NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION AND CULTURE
As Hall (1984) mentioned, the primary level of culture is communicated through
nonverbal means, because imitation and observation are the two major ways for us to
learn aspects of our culture through the socialization process rather than by means of
explicit verbal expressions. Nonverbal communication is a subtle and mostly
spontaneous and unconscious process in which we are not aware of most of the
nonverbal behaviors we enact (Andersen, 1986). Thus, unlike verbal language, it is
very difficult for us to master the other culture’s nonverbal behaviors. However, the
rules that govern verbal and nonverbal communication are similarly subject to the
variations of culture.
Significantly, that which is learned by imitation is least within our awareness.
Thus, if a person says “1+1=4,” we may correct him or her, and our reaction is
probably nonemotional. However, we react emotionally to violations of what seems
“natural” to us. When we are left waiting “too long,” or “stared at,” our reaction may
be anger. According to Samovar and Porter (1994), culture and nonverbal behaviors
are interrelated in two ways. First, nonverbal behaviors are dictated by the
communicator’s culture. As noted earlier, a nonverbal symbol possessing a positive
meaning may become negative in another culture. Silence as a nonverbal expression
also receives an opposite perception in different cultures. People of Western culture
strongly perceive silence as a negative attribute (Ishi & Bruneau, 1994). For example,
North Americans tend to interpret silence as sorrow, critique, obligation, regret, and
embarrassment (Wayne, 1974). Conversely, the Japanese highly value silence. Ishi &
Bruneau (1994) reported that a study by Japanese scholars shows that silence is a key
to success for Japanese men, and over 60 percent of Japanese businesswomen said
that they prefer to marry silent men.
Second, culture determines the appropriate times to display nonverbal behaviors,
emotions in particular. For example, the Chinese and Japanese react much less
strongly to provocative events compared to their counterparts in Western societies.
Uninhibited emotional display is considered by the Chinese and Japanese as being
disruptive and dangerous. It not only contradicts cultural values such as hierarchy and
harmony but also puts the person in a facelosing and embarrassing situation (Bond,
1991).
To explain differences in nonverbal behaviors in terms of cultural variations,
Andersen (1994) distinguished the following dimensions of culture: contact/low
contact, individualism/collectivism, masculinity/femininity, power distance, and
high/low context. People in contact cultures display immediacy behaviors that express
warmth and availability for communication; they emphasize interpersonal closeness.
In contrast, people in low-contact cultures use less touch and tend to stand apart in
communication. Nations in warm geographic areas, such as those in West Asia and the
Mediterranean region, are more likely to exhibit more contact. Nations with cool
climates, such as most Northern European countries, tend to be low-contact cultures.
Individualistic and collectivistic cultures show a certain degree of difference in
nonverbal behaviors. Andersen (1994) indicated that in terms of using space, people
in individualistic cultures tend to be distant and remote, while people in collectivistic
cultures are likely to be interdependent and proximically close. Regarding body
activities, people from individualistic cultures smile more than people in collectivistic
cultures (Tomkins, 1984). One of the explanations for this difference is that emotional
displays are more likely to be avoided in collectivistic cultures. Argyle (1975) also
pointed out that kinesic behaviors are more synchronized in collectivistic cultures,
because working collectively requires that movement and actions be highly
coordinated.
The dimensions of masculinity/femininity and power distance also affect kinesic
and paralinguistic behaviors. For example, in egalitarian or feminine cultures women
tend to have more relaxed vocal patterns and less tension exists between the sexes
(Lomax 1968). In addition, in high-power-distance cultures touch between males and
females is discouraged. Body tension in subordinates in high-power-distance cultures
is also apparent (Andersen & Bowman, 1985).
Finally, Andersen (1994) indicated that people in high-context cultures are much
more sensitive to nonverbal cues. They are much more able to read and perceive
nonverbal behaviors than males in low-context cultures. This ability leads them to
expect their low-context communication counterparts to understand environmental
cues and hidden and subtle gestures and feelings that are not recognizable in the
latter’s culture. The last section of this chapter will focus on acquisition of nonverbal
skills that can be applied to intercultural communication.
Research Highlight 5—3
Who:
Andersen, P.A.
What: “Explaining Intercultural Differences in Nonverbal Communication.”
Where: In L.A. Samovar & R.E. Porter (Eds.) (1994), Intercultural Communication:
A Reader (pp. 229—239). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
This article reviews the code of nonverbal communication and the influence of culture
on interpersonal behavior, and delineates five main dimensions of cultural variation
that affect nonverbal communication.
Six nonverbal codes of intercultural communication are (1) chronemics—the
study of meanings, usage, and communication of time, (2) proxemics—the study of
space and distance in communication, (3) kinesics—the study of body movements or
body activities, including facial expressions, eye contact, gestures and body posture,
(4) physical appearance—the most important element that affects our perception in
the initial intercultural encounters, (5) vocalics, or paralanguage—the study of voice
or vocal signs, and (6) olfactics--- the study of smell in communication.
Culture shapes our behavior in an enduring, powerful, and invisible way. Culture
is a critical concept to communication study, because we are a product of our culture.
In order to understand cultural differences in nonverbal behavior we can locate
cultural variations along five dimensions:
1. Immediacy and expressiveness—Immediacy or expressive behaviors refer to
actions that communicate warmth, closeness, and availability for
2.
3.
4.
5.
communication. High-immediacy cultures are also called contact cultures, and
low-immediacy cultures low-contact-cultures. Research shows that contact
cultures tend to locate in warm-temperature areas (e.g., most Arab countries)
and low-contact cultures in cool climates (e.g., most Northern European
countries).
Individualism versus collectivism—Research has found that people in
individualistic cultures tend to be more remote and distant proximically, and
more nonverbally affiliative. People in collectivistic cultures tend to work,
play, live, and sleep in close proximity to one another, tend to be synchronized
in kinesics, tend to suppress extreme emotional display, and tend to stress
groupness and cohesion in their singing styles.
Masculinity—Research indicates that women in low-masculinity cultures show
more relaxed vocal patterns, more vocal solidarity and coordination in their
songs, and more synchrony in their movement than those in high-masculinity
cultures.
Power distance—Research shows that high-power-distance cultures tend to be
more “untouchable” (in terms of tactile communication), tend to be more tense
in subordinates’ body movement, tend to smile more for subordinates to
appease superiors or to be polite, and tend to be more aware that vocal
loudness may be offensive to others.
High and low context—Research finds that in high-context cultures people
tend to be more implicit in verbal codes, tend to perceive highly verbal persons
less attractive, tend to be more reliant on and turned into nonverbal
communication and expect to have more nonverbal codes in communication.
In conclusion, applying cognitive knowledge of cultural variations in actual
encounters with people from different cultures is the best way to achieve intercultural
communication competence.