considered that the most unfavorable situation exists in every
confined space and that the danger of explosion, poisoning, and asphyxiation will be
present at the onset of the emergency
Hazard Types
 Hazards specific to a confined space are dictated by:
 1.-
– Ex. Damp activated carbon in a filtration tank will absorb oxygen, creating an
oxygen deficient atmosphere
Hazard Types cont:
 2-:
– Such as the fermentation of molasses that creates ethyl alcohol vapors and decrease
the oxygen content of the atmosphere
Hazard Types cont:
 3– As in the case of sewer systems that may be affected by rising water, heavier than
air gases, or flash floods
The most hazardous kind of confined space is the type that combines limited access
and mechanical devices
C-Space Hazard Groups
 Confined space hazards can be grouped into the following categories:
– 1.
– 2.
– 3.
– 4.
Oxygen Deficient Atmosphere
 Normal atmosphere composed of
% oxygen,
% nitrogen and
% argon
 An atmosphere containing less than
% oxygen shall be considered oxygen
deficient
 *O2 levels inside confined spaces may be decreased as the result of consumption or
displacement*
Effects of decreasing O2 Levels
 Level of 17 %
–
 Between 14-16 %
–
 Between 6-10 %
–
 Less than 6 %
–
Consumption of O2
 Takes place during combustion of flammable substances
 During bacterial action
 During chemical reactions as in the formation of rust
Displacement of O2
 Gas that displaces oxygen and therefore reduce the O2 levels
 Nitrogen, argon, helium and carbon dioxide are used as inerting agents to displace
flammable substances and retard pyrophoric reactions
O2 Enriched Environment
 An atmosphere containing more than
% of oxygen is oxygen enriched and
enhances the flammability of combustibles
 Flammable materials such as clothing and hair burn violently when ignited
Flammable Atmospheres
 Arise from enriched O2 atmospheres, vaporization of flammable liquids, byproducts
of work, chemical reactions or concentrations of combustible dust
 Work conducted in a c-space can generate flammable atmospheres
Flammable Atmosphere Terms
 ________________________is the lowest temperature at which a liquid can form an
ignitable mixture in air near the surface of the liquid. The lower the flash point, the
easier it is to ignite the material
 (at the flash point, the flame does not need to be sustained).
Example
 Gasoline has a flash point of -50 degrees F (-45 C) and is more flammable than
ethylene glycol (antifreeze) which has a flash point of 111 degrees C (232 F)
Flammable Atmosphere Terms
 _____________________ the temperature at which the flame becomes self-sustained
so as to continue burning the liquid
 The fire point is usually a few degrees _____________________ the flash point
Flammable Atmosphere Terms
 ____________________________ apply generally to vapors and are defined as the
concentration range in which a flammable substance can produce a fire or explosion
when an ignition source (such as a spark or open flame) is present
 The concentration is generally expressed as percent fuel by volume
UEL/LEL
 _____________________________ (UFL) the mixture of substance and air is too rich
in fuel (deficient in oxygen) to burn. This is sometimes called the upper explosive
limit (UEL)
 _____________________________ (LFL) the mixture of substance and air lacks
sufficient fuel (substance) to burn. This is sometimes called the lower explosive limit
(LEL)
Example UEL/LEL
 It is usually quite easy to reach the lower flammable limit. There are numerous cases
where individuals have used a solvent, sealer, or other flammable materials in a
basement or closed room with inadequate ventilation...and have been injured when the
vapors were ignited by a pilot light, electric spark or other ignition source
Example UEL/LEL
 Newcastle in September of 2003
– A pipe fitter left an acetylene cylinder inside his vehicle over the weekend. Either
the cylinder had a small leak or the valve was not fully closed. The flammable
limits for acetylene are extremely broad, _____% to ____% in air
– When the worker opened the door, an undetermined spark source (the door light
switch, light bulb, cellular phone, static etc.) ignited the mixture with catastrophic
results
Acetylene Explosion
Flammable Atmosphere Terms
 ________________________________ (PEL) is the maximum amount or
concentration of a chemical that a worker may be exposed to under OSHA
Regulations
_________________________________ (TWA) - are an average value of exposure
over the course of an 8 hour work shift
Flammable Atmosphere Terms
 _____________________________________ (IDLH) atmospheres poses an
immediate threat to life, would cause, irreversible adverse health effects, or
would impair an individual's ability to escape from a dangerous atmosphere
Flammable Atmospheres
 Flammable gases such as
or vapors from hydrocarbons can be trapped in c-spaces
than air will seek lower levels as in pits, sewers, storage
tanks/vessels
 Gases
Flammable Atmospheres
 In a closed top tank, lighter than air gases may rise and develop a flammable
concentration if trapped
the opening
 Combustible dust concentrations are found during loading/offloading, conveying grain
products, nitrated fertilizers and finely ground chemical products
Toxic Atmospheres
 The source of toxic atmospheres encountered in c-spaces may arise from:
–
–
–
Toxic Atmospheres
 Carbon Monoxide
– Odorless, colorless gas, approximately the same density of air
– Formed from incomplete combustion of organic materials
– Can be formed from mircobial decomposition of organic materials in sewers/silos
and fermentation tanks
Measuring Toxicity
 Measured in terms of permissible exposure limit (PEL)
 PEL is the concentration of a toxin that most people could safely be exposed to for an
8 hour period
 Any toxin in a confined space greater than its PEL is hazardous
Irritant (Corrosive) Atmospheres
 Irritant gases vary widely among all areas of industrial activity
 They can be found in plastic plants, chemical plants, petroleum industry, tanneries,
refrigeration industries, paint manufacturing and mining operations
Irritant (Corrosive) Atmospheres
 Prolonged exposure at irritant or corrosive concentrations in a c-space may produce
little or no evidence of irritation
 Danger in this situation is that worker is usually not aware of any toxic exposure
 Examples: nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, ammonia
Mechanical/Physical Hazards
 Vibrations/moving machinery
– Augers, hydraulics, steam, etc.
 Noise
– Noise problems intensified in c-space because interior causes sound to reverberate
– May disrupt verbal communication with emergency personnel on the exterior of the
space
Toxic Atmosphere Monitoring Equipment
 Atmospheric monitoring should take place continuously or at frequent intervals during
the rescue operation
 All atmospheric monitoring equipment should meet OSHA standards
 Equipment should be calibrated according to manufacturer’s recommendations
Atmospheric Testing Procedures
 First set of tests should be performed by remote probe prior to entering the space
 All levels of the space need to be metered due to
(weight of a vapor
compared to air)
Principles of Air Monitoring

meters to manufacturer’s spec
 If O2 level is not normal,
readings will be affected
 Spaces may have stratified atmospheres,
levels of space must be
metered
 Allow for air intake in sampling hose/probe, approx.
 _________ ppm = ______ %
sec per
of hose
Meters
Oxygen Levels
 According to OSHA, air containing less than 19.5 % or more than 23 % oxygen is
unacceptable
 If oxygen level is not normal, flammability readings will be effected
Atmosphere Flammability
 Measured in the % of the lower explosive limit (LEL)
 The LEL is the lowest concentration of a product that will explode or burn when it
contacts a source of ignition of sufficient temperature
 OSHA -> C-space is hazardous if it contains more than ______ % of the LEL
Lower Explosive Limit LEL
 A flammable gas must reach 100 % of its LEL to ignite and burn
 Meters are usually calibrated with a flammable gas such as methane, heptane or
pentane
Lower Explosive Limit LEL
 Methane LEL -> approximately 5 %
 Different gases have different LELs
 Meter calibrated to methane will give an inaccurate reading for a gas with a different
LEL
 Meter reading of 10 % or less of the LEL should ensure that an atmosphere is below
the LEL of most gases
Common Gas Examples
 Methane (CH4):
–
–
– LEL %, UEL %
 Nitrogen (N2):
–
–
–
Common Gases
 Carbon monoxide (Co):
–
–
– PEL =
– TWA =
– LEL ____%, UEL ____ %
– IDLH =Common Gases
 Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S):
–
–
– Odor thresh hold =
–
– LEL = ____ %, UEL = ____ %
–
Hydrogen Sulfide Cont:
– PEL =
– TWA =
– IDLH =
ppm
Toxic Atmospheres
Known materials:
-Use meter specific to that chemical to test for these products
Unknown materials:
-Use meters to take readings and narrow the spectrum of chemicals
-Broad spectrum analysis
-Colormetric tubes
Hazard Abatement
Hazard Reduction
 Reducing or abating hazards of a confined space emergency is essential before entry is
safe
 In addition to protective equipment, SCBA, other measures should be taken externally
 OSHA requires that measures be taken before permit spaces are entered
Electrical
 Usually isolated by a combination of:
– 1.
– 2.
Hydraulic
 Includes liquids, finely divided solids that if not secured may cause exposure or
engulfment
 Usually isolated by:
– 1.
– 2.
Mechanical
 Hazards in the space or introduced into the space
 Includes energy from:
–
–
Ventilation
Why Ventilate??
 When atmospheric conditions is a c-space do not meet the limits for O2, flammability
and toxic vapors, the c-space must be ventilated to bring the atmosphere into those
limits.
Methods of Ventilation
 1.
 2.
 3.
Positive Pressure (Supply)
 Direction of fresh air flow into space creating a positive pressure diluting any
contaminants by the addition of fresh air
 _______________________ operated fans should be used to prevent unacceptable
levels of Co into space by use of gasoline blowers
 Air flow should be introduced into the space and the flow should be at the level at
which rescuers will be working
Positive Pressure
 Fan should be allowed to operate long enough to exchange the air content of the space
several times
 Capacity of fan in cubic feet per minute (CFM) divided into the volume of the space in
cubic feet = the time it takes to exchange air one time
Positive Pressure (Supply)
 Positive pressure (supply) can force air into space ________times the distance exhaust
(negative) pressure can draw it
Examples
Super Vac's AirPac 25 duct canister allows the 25 ft. x 8 in. duct to be easily stored and
rapidly deployed
Negative Pressure (Exhaust)
 Exhausts contaminants from the space (using negative pressure) by pulling
contaminated air out of a space
 A slight vacuum is created that can draw other contaminants into the space
 May draw flammable gases over motor
Positive-negative/push-pull
 Flushes the atmosphere by supplying and exhausting large volumes of air
 Two portals must be present, positive air flow into space while negative pressure pulls
contaminants out
 Most ________________ method for ventilation
 Consider where the contaminated exhaust is going and if it will pose an additional
hazard
Respiratory Protection
Types of SCBA
 OSHA CFR 1910 direct that unless the cause of the emergency can be established as
NOT atmosphere related, fresh air breathing apparatus must be worn
 Types:
– Self contained breathing apparatus (SCBA)
– Supplied air respirator (SAR)
Self Contained Breathing Apparatus
 Positive pressure since 1983
 Prevents contamination of the air inside the face piece if a leak occurs in the face
piece’s seal
 Limited amount of air supply (based on wearers personal characteristics)
Supplied Air Respirators
 During C-space rescue, conventional SCBA’s size often makes it difficult to use
 SCBA small enough to pass through narrow openings may limit duration of its air
supply to impractical levels
 Supplied Air Respirators are a viable option
SAR Components
 SAR consists of:
– Open circuit face piece
– Regulator
– Egress cylinder attached via a low-pressure air line to remote source air supply
(restricted to maximum distance allowed by manufacturers, usually no more than
300 feet from point of attachment)
SAR Components
 OSHA requires an SAR used in an atmosphere that is immediately dangerous to life
and health (IDLH) have an additional supply
 Must be capable of providing enough air for the wearer to escape the atmosphere in
the event the primary supply is interrupted
SAR Components
 “Escape” requirement addressed by attaching small breathing air cylinder rated at 5
minutes to the SAR unit
 5 minute cylinder are intended to provide enough air for escape although they may be
incapable of doing so
SAR
Air Carts
Survivair Air Cart
 Contains up to two independently operated 30-,45-, or 60-minute high pressure (4500
psi) cylinders
 Or to two independently operated 30 minute low pressure (2216 psi) cylinders
 An optional accessory case can hold a variety of Hip-Pac and hose combinations
Survivair Air Cart
 Two inlets allow regulated or unregulated external air sources to be used
 Built-in manifold has four Foster or Schrader quick-disconnect couplings to supply air
for up to four workers
 Used in any confined space where an SCBA would reduce or restrict worker
movement
OSHA Respiratory Standard
 1910.134(e)(3)(iii) requires, when an IDLH atmosphere exists, A stand by man or men
with suitable self contained breathing apparatus shall be at the nearest fresh air base
for emergency rescue
Safe Respiratory Work Practices
 1. Rescuers should immediately
 2. Rescuers should wear
 3. Minimum capacity of of the source air should be ____________ the volume of the
total needs of all rescuers connected to it for the anticipated duration of the rescuer’s
entry
Safe Work Practices cont:
 4. A minimum team of __________ rescuers should be utilized for all permit space
rescue entries
Lifting/Raising Systems
Miller Tripod
 Miller Tripods provide a highly portable anchorage system for typical confined space
entry and rescue systems
 Made of high-strength aluminum, the tripod withstands up to 5,000 lbs of pull yet
weights only 42 lbs
 Legs lock independently and adjust with integral push pins allowing set up on uneven
surfaces
SKED EVAC Tripod
 Features aircraft-grade, gold-anodized aluminum legs and a cast-aluminum head
 Three heavy-duty rigging anchors have exceptionally large holes for easy attachment
and are located in the center
SKED EVAC Tripod
 Legs adjust in 5-inch increments for a maximum height of 10 feet and a minimum
length for transport of 7 feet
 Holes in the feet allow the tripod to be bolted into position
 119 inch height / 5,280 lbs (23kN)
SKED EVAC Tripod
Mechanical Advantage Systems
Retrieval Systems
 1910.146 (k)(3) requires that retrieval systems be used except when the retrieval
equipment would increase the risk to an entrant or would not contribute to the rescue
of an entrant.
 When a retrieval system is not used, alternate methods of retrieval must be developed.
MA Systems
 Rescuer hauler 4:1 system
– 3-inch double pulley with a cam
– rope can move in only one direction when the cam is engaged
– allows rescuer to raise a load by pulling on the tail end of the rope, releasing it, and
getting another grip
MA Systems
 Rescuer hauler 4:1
– cam can be released manually by pulling on the attached cord
– accommodates rope sizes from 3/8” (10mm) to 1/2” (12/5mm).
– Minimum break strength when in use is 12,000 lb
Patient Evacuation Devices
 Patient packaging devices that can be used in confined spaces include but are not
limited to the following:
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Prefabricated Class III Ha
C-Space Rescue
 Priority 1: Make the scene safe
–
–
 Priority 2: Victim contact by Primary Rescuer
–
–
–
–
C-Space Rescue
Priority 3: Size-up
Priority 4: Preparation
-
C-Space Rescue
Priority 5: Access Victim
Priority 6: Stabilize and package victim
C-Space Rescue
Priority 7: Evacuate
Priority 8: Response Termination
Rescue Response
 Non-IDLH Atmosphere
– Incident Commander
– Rescue Sector Officer
– Entry Supervisor:
 Verifies
 Determines that
 Removes
 Terminates entry
Rescue Response
– Attendant:
 Knows
 Knows
 Remains
 Communicates
 Monitors
 Calls
 Prevents
 Performs no
Rescue Response
– Entrant (Primary):
 Knows
 Recognizes




Recognizes
Uses proper
Communicates with
Alerts
Rescue Response
– Entrant (Stand-by):
 Knows
 Recognizes exposure
 Recognizes effects of
 Uses proper
 Communicates with
 Alerts attendants of
 Rescuer for primary
Rescue Response
– Support Personnel:

– Safety Officer:
 Oversees scene
 In matters of safety, has
over the incident commander
 During rescue, each rescuer should consider him/herself equally responsible for
safety
IDLH Atmosphere
– Incident Commander
– Rescue Sector Officer
– Entry Supervisor:
 Verifies tests required are complete
 Determines that space remains safe during work
 Removes unauthorized persons from space area
 Terminates entry if conditions are poor/degrading
IDLH Atmosphere
– Attendant:
 Knows space hazards
 Knows effects of exposure
 Remains outside space at all times
 Communicates with entrant(s)
 Monitors entry activities
 Calls RESCUE if needed
 Prevents unauthorized entry
 Performs no conflicting duties
IDLH Atmosphere
– Entrant (Primary # 1):






Knows space hazards
Recognizes exposure signs/symptoms
Recognizes effects of exposure
Uses proper PPE
Communicates with attendant
Alerts attendants of hazards
IDLH Atmosphere
– Entrant (Primary # 2):
 Knows space hazards
 Recognizes exposure signs/symptoms
 Recognizes effects of exposure
 Uses proper PPE
 Communicates with attendant
 Alerts attendants of hazards
IDLH Atmosphere
– Entrant (Stand-by # 1):
 Knows space hazards
 Recognizes exposure signs/symptoms
 Recognizes effects of exposure
 Uses proper PPE
 Communicates with attendant
 Alerts attendants of hazards
 Rescuer for primary entrant
IDLH Atmosphere
– Entrant (Stand-by # 2):
 Knows space hazards
 Recognizes exposure signs/symptoms
 Recognizes effects of exposure
 Uses proper PPE
 Communicates with attendant
 Alerts attendants of hazards
 Rescuer for primary entrant
IDLH Atmosphere
– Support Personnel:
 Ventilation/metering/air watch/decon, etc.
– Safety Officer:
 Oversees scene for safety hazards
 In matters of safety, has authority over the incident commander
 During rescue, each rescuer should consider him/herself equally responsible for
safety